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It is the Shenandoah River system that drains much of the northwestern part of Virginia and has two major forks, the North and South. The Shenandoah River has a storied human history, but also flows over a geologically diverse and interesting landscape.
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Hardness of Minerals Discussion
Hello, please read the instruction carefully and use the data provided to answer the questions. All the instructions are p ...
Hardness of Minerals Discussion
Hello, please read the instruction carefully and use the data provided to answer the questions. All the instructions are provided on the word file below. Thank you. Please reach out to me if you have any question and be on time.
MVCC Effect of Greenhouse Gases on Global Warming Questions
fill in the documents and answer the questionsProcedurePart 1: Greenhouse Gases and Global WarmingIn Exercise 1, we observ ...
MVCC Effect of Greenhouse Gases on Global Warming Questions
fill in the documents and answer the questionsProcedurePart 1: Greenhouse Gases and Global WarmingIn Exercise 1, we observed that gases have different properties. In this section, we will further investigate gases and ask the question, “How are greenhouse gases related to global warming?”Conduct background research on global warming from reliable Internet sources such as NASA, USGS, IPCC, and major universities with current research on the topic such as U.C. Berkley, Yale, Stanford, etc.Note: The most acceptable websites to use for Internet sources end in “.gov” or “.edu.” Websites ending in “.com” or “.org” should be avoided since recognizing biased information may be difficult. Political, blogs, and news websites often have information that is biased and not based solely on scientific support. For this reason, these sites should also be avoided in investigating scientific topics. Temperature and Greenhouse GasesIn the next steps, you will model temperature changes in the Earth’s atmosphere by creating two models from large jars or glasses, each containing a thermometer. One jar will remain uncovered while the other jar will be covered with plastic wrap. Consider the following as you create each model:Plastic wrap is used in this experiment to model greenhouse gases in Earth’s atmosphere; however, it should be noted that greenhouse gases not only trap heat but also reflect heat into space, whereas the plastic wrap only traps heat.The two models will be placed in the same environment and exposed to direct sunlight. Since the models will be placed in the same environment, factors such as air pressure, ambient temperature, and light exposure will be consistent for the two models.Gather 2 thermometers, a clock or timer, measuring cup, spoon, clear plastic wrap, dish soap, 1 rubber band, and a sheet of white paper. Gather 2 large glasses (or jars) of the same size. The glasses should be large enough to fit the thermometers inside.Note: Jars or glasses with bottlenecks are NOT recommended for this experiment.Prepare a diluted dish soap solution as an anti-fog agent. When moisture is trapped in a container, by a lid or other covering, condensation can form on the inside of the container walls. If condensation forms on the inside of the jars or glasses used in this experiment, then it will be difficult to see the markings on the thermometer placed inside.Fill the measuring cup to the 1 cup mark with lukewarm tap water.Add 1 drop of dish soap to the water and gently stir with a spoon.Note: The solution should not form bubbles when stirred. If it does, then too much dish soap has been added and the solution needs to be re-made following step 7.Dip a paper towel into the solution and wipe the inside of the glasses (or jars). The glass should have a thin layer of solution, and there should be no pooling or beading of moisture.If the thermometers do not have a solid back, create backs from thick, white paper products, such as foam board, poster board, cardboard, or card stock. The backing will block direct sunlight, and prevent exaggerated temperature readings.Use scissors to cut a strip of paper for each thermometer. The strips should be slightly longer and wider than the thermometers.Attach each strip to the back of the thermometers with clear tape. Ensure that the numbers of the thermometer are still visible.Note: Do not use dark paper or brown cardboard as those materials absorb heat and will influence the temperature readings.Place a thermometer inside the first glass. See Figure 10. Tape the thermometer to the front of the glass ensuring that the markings are legible. This is Model #1, which represents the Earth if it had no greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.Figure 10. Placing the thermometer with a white foam backing into Model #1.Place the other thermometer inside the second glass, and tape the thermometer to the front of the glass.Use scissors to cut a square piece of plastic wrap that is large enough to cover the opening of the glass. Fit the plastic wrap over the opening of the second glass and secure it with a rubber band. This is Model #2, which represents the Earth plus its greenhouse gases.Set the two models on a sheet of white paper. This is how the experiment will be conducted when you are ready to begin.Remove the plastic wrap and rubber band from Model #2, and set them next to the glass. Model #2 will not be covered until the experiment begins.Consider what each model represents. Define the term “independent variable” and record the independent variable for this experiment in Data Table 2.Define the term “dependent variable” and record the dependent variable for this experiment in Data Table 2.Define the term “control group” and record which model acts as the control in Data Table 2.Formulate a hypothesis and record it in Data Table 2.Note: When formulating your hypothesis, think about how temperature will be affected in the two models (one covered and one uncovered). There is no “correct” answer for the hypothesis; however, it should be well-thought-out.Once the hypothesis has been recorded, the experiment may begin.You will record temperature data in Data Table 3 every 5 minutes during the experiment. Print or draw a copy of Data Table 3 if necessary.Transport the experimental setup to a sunny location, leaving Model #2 uncovered.Working quickly, place the two models on the sheet of white paper in direct sunlight. Turn the glasses so that the thermometers face the same direction, away from the sunlight.Note: Be sure to turn the jars so that the faces of the thermometers are not facing the sun.Place the plastic wrap and rubber band over the opening of Model #2, and immediately record the temperature of each model in Data Table 3. See Figure 11.Figure 11. Model #1 with no covering and Model #2 covered with clear plastic wrap secured by a rubber band.Continue to record the temperature every 5 minutes for an hour in Data Table 3.Record notes and observations as the experiment progresses. Describe in detail any changes inside of the models. Make note of changes in cloud coverage and light exposure in the comments section of Data Table 3 next to the time of the observation.Calculate the change in temperature for each model by subtracting the final temperature from the initial temperature. Record the change in temperature in Data Table 3.Note: If the thermometers measure in Fahrenheit, be sure to convert each reading to Celsius after the experiment is complete using the following equation:∘C=(∘F−32)×59∘C=(∘F−32)×59Create a line graph of temperature versus time, similar to Figure 12. Place time on the horizontal axis (x-axis) and temperature on the vertical axis (y-axis). The graph should have two lines total, representing Model #1 and Model #2.Figure 12. Example line graph of temperature versus time for three different models.Upload an image of the graph into Graph 1. Describe the trends in the graph. Indicate which model held more heat and which model had the greatest increase in temperature. Relate patterns in the graph to the observations recorded in Data Table 4.Indicate whether or not the hypothesis was supported or rejected, and explain why in Data Table 4.
San Diego State University Minerals Rocks and Radiometric Dating Lab Worksheet
Geologic Time and Rock & Mineral Identification Guide Adapted from Home Science Tools (2008b)Geologic Time (Radiometric Da ...
San Diego State University Minerals Rocks and Radiometric Dating Lab Worksheet
Geologic Time and Rock & Mineral Identification Guide Adapted from Home Science Tools (2008b)Geologic Time (Radiometric Dating Techniques): Answer the questions below.What unstable isotope would be best to refine the date of bones found in a cave hearth built by humans between 30,000 and 50,000 years ago?We find samples of an igneous rock demonstrate it has been through 4 half-lives. The test element has a half-life of 150 million years. How old is the rock?Argue for or against the following: A stone tool fashioned from a chunk of obsidian yields a date of 5,000,000 years old, therefore, the tool was made by a human 5,000,000 years ago.You are trying to figure out the age of what is thought to be a very old fossil with a volcanic ash layer immediately above the fossil. We know the fossil is at least more than 250 million years old. Should we use carbon 14 to date the fossil, or uranium 238 to date the volcanic ash layer, and why?If the parent isotope starts with 100 grams, but your samples yield only 12.5 grams of the parent isotope, how many half-lives have passed?Rock & Mineral IdentificationMinerals are naturally-occurring, solid substances composed of chemical elements. This means that minerals, ranging from salt to rubies, are made up of compounds of elements that appear on the periodic table. Each type of mineral has a specific chemical composition and consistent physical properties. They are inorganic, not living or made up of living things. Minerals form a crystalline structure which gives rocks their "rough" texture.Rocks are mixtures, or aggregates, of different minerals. Some rocks, like limestone, are composed mostly of one mineral, but the majority of rocks are made up of several major minerals. Rocks are divided into three categories based on how they are formed: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.Igneous rocks form when hot magma from beneath the Earth's surface cools rapidly. Igneous rocks that cool beneath the surface (perhaps by hitting underground air pockets) are called intrusive or plutonic igneous rocks. Granite is an example. When the magma cools on the Earth's surface by flowing from the mouth of a volcano as lava, the resulting rock is called extrusive or volcanic rock. Basalt and obsidian are common examples of volcanic igneous rocks.Sedimentary rocks are formed by layers of sediment accumulating and being compressed together for extended periods of time. Most sedimentary rocks have layers, and they often contain fossils, as living material was buried in the sediment before it was compressed into rock. Common examples of these rocks are limestone, sandstone, and shale.Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have been changed by high pressure or heat. The crystal structure is changed, the texture often becomes coarser, and sometimes new minerals are formed in the process. Metamorphic rocks are the most complex group of rocks. Schist, slate, and gneiss (pronounced like "nice") are common examples.Identifying RocksThis kit includes 15 common rocks with examples from each category. Observe them closely with the included magnifying lens.Color. As a general rule, darker rocks are made of minerals with iron and magnesium, such as magnetite or biotite. Lighter-colored rocks may have lots of quartz, calcite gypsum, or halite in them.Texture. Is it coarse-grained or glassy-smooth? Is it dense with very small particles? Are minerals visible to the naked eye? The texture of a rock depends on what is it made of. For example, igneous rocks go by basic crystal size, and sedimentary rocks will have a texture of clastic, chemical, or biogenic, depending on how they formed. Metamorphic rocks will be identified by whether they are foliated or not foliated.Structure. Look for layers, which are often an indication of sedimentary rocks. Some volcanic igneous rock will have a sponge-like structure – pumice is an example of this. It is less dense than water, so it floats! Sedimentary rocks may have layers in them, but this is more common to shales. They can also have fossils, or banding.Minerals. Look at individual grains with the magnifying lens and see if you can identify any of the composite minerals. With larger grains, you may be able to identify what they are since you are also learning about mineral identification this week.Acid Test. Limestone contains a carbonate compound that dissolves in acid, producing bubbles. Test for bubbles with a few drops of vinegar.Igneous Rock Identification↓Texture/composition→FelsicIntermediateMaficPhaneritic (coarse)GraniteDioriteGabbroAphanitic (fine)RhyoliteAndesiteBasaltGlassyObsidianVesicularPumiceSedimentary Rock Identification↓Composition/Texture→ClasticChemicalBiogenicGrain size >2mm (coarse)Conglomerate Grain size 2 mm – 0.062 mm(medium)Sandstone Grain size < 0.062 mm (fine)Shale Calcite LimestoneFossiliferous LimestoneCalcite Calcareous tufa Metamorphic Rock Identification↓Composition/Texture→FoliatedNonfoliatedQuartz, feldspar, micaGneiss Mica visible crystalsMica schist Minerals not visible crystalsSlate Quartz QuartziteCalcite MarbleMinerals IdentificationMinerals are naturally-occurring, solid substances composed of chemical elements. This means that minerals, ranging from salt to rubies, are made up of compounds of elements that appear on the periodic table. Each type of mineral has a specific chemical composition and consistent physical properties. They are inorganic, not living or made up of living things. Minerals form a crystalline structure which gives rocks their "rough" texture. Rocks are mixtures, or aggregates, of different minerals. They are divided into three categories based on how they are formed: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.Three tools are provided in your kit to aid you in identifying each mineral:Magnifying Lens: This is one of the most important tools for a mineralogist, because identifying minerals involves close observation.Nail: A nail is one of the many common items you can use to test the hardness of your specimens, along with a fingernail, penny, and piece of glass.Streak Plate: A streak plate is used to determine the color of a mineral in powder form.Many minerals can be identified using close observation and some simple tests. (Results are most consistent if you test on a freshly-broken surface of the mineral.) Try these steps on your specimens and see if you can identify each one using the characteristics provided in the online resources on mineral identification.Luster. Luster refers to the way a mineral reflects light. Is it shiny like metal? Then its luster is called metallic. It could also be adamantine (brilliant, like a diamond) or vitreous (glassy, like quartz.) Other common terms to describe luster are dull, earthy, silky, greasy, or pearly. Transparency is another characteristic that is related to luster. If you can see through the specimen, it is transparent. If light can pass through, but it is not see-through, the mineral is translucent. Minerals that do not let light through are called opaque.Color. Note the color of your specimen. This can be helpful for identifying metallic minerals, but many nonmetallic minerals have variable colors because of impurities. Quartz comes in many different colors and sapphires and rubies are different-colored varieties of the same mineral, corundum.Streak. A streak test determines the color of a mineral in powder form. In some cases, especially for metallic minerals, the streak may be a different color than the lump form of the mineral. In these cases, streak can greatly aid identification. In general, streak is more useful in identifying dark-colored minerals than light-colored specimens. The most common way to do a streak test is to rub your sample across a ceramic plate. If the mineral has a hardness level less than the streak plate (7) it will leave a colored streak of powder. (Wash the streak plate with soap and water as necessary.)Hardness. Mineral hardness is measured on the Mohs Hardness Scale. On each level of the scale a mineral can be scratched by something of the same or higher level, but nothing lower. The scale is made up of 10 minerals varying in hardness from 1 to 10. Number one is talc, because it is soft and very easy to scratch. Number 10 is the diamond, because it is the hardest natural substance and can only be scratched by another diamond.TalcGypsumCalciteFluoriteApatiteFeldsparQuartzTopaz or BerylCorundumDiamondNumber one is talc, because it is soft and very easy to scratch. Number ten is the diamond, because it is the hardest natural substance and can only be scratched by another diamond. You can test the hardness of your specimens using common materials like a nail, which has a hardness of about 5, or a streak plate with a hardness of 7. You can also try using a fingernail (2.5) a copper penny (3), or a steel file (6.5). Hold the specimen firmly and drag the nail across it. You will feel if it catcheson the mineral or if it just slides off it without biting into it. Use your magnifying lens to look for a scratch. If your specimen can be scratched by the nail (5) but not by a copper penny (3), its hardness is between 3.5 and 4.5.Other TestsThe above tests should allow you to identify the minerals in this kit, but there are other tests you could also perform on to help you identify unknown minerals using a field guide or web resource. Some of these tests are described below.Cleavage. Cleavage refers to how a mineral breaks. If it tends to break in smooth, flat planes it has cleavage. (If it breaks to form jagged edges only, it has fracture instead.) There are varying degrees of cleavage based on how clean the break is. If a mineral is transparent or translucent, you can often see cleavage planes with a magnifying lens, without having to break the mineral. Watch out! Sometimes crystal faces on a mineral look like cleavage planes, and vice versa.Magnetism. Some minerals (like magnetite) are magnetic. Test your specimens to see if they are attracted to an iron nail or magnet.Acid Test. Certain minerals, such as calcite, have carbonate compounds that dissolve in acid, producing bubbles. You can test this by roughing up a corner on your streak plate, then putting a few drops of vinegar on your specimen and watching for bubbles.Fluorescence. You can try shining a black light on your specimens to test for fluorescence. Some minerals absorb ultraviolet light and emit visible light, making them glow in the dark with various colors.Specific Gravity. Knowing a mineral's specific gravity can help with identification. Specific gravity is the weight of a mineral compared to the weight of an equal volume of water.Original ResourceHome Science Tools, Ltd. (2008a). Mineral study kit.To use the ID tables, be methodical. Start with luster, then the color of sample, then hardness, and so on.Non-metallic LusterColorHardnessStreakCleavage/fractureSpecial propertiesMineral nameDullWhite2WhiteGood one directionPowderyAlabaster gypsumDull to earthyBlack1-2BlackOne direction indistinctGreasy feelGraphiteDull to earthySilver to earthy red5.5-6.5RedFractureRed streakHematiteSilkyWhite or green1WhiteOne directionSilky-waxyTalcSilky to pearlyWhite2WhiteGood one directionFibrous habitSatin spar gypsumVitreousWhite7WhiteConchoidal fractureHardMilky quartzVitreousClear or white2-2.5WhiteCubic (3@90°)Salty tasteHaliteVitreousClear/green/purple/ yellow4white4 directionsGenerally transparent to translucentFluoriteVitreousWhite or clear3WhiteRhombohedral (3 not@ 90°)Reacts with acidCalciteVitreousWhite to clear2WhiteGood one direction, poor two directionsCrystal versionSelenite gypsumVitreous to dullTan, pink, or green6WhiteTwo directions about 90°OpaquePotassium FeldsparVitreous to submetallicBlack2.5-3Green to beigeOne directionFlat and blackBiotite micaVitreous to submetallicTan2-2.5TanOne directionFlat and tanMuscovite micaMetallic to Submetallic LusterColorHardnessStreakCleavage/fractureSpecial propertiesMineral nameMetallic Black1-2BlackOne direction indistinctSmudges easilyGraphiteMetallicBlack5.5-6.5BlackFractureWill solidly hold a magnetMagnetiteMetallicOff gold6-6.5Black to greenFractureFool's goldPyriteMetallic to dull/earthySilver to earthy red5.5-6.5RedFractureRed streakHematiteSubmetallic to vitreousBlack2.5-3Green to beigeOne directionFlat and blackBiotite
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Hardness of Minerals Discussion
Hello, please read the instruction carefully and use the data provided to answer the questions. All the instructions are p ...
Hardness of Minerals Discussion
Hello, please read the instruction carefully and use the data provided to answer the questions. All the instructions are provided on the word file below. Thank you. Please reach out to me if you have any question and be on time.
MVCC Effect of Greenhouse Gases on Global Warming Questions
fill in the documents and answer the questionsProcedurePart 1: Greenhouse Gases and Global WarmingIn Exercise 1, we observ ...
MVCC Effect of Greenhouse Gases on Global Warming Questions
fill in the documents and answer the questionsProcedurePart 1: Greenhouse Gases and Global WarmingIn Exercise 1, we observed that gases have different properties. In this section, we will further investigate gases and ask the question, “How are greenhouse gases related to global warming?”Conduct background research on global warming from reliable Internet sources such as NASA, USGS, IPCC, and major universities with current research on the topic such as U.C. Berkley, Yale, Stanford, etc.Note: The most acceptable websites to use for Internet sources end in “.gov” or “.edu.” Websites ending in “.com” or “.org” should be avoided since recognizing biased information may be difficult. Political, blogs, and news websites often have information that is biased and not based solely on scientific support. For this reason, these sites should also be avoided in investigating scientific topics. Temperature and Greenhouse GasesIn the next steps, you will model temperature changes in the Earth’s atmosphere by creating two models from large jars or glasses, each containing a thermometer. One jar will remain uncovered while the other jar will be covered with plastic wrap. Consider the following as you create each model:Plastic wrap is used in this experiment to model greenhouse gases in Earth’s atmosphere; however, it should be noted that greenhouse gases not only trap heat but also reflect heat into space, whereas the plastic wrap only traps heat.The two models will be placed in the same environment and exposed to direct sunlight. Since the models will be placed in the same environment, factors such as air pressure, ambient temperature, and light exposure will be consistent for the two models.Gather 2 thermometers, a clock or timer, measuring cup, spoon, clear plastic wrap, dish soap, 1 rubber band, and a sheet of white paper. Gather 2 large glasses (or jars) of the same size. The glasses should be large enough to fit the thermometers inside.Note: Jars or glasses with bottlenecks are NOT recommended for this experiment.Prepare a diluted dish soap solution as an anti-fog agent. When moisture is trapped in a container, by a lid or other covering, condensation can form on the inside of the container walls. If condensation forms on the inside of the jars or glasses used in this experiment, then it will be difficult to see the markings on the thermometer placed inside.Fill the measuring cup to the 1 cup mark with lukewarm tap water.Add 1 drop of dish soap to the water and gently stir with a spoon.Note: The solution should not form bubbles when stirred. If it does, then too much dish soap has been added and the solution needs to be re-made following step 7.Dip a paper towel into the solution and wipe the inside of the glasses (or jars). The glass should have a thin layer of solution, and there should be no pooling or beading of moisture.If the thermometers do not have a solid back, create backs from thick, white paper products, such as foam board, poster board, cardboard, or card stock. The backing will block direct sunlight, and prevent exaggerated temperature readings.Use scissors to cut a strip of paper for each thermometer. The strips should be slightly longer and wider than the thermometers.Attach each strip to the back of the thermometers with clear tape. Ensure that the numbers of the thermometer are still visible.Note: Do not use dark paper or brown cardboard as those materials absorb heat and will influence the temperature readings.Place a thermometer inside the first glass. See Figure 10. Tape the thermometer to the front of the glass ensuring that the markings are legible. This is Model #1, which represents the Earth if it had no greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.Figure 10. Placing the thermometer with a white foam backing into Model #1.Place the other thermometer inside the second glass, and tape the thermometer to the front of the glass.Use scissors to cut a square piece of plastic wrap that is large enough to cover the opening of the glass. Fit the plastic wrap over the opening of the second glass and secure it with a rubber band. This is Model #2, which represents the Earth plus its greenhouse gases.Set the two models on a sheet of white paper. This is how the experiment will be conducted when you are ready to begin.Remove the plastic wrap and rubber band from Model #2, and set them next to the glass. Model #2 will not be covered until the experiment begins.Consider what each model represents. Define the term “independent variable” and record the independent variable for this experiment in Data Table 2.Define the term “dependent variable” and record the dependent variable for this experiment in Data Table 2.Define the term “control group” and record which model acts as the control in Data Table 2.Formulate a hypothesis and record it in Data Table 2.Note: When formulating your hypothesis, think about how temperature will be affected in the two models (one covered and one uncovered). There is no “correct” answer for the hypothesis; however, it should be well-thought-out.Once the hypothesis has been recorded, the experiment may begin.You will record temperature data in Data Table 3 every 5 minutes during the experiment. Print or draw a copy of Data Table 3 if necessary.Transport the experimental setup to a sunny location, leaving Model #2 uncovered.Working quickly, place the two models on the sheet of white paper in direct sunlight. Turn the glasses so that the thermometers face the same direction, away from the sunlight.Note: Be sure to turn the jars so that the faces of the thermometers are not facing the sun.Place the plastic wrap and rubber band over the opening of Model #2, and immediately record the temperature of each model in Data Table 3. See Figure 11.Figure 11. Model #1 with no covering and Model #2 covered with clear plastic wrap secured by a rubber band.Continue to record the temperature every 5 minutes for an hour in Data Table 3.Record notes and observations as the experiment progresses. Describe in detail any changes inside of the models. Make note of changes in cloud coverage and light exposure in the comments section of Data Table 3 next to the time of the observation.Calculate the change in temperature for each model by subtracting the final temperature from the initial temperature. Record the change in temperature in Data Table 3.Note: If the thermometers measure in Fahrenheit, be sure to convert each reading to Celsius after the experiment is complete using the following equation:∘C=(∘F−32)×59∘C=(∘F−32)×59Create a line graph of temperature versus time, similar to Figure 12. Place time on the horizontal axis (x-axis) and temperature on the vertical axis (y-axis). The graph should have two lines total, representing Model #1 and Model #2.Figure 12. Example line graph of temperature versus time for three different models.Upload an image of the graph into Graph 1. Describe the trends in the graph. Indicate which model held more heat and which model had the greatest increase in temperature. Relate patterns in the graph to the observations recorded in Data Table 4.Indicate whether or not the hypothesis was supported or rejected, and explain why in Data Table 4.
San Diego State University Minerals Rocks and Radiometric Dating Lab Worksheet
Geologic Time and Rock & Mineral Identification Guide Adapted from Home Science Tools (2008b)Geologic Time (Radiometric Da ...
San Diego State University Minerals Rocks and Radiometric Dating Lab Worksheet
Geologic Time and Rock & Mineral Identification Guide Adapted from Home Science Tools (2008b)Geologic Time (Radiometric Dating Techniques): Answer the questions below.What unstable isotope would be best to refine the date of bones found in a cave hearth built by humans between 30,000 and 50,000 years ago?We find samples of an igneous rock demonstrate it has been through 4 half-lives. The test element has a half-life of 150 million years. How old is the rock?Argue for or against the following: A stone tool fashioned from a chunk of obsidian yields a date of 5,000,000 years old, therefore, the tool was made by a human 5,000,000 years ago.You are trying to figure out the age of what is thought to be a very old fossil with a volcanic ash layer immediately above the fossil. We know the fossil is at least more than 250 million years old. Should we use carbon 14 to date the fossil, or uranium 238 to date the volcanic ash layer, and why?If the parent isotope starts with 100 grams, but your samples yield only 12.5 grams of the parent isotope, how many half-lives have passed?Rock & Mineral IdentificationMinerals are naturally-occurring, solid substances composed of chemical elements. This means that minerals, ranging from salt to rubies, are made up of compounds of elements that appear on the periodic table. Each type of mineral has a specific chemical composition and consistent physical properties. They are inorganic, not living or made up of living things. Minerals form a crystalline structure which gives rocks their "rough" texture.Rocks are mixtures, or aggregates, of different minerals. Some rocks, like limestone, are composed mostly of one mineral, but the majority of rocks are made up of several major minerals. Rocks are divided into three categories based on how they are formed: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.Igneous rocks form when hot magma from beneath the Earth's surface cools rapidly. Igneous rocks that cool beneath the surface (perhaps by hitting underground air pockets) are called intrusive or plutonic igneous rocks. Granite is an example. When the magma cools on the Earth's surface by flowing from the mouth of a volcano as lava, the resulting rock is called extrusive or volcanic rock. Basalt and obsidian are common examples of volcanic igneous rocks.Sedimentary rocks are formed by layers of sediment accumulating and being compressed together for extended periods of time. Most sedimentary rocks have layers, and they often contain fossils, as living material was buried in the sediment before it was compressed into rock. Common examples of these rocks are limestone, sandstone, and shale.Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have been changed by high pressure or heat. The crystal structure is changed, the texture often becomes coarser, and sometimes new minerals are formed in the process. Metamorphic rocks are the most complex group of rocks. Schist, slate, and gneiss (pronounced like "nice") are common examples.Identifying RocksThis kit includes 15 common rocks with examples from each category. Observe them closely with the included magnifying lens.Color. As a general rule, darker rocks are made of minerals with iron and magnesium, such as magnetite or biotite. Lighter-colored rocks may have lots of quartz, calcite gypsum, or halite in them.Texture. Is it coarse-grained or glassy-smooth? Is it dense with very small particles? Are minerals visible to the naked eye? The texture of a rock depends on what is it made of. For example, igneous rocks go by basic crystal size, and sedimentary rocks will have a texture of clastic, chemical, or biogenic, depending on how they formed. Metamorphic rocks will be identified by whether they are foliated or not foliated.Structure. Look for layers, which are often an indication of sedimentary rocks. Some volcanic igneous rock will have a sponge-like structure – pumice is an example of this. It is less dense than water, so it floats! Sedimentary rocks may have layers in them, but this is more common to shales. They can also have fossils, or banding.Minerals. Look at individual grains with the magnifying lens and see if you can identify any of the composite minerals. With larger grains, you may be able to identify what they are since you are also learning about mineral identification this week.Acid Test. Limestone contains a carbonate compound that dissolves in acid, producing bubbles. Test for bubbles with a few drops of vinegar.Igneous Rock Identification↓Texture/composition→FelsicIntermediateMaficPhaneritic (coarse)GraniteDioriteGabbroAphanitic (fine)RhyoliteAndesiteBasaltGlassyObsidianVesicularPumiceSedimentary Rock Identification↓Composition/Texture→ClasticChemicalBiogenicGrain size >2mm (coarse)Conglomerate Grain size 2 mm – 0.062 mm(medium)Sandstone Grain size < 0.062 mm (fine)Shale Calcite LimestoneFossiliferous LimestoneCalcite Calcareous tufa Metamorphic Rock Identification↓Composition/Texture→FoliatedNonfoliatedQuartz, feldspar, micaGneiss Mica visible crystalsMica schist Minerals not visible crystalsSlate Quartz QuartziteCalcite MarbleMinerals IdentificationMinerals are naturally-occurring, solid substances composed of chemical elements. This means that minerals, ranging from salt to rubies, are made up of compounds of elements that appear on the periodic table. Each type of mineral has a specific chemical composition and consistent physical properties. They are inorganic, not living or made up of living things. Minerals form a crystalline structure which gives rocks their "rough" texture. Rocks are mixtures, or aggregates, of different minerals. They are divided into three categories based on how they are formed: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.Three tools are provided in your kit to aid you in identifying each mineral:Magnifying Lens: This is one of the most important tools for a mineralogist, because identifying minerals involves close observation.Nail: A nail is one of the many common items you can use to test the hardness of your specimens, along with a fingernail, penny, and piece of glass.Streak Plate: A streak plate is used to determine the color of a mineral in powder form.Many minerals can be identified using close observation and some simple tests. (Results are most consistent if you test on a freshly-broken surface of the mineral.) Try these steps on your specimens and see if you can identify each one using the characteristics provided in the online resources on mineral identification.Luster. Luster refers to the way a mineral reflects light. Is it shiny like metal? Then its luster is called metallic. It could also be adamantine (brilliant, like a diamond) or vitreous (glassy, like quartz.) Other common terms to describe luster are dull, earthy, silky, greasy, or pearly. Transparency is another characteristic that is related to luster. If you can see through the specimen, it is transparent. If light can pass through, but it is not see-through, the mineral is translucent. Minerals that do not let light through are called opaque.Color. Note the color of your specimen. This can be helpful for identifying metallic minerals, but many nonmetallic minerals have variable colors because of impurities. Quartz comes in many different colors and sapphires and rubies are different-colored varieties of the same mineral, corundum.Streak. A streak test determines the color of a mineral in powder form. In some cases, especially for metallic minerals, the streak may be a different color than the lump form of the mineral. In these cases, streak can greatly aid identification. In general, streak is more useful in identifying dark-colored minerals than light-colored specimens. The most common way to do a streak test is to rub your sample across a ceramic plate. If the mineral has a hardness level less than the streak plate (7) it will leave a colored streak of powder. (Wash the streak plate with soap and water as necessary.)Hardness. Mineral hardness is measured on the Mohs Hardness Scale. On each level of the scale a mineral can be scratched by something of the same or higher level, but nothing lower. The scale is made up of 10 minerals varying in hardness from 1 to 10. Number one is talc, because it is soft and very easy to scratch. Number 10 is the diamond, because it is the hardest natural substance and can only be scratched by another diamond.TalcGypsumCalciteFluoriteApatiteFeldsparQuartzTopaz or BerylCorundumDiamondNumber one is talc, because it is soft and very easy to scratch. Number ten is the diamond, because it is the hardest natural substance and can only be scratched by another diamond. You can test the hardness of your specimens using common materials like a nail, which has a hardness of about 5, or a streak plate with a hardness of 7. You can also try using a fingernail (2.5) a copper penny (3), or a steel file (6.5). Hold the specimen firmly and drag the nail across it. You will feel if it catcheson the mineral or if it just slides off it without biting into it. Use your magnifying lens to look for a scratch. If your specimen can be scratched by the nail (5) but not by a copper penny (3), its hardness is between 3.5 and 4.5.Other TestsThe above tests should allow you to identify the minerals in this kit, but there are other tests you could also perform on to help you identify unknown minerals using a field guide or web resource. Some of these tests are described below.Cleavage. Cleavage refers to how a mineral breaks. If it tends to break in smooth, flat planes it has cleavage. (If it breaks to form jagged edges only, it has fracture instead.) There are varying degrees of cleavage based on how clean the break is. If a mineral is transparent or translucent, you can often see cleavage planes with a magnifying lens, without having to break the mineral. Watch out! Sometimes crystal faces on a mineral look like cleavage planes, and vice versa.Magnetism. Some minerals (like magnetite) are magnetic. Test your specimens to see if they are attracted to an iron nail or magnet.Acid Test. Certain minerals, such as calcite, have carbonate compounds that dissolve in acid, producing bubbles. You can test this by roughing up a corner on your streak plate, then putting a few drops of vinegar on your specimen and watching for bubbles.Fluorescence. You can try shining a black light on your specimens to test for fluorescence. Some minerals absorb ultraviolet light and emit visible light, making them glow in the dark with various colors.Specific Gravity. Knowing a mineral's specific gravity can help with identification. Specific gravity is the weight of a mineral compared to the weight of an equal volume of water.Original ResourceHome Science Tools, Ltd. (2008a). Mineral study kit.To use the ID tables, be methodical. Start with luster, then the color of sample, then hardness, and so on.Non-metallic LusterColorHardnessStreakCleavage/fractureSpecial propertiesMineral nameDullWhite2WhiteGood one directionPowderyAlabaster gypsumDull to earthyBlack1-2BlackOne direction indistinctGreasy feelGraphiteDull to earthySilver to earthy red5.5-6.5RedFractureRed streakHematiteSilkyWhite or green1WhiteOne directionSilky-waxyTalcSilky to pearlyWhite2WhiteGood one directionFibrous habitSatin spar gypsumVitreousWhite7WhiteConchoidal fractureHardMilky quartzVitreousClear or white2-2.5WhiteCubic (3@90°)Salty tasteHaliteVitreousClear/green/purple/ yellow4white4 directionsGenerally transparent to translucentFluoriteVitreousWhite or clear3WhiteRhombohedral (3 not@ 90°)Reacts with acidCalciteVitreousWhite to clear2WhiteGood one direction, poor two directionsCrystal versionSelenite gypsumVitreous to dullTan, pink, or green6WhiteTwo directions about 90°OpaquePotassium FeldsparVitreous to submetallicBlack2.5-3Green to beigeOne directionFlat and blackBiotite micaVitreous to submetallicTan2-2.5TanOne directionFlat and tanMuscovite micaMetallic to Submetallic LusterColorHardnessStreakCleavage/fractureSpecial propertiesMineral nameMetallic Black1-2BlackOne direction indistinctSmudges easilyGraphiteMetallicBlack5.5-6.5BlackFractureWill solidly hold a magnetMagnetiteMetallicOff gold6-6.5Black to greenFractureFool's goldPyriteMetallic to dull/earthySilver to earthy red5.5-6.5RedFractureRed streakHematiteSubmetallic to vitreousBlack2.5-3Green to beigeOne directionFlat and blackBiotite
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