Week 3 Notes and Readings
Last week, we saw how virtual worlds are created through technology in an attempt to
create warm and safe places for humans to thrive. This week, we will look at how we
create “virtual realities” though stories and through social structures. One of the impacts
of these virtual realities is that they will shape our actual reality, including our selfconcept and even our ability to act in reality. In fact, you will see that our true reality is a
combination of both our physical and virtual realities.
Many of our virtual worlds don’t appear to be technological at all. We create virtual
worlds through storytelling and through social roles. As you move through your day,
think about the different roles you play. These might include both parent and child,
employee and boss, friend and rival. Your workplace and your home sometimes seem like
they are entirely different worlds. We often hear arguments about the difference between
the “real world” and what we see on television or what we learn in school or read in
books. We are sometimes left wondering “Which of these roles is the real me?” Which
world is the ”real world”? Many people accept that reality television is as scripted as other
television programming. And remember that Shakespeare’s plays are also fictional stories.
Sometimes fictional characters can seem more “real” than real people, but we also know
that at other times “truth is stranger than fiction.” How do we decide?
In “The Open Window,” Saki shows how stories can shape reality to the point where it
can be difficult to separate truth from fiction. As you read the story, think about who
decides what is real, and how different versions of reality can shape our behavior.
Read: “The Open Window” by Saki (H.H. Munro)
Munroe, H. H. “Saki” (1914). The open window in Beasts and Super-Beasts. New York, NY:
The John Lane Company.
Listen to the audio version of “The Open Window” to see if your understanding,
emotions, or perspectives are changed from reading the story.
Bennett, Mike (Producer). (2013). The open window by Saki [Video file]. Retrieved from
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qdqeKs8y_5s
Sometimes, the difference between truth and fiction is not as simple, or humorous, as it is
in Saki’s story. Sometimes the difference is between the ways different people understand
the norms, rules and expectations of society. These differing views will come into conflict
when the reality of one group creates limitations or problems for another.
In the 1850s, the women’s rights movement began to challenge the
way women were treated and what they were allowed to do. Many of
these rules were based on beliefs about what women were capable of
and what they deserved. In this speech, activist Sojourner Truth
challenged many of these assumptions in order to show the difference
between the physical reality of women and the false reality perceived
by society.
Photo Credit: Library of Congress (1864). Sojourner Truth, three-quarter length portrait, standing wearing spectacles and resting hand on cane [Photograph].
Reproduction Number: LC-USZ62-119343. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C.
First, read: “Ain’t I a Woman” by Sojourner Truth
Truth, S. (1851). Ain't I a woman? Gifts of Speech. Retrieved fro
http://gos.sbc.edu/t/truth.html
Then watch a performance of the speech:
C-Span (Producer). (2009). Cicely Tyson: Ain't I a woman? [Video file]. Retrieved from
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-0YR1eiG0us&list=PLE0D608E9B5D03F54
Of course, we often do hear about stories of other people in worlds that are different from
ours, and we depend on technology to make those become real to us. Writers and
photographers provide explanations and images to help us understand the reality of
people and places far away.
One such case involves the story of Omayra Sanchez, a 13-year-old Colombian girl who
was trapped in the debris of her home following a volcanic eruption. She lived for three
days, giving interviews to reporters and talking with rescue workers who were unable to
free her legs and save her. The stories, and especially this photograph by French journalist
Frank Fournier, took a situation unimaginable for most people and brought the realities
of this tragedy to life. As you read the stories of Ms. Sanchez, consider how difficult it is
to understand the nature of any situation in the news without being able to see it through
the eyes, ears, and words of those who are actually there.
Read:
Reuters (1985, Nov. 17). Girl's death ends frantic 3-day fight. Toronto Star, p. A10.
Note: Retrieved from the Walden Library databases.
Also read: Picture power: Tragedy of Omayra Sanchez from BBC News.
BBC News (2005, September 30). Picture power: Tragedy of Omayra Sanchez.
Retrieved March 23, 2014, from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/4231020.stm
Running head: THEORIES AND RESEARCH METHODS
Theories and Research Methods
Salma Ibrahim
Walden University
1
THEORIES AND RESEARCH METHODS
2
Introduction
The application of theories is an integral part of clinical psychology. Since clinical
psychologists are required to provide psychological assessments and psychotherapy, they have to
apply theories in their sessions. The theories are significant in the therapeutic process since they
provide a framework that allows the psychologists to understand and interpret their clients’
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Once the professionals interpret their clients' situation, they are
then able to establish the diagnosis and treatment approach that best suits them. There are two
major theories used in the clinical psychology field, and they are the cognitive behavior theory
and psychodynamic theory.
The cognitive behavior theory
The cognitive theory of Aaron Temkin Beck has been of great assistance to the
psychologists. The clinical psychologists have been using this model to understand and offer
treatment for psychological disorders like depression. Beck, an American psychologist,
developed this model in 1967 since he believed that the negative thoughts and schema or beliefs
of an individual contributes to dysfunctional behavior (Pawlik & Rosenzweig, 2000). Based on
this theory, the negative thoughts usually interfere with the usual cognitive functioning thus
impairing the individual’s memory, perceptions, and their ability to solve problems. Therefore,
Beck believed that if such individuals are persuaded to have positive and constructive thoughts,
then, their psychological would distress decrease. According to Beck, the individuals usually
learn how to correct or modify their distorted beliefs about the world, themselves, and the people
around them. With this model, psychologists consider using the gentle Socratic questioning to
come up with treatment plans. Other than the psychological disorders, the professionals also use
this model to treat health problems like premenstrual syndrome and obesity. There have been
THEORIES AND RESEARCH METHODS
3
advances in this theory whereby the primary objective of the changes was to address several
questions that arise during the treatment of psychological disorders. The new model is known as
the Generic Cognitive Model. The additional aspects to the original theory are adaptive and
maladaptive functioning, attentional focus, as well as an arrangement of schemas that are
relevant to self-evaluations, rules, expectancies, and memories.
The psychodynamic theory
The psychodynamic theory is also known as the psychoanalytical theory. Sigmund Freud
developed this theory in 1917 since he believed that the conscious and subconscious forces
usually influence an individual’s behavior. The objective of this theory is helping the patients to
revisit their forgotten hurts, frustrations and unfulfilled desires which contribute their
dysfunctional conducts. Freud, therefore, came up with several therapeutic techniques like free
association, dream analysis, and transference to unveil the psychological forces which influence
an individual’s personality (James & Gilliland, n.d.). He further classified an individual’s psyche
that is his/her personality, mind, feelings, and thoughts into three elements which are super-ego,
ego, and id. The super-ego represents the social conscience; the ego represents the conscious
thoughts, and the id represents the subconscious, inner desires (James & Gilliland, n.d.). Based
on this theory, emotions and behaviors are usually affected by unconscious motives. Therefore,
the past experiences are stored in the unconscious mind, and they influence one's behavior. For
instance, if a child has a traumatic upbringing, such an aspect may affect his/her behavior in
adulthood. Generally, as much as the psychodynamic theory is applied in clinical psychology,
changes are yet to be done. The professionals claim that there is a significant gap that fails to
address the principles that should guide clinical psychologists on how to deal with defense
mechanisms among the patients.
THEORIES AND RESEARCH METHODS
4
A once-popular theory that is no longer accepted
Phrenology was a once-famous theory in the 19th century, and it was studied in the field
of neuroscience. However, psychologists did not approve it due to having an unrealistic
explanation of an individual's character. According to Franz Joseph Gall, the developer of this
theory, he argued that the bumps and contours in the head conveyed one's personality. In this
sense, if an individual had an intelligence trait or aggression trait, such aspects would be
localized in specific parts of the brain. Larger or smaller features implied the kind of personality
trait the individual would have. However, in the 20th century, the theory changed to being less
popular due to a lot of methodological criticism from the professionals. They argued that there
lacked proper scientific support to prove the facts about the bumps and personality trait since
Gall only used his friends and family in his study. Gall's approach was also questionable since he
relied on offensive stereotypes and this made the model biased, and many believed that it
promoted racism.
The primary research areas
The major research areas for clinical psychologists are psychological disorders and
mechanisms, generation of intervention and assessment tools. In these areas, the psychologists
need to understand the causes of the disorders and their symptoms. They also have to study the
best treatment options or interventions to apply when handling unique cases of their patients. The
clinical psychologists also have to identify the most applicable assessment instruments to use
that would help them get more information from their patient. They also have to research the
behavioral, cognitive, emotional and social processes since it is here that they can understand
issues that range from short-term to severe conditions.
THEORIES AND RESEARCH METHODS
The clinical psychologists primarily use the qualitative research method. The method
incorporates the use of observational assessments, focus groups, and interviews in a particular
study. The qualitative method guides the research by allowing the investigator to use questions
related to the research to understand the perceptions of the participants. Still, the psychologists
implement this method in case studies which helps them to concentrate on broad contexts when
studying their phenomena.
A research article that employs a commonly-used method in clinical psychology
The article, “Living from Day to Day – Qualitative Study on Borderline Personality
Disorder in Adolescence” is an example of a research study that uses interviews as a qualitative
research method (Spodenkiewicz, et al., 2013). The objective of the study based on the article
was to assess how identity and self-disturbance images are identifiable elements in borderline
personality disorder (BPD) among the adolescence. The researchers carried face-to-face
interviews of 50 adolescents with BPD as the experimental group, and 50 adolescents as the
control group. The method was applicable in the study since it helped the researchers to learn
about the emotional experiences, interpersonal relationships, and the self-image perceptions of
the participants. The interviews provided a natural setting thus preventing interference of the
phenomena under investigation. They concluded that the present experiences of the adolescents
with BPD impacts their well-being. For instance, adolescents with low self-image suffer from
distress, and they have a hard time trying to cope with others.
Conclusion
Overall, the overview of the applicable theories and research method in clinical
psychology highlights the relevance of a critical understanding of the psychological disorders
being evaluated. Still, it is evident that clinical psychologists have to develop therapeutic
5
THEORIES AND RESEARCH METHODS
6
relationships with their clients so that it can be easy for them to understand their issues and
identify ways to help them out. Generally, clinical psychologists are essential people in the
health care setting since they collaborate with other health professionals in offering quality
patient care. Today we are in an era where the patients have the rights to know about their health.
According to the American Psychologist Association (2010), clinical psychologists should give
their clients appropriate information about their condition and intervention options so that the
patients can make well-informed decisions.
THEORIES AND RESEARCH METHODS
7
References
American Psychological Association. (2010). Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of
Conduct: Including 2010 Amendments. Retrieved
from http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx
James, R. K., & Gilliland, B. E. (n.d.). Theories and strategies in counseling and psychotherapy
(Fifth Edition). Retrieved from
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fd89/84eee9a27b04264327edba65e69b6fd4f16a.pdf
Pawlik, K., & Rosenzweig., M. R. (2000). The International Handbook of Psychology. Retrieved
from https://sk-sagepub
com.ezp.waldenulibrary.org/reference/hdbk_intlpsych?fromsearch=true
Spodenkiewicz, M., Speranza, M., Taïeb, O., Pham-Scottez, A., Corcos, M., & Révah-Levy, A.
(2013). Living from day to day - Qualitative study on borderline personality disorder in
adolescence. Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
22(4), 282-9. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3825468/
Halsey, Amber Artifact "MAN"
Posted by
PM
Amber Halsey at Saturday, December 8, 2018 5:46:46
https://youtu.be/WfGMYdalClU
Published on Dec 21, 2012, Animation created in Flash and After Effects looking at man's relationship with the
natural world. Copyright © 2012 www.stevecutts.com
COMMENT
My life
Posted by
AM
Edward Cole at Saturday, December 8, 2018 10:08:11
The artifact that I chose is rhythm and poetry. Which most people know as rap music.
Real rap music tells a story about one's upbringing, about society, about what's going on in the
neighborhood on a day by day basis.
The reason I chose this genre Is because of my past. You see, I grew up in South Central Los
Angeles, CA where gang banging, drug dealing, drug-using, and violence was a way of life. I've been
to jail, been to prison, been shot at and shot back. And now I’m here I am trying to get a degree to
help my brothers and sisters. To show that those who grew up and crime-infested areas that they can
to make it out the ‘hood’.
My artifact is about life. My story.
a f*** up childhood is why the way I am
living in that state to were I don't give a damn
My Drunk ass Daddy ain’t no good
So I follow the footsteps of the homies of the hood
In high school I got mostly A's
But it didn’t matter if I got good grades
I thought I join the Airforce at 18
but I got kicked out, ending my life long dream
Nobody to help nobody who cares
and All of the adults just give me cold stairs
The penitentiary is where I was headed
but I guess that Was be better than being dead so there was no regrets
To be continued...
COMMENT
Crowns of Glory, Mercy and Peace
Posted by
1:01:15 AM
COMMENT
Friday, December 7, 2018
Lekeithia Harmon at Saturday, December 8, 2018
WK3ASSGN+BARNES+A
Posted by
Aletha Barnes at Friday, December 7, 2018 11:06:32 PM
PRAYING HANDS: A SYMBOL OF OBEDIENCE, SUBMISSION, SINCERITY AND REPENTANCE; A
PLEADING TO GOD. CALMS A BUSY MIND TO FOCUS ON A HIGHER POWER!
•
•
Attached Files:
praying hands.jpg(5.8kb)
COMMENT
Lissette's Artifact
Posted by
Lissette Vidal at Friday, December 7, 2018 10:19:53 PM
Last Edited:Friday, December 7, 2018 10:21:21 PM
I chose the declaration of independence .
COMMENT
dashonda thomas
Posted by
Dashonda Thomas at Friday, December 7, 2018 6:22:30
PM
• Attached Files:
• somali-museum-3rd-anniversary-70.jpeg(44.7kb)
COMMENT
Last Supper Artifact
•
•
Posted by
Attached Files:
Artifact.docx(34.4kb)
COMMENT
Frances Bailey at Friday, December 7, 2018 1:48:58 PM
Mala Bead Artifact
Posted by
AM
Kimberly Beck at Friday, December 7, 2018 10:33:05
Purchase answer to see full
attachment