please write 2 response for 2 discussion

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this course is talk about poverty and discrimination. We need to response to other student's discussion and show our opinion. I will post rubric of response and discussion, other student's discussion, chapter's content and discussion questions. please write me two response(I will post two discussions also), each needs 300 words and citation.

question: As of November 2018, the unemployment rate stands at 3.7%. In other words, among people who work or are looking for work, only 37 out of 1000 do not have jobs, the lowest rate since 1969. However, the number of people in poverty is still high, around 13.5% of the US population, or 41 million people. Employment is also lower among less educated groups.

Why do certain groups of people work less than others and what connection might this have with poverty? Is it an example of the “flawed character” hypothesis, or are there other factors driving these disparities that might make certain people harder to employ or less likely to seek out work?

Student 1: As the prompt states, the unemployment rate is currently very low, while poverty is still high and employment is lower among less educated groups. There are several factors that contribute to these disparities.

First, labor markets are becoming more competitive. A greater percentage of Americans have a college degree. Between 2007 and 2017, the percentage of Americans aged 25 and older that completed a bachelors degree or higher rose to 33.4 percent from 28 percent (Wilson). When the population is in general more educated and more skilled, companies have more candidates to choose from that possess the skills attained from higher education. This makes higher paying, white collar jobs harder to attain for those who do not possess the education level that is becoming increasingly common among candidates.

I believe that as the labor market is becoming more competitive, those born into poverty face difficulty achieving higher education and receiving higher paying jobs. As Schiller mentions in the text, single parent families are disproportionately in poverty, low income houses save less than higher income households, including money saved for their children's education, and face generally poorer education systems. These factors are a combination of the "Flawed Character" and "Restricted Opportunity" arguments. Another anthropological generalization the book mentions that supports the idea that upper and middle class families value higher education more than those in poverty is, "Where middle and upper class parents think in terms of a college education for their offspring, lower class parents' aspirations usually stop at a high school diploma" (157). These combinations of cultural values and "Restricted Opportunities" combine to put those in poverty at a disadvantage.

Another important note is that although the unemployment rate was 3.7% in November 2018, the labor force participation was only 63.1% as of December 2018 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics). Those not included in the labor force are retirees, students, and disabled among others that should not be working, but also those who do not actively seek employment that are capable of doing so. This is important to consider, and when examining programs such as welfare it is difficult to determine if these programs always help those who use them. The text summarizes the conflict when it states, "A loss of welfare benefits, as well as Medicaid, food stamps, and economic assistance, could actually lower a family's income when the mother leaves for work. Even where a job pays more than welfare, there is a distinct risk of ending up worse off" (156). This points to the fact that the "Big Brother" argument may also contribute to the poverty levels that remain high in spite of low unemployment.

Reference:

Schiller, Bradley R. Economics of Poverty and Discrimination. Prentice Hall, 2013.

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 20 Dec. 2018, www.bls.gov/news.release.

Wilson, Reid. “Census: More Americans Have College Degrees than Ever Before.” TheHill, The Hill, 3 Apr. 2017, thehill.com/homenews/state-watch/326995-census-more-americans-have-college-degrees-than-ever-before.

Student 2: Consensus has been reached that unemployment may cause poverty, and the low quality of employment will also put people at risk of falling into poverty at any time. Meanwhile, I agree that both the culture, and personal factors can better explain unemployment or working poverty phenomenon than the “flawed character” hypothesis.

Increased number of flexible jobs, associated with short working hours, temporary contracts, and part-time employment, may lead to low-quality employment and results working poverty. Working poverty owns a high proportion of developed countries with mature market. The US Department of Labor announced that the US work poverty rate is 7% (2011). In 2018, a single person with an annual income of less than $12,000 is considered a poor. This phenomenon has its theoretical basis. The dual labor market theory believes that there is a division of the primary and secondary labor markets in the labor market. The working poor mainly belongs to the secondary sector, who owns low income, unstable work, poor working conditions, few training opportunities, and lack of promotion mechanism. Moreover, for workers in the secondary labor market, receiving education and training has no effect on improving their income. For example, the subjects of the secondary sector in US are always dropouts, older workers in traditional sectors, single parent, temporary contract workers, and self-employed workers, etc. are often marginalized in the labor market.

In addition to personal reasons, it is indispensable that cultural factors attribute to unemployment and working poverty. Education, health, and mental outlook will lead to the formation of poverty. The low quality of the poor is mainly characterized by low levels of education and lack of knowledge, making it difficult for them to break through traditions and habits, to accept new production, lifestyles and trend. The Culture of Poverty was founded by Oscar Lewis in the 1960s, which emphasizes the influence of parenting and community life on children. He explained the impact of poverty culture from four aspects: society, community, family and the individual and illustrated how poverty is passed between the poor. From a cultural point of view, the theory considers poverty to be a self-sustaining cultural system. Because the poor live in poverty for a long time, they form a specific set of lifestyles, codes of conduct, values, etc. Once such a “subculture” is formed, it will have an impact on the surrounding people, especially the offspring, which is named Intergenerational Transmission. It will have an important impact on the economic, social conditions and individual lifestyles of a region. It is through these channels that the culture of poverty indirectly leads to the formation of poverty. A new survey by the Pew Research Center found that wealthy families are completely on schedule, with children taking ballet class, playing football, and participating in extracurricular projects. These families are usually two-parent families, where parents spend a lot of time educating their children. However, the survey found that children from poor families tend to stay at home and kill time. The communities in which they grow up are more likely to be described as unsuitable for raising children, and parents are concerned that childrenare easily involved in illegal activities.

References:

1. Dalaker, Joseph. 1999. Poverty in the United States: 1998. U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, Series P60-207. Washing- ton, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

2. CameliaMinoiu, Sanjay GReddy "Chinese Poverty: Assessing the Impact of Alternative Assumption”. Review of Income and Wealth, 54 ( 2008) : 572 - 596.

3. Conning, Jonathan, Kevane, Michael. Community - based targeting mechanisms for social safety nets: a critical review. World Development 30: 375 - 394( 2002.

4. Schiller, B. R. (1972). Economics of Poverty and Discrimination, 10th Edition

5. U.S. Department of Labor - https://www.dol.gov/

Unformatted Attachment Preview

CHAPTER 6 - THE WORKING POOR INTRODUCTION Why are so many who are working in the labor force still poor? This is the focus of chapter six. Some data suggest that part time and/or part year work is a factor. Yet, a substantial number of full-time, year-round workers appear to be in poverty. Observations about the "working poor" need to be qualified by the ways terms are defined and the numbers are gathered. For example, the Census Bureau measure of hours worked appears to be overestimated, while the figures on income earned are underestimated. The existence of low wages in general, and the minimum wage in particular, bear on poverty. A historical overview of the minimum wage is presented. It is noted that most minimum wage workers are not poor and most low-wage workers stay out of poverty because other family members also work. It is surprising to discover that the working poor are found in all broad occupational categories. The mismatch between the skills demanded of workers in higher paying jobs and those possessed by the poor is explored. Another mismatch, between income and needs, plays a role. In the appendix the question is posed as to whether economic prosperity for those at the “top” benefits the poor. Under the "trickle down" theory it does, but under the dual labor market theory it doesn't. Some Other Things A distinction between the working poor and the non-working poor is important when public attitudes and policies are debated. A mandate for welfare benefits is that the able-bodied participate in the job market. Non-working poor are deemed less worthy. Measurement Issues When a Census interviewer collects information about a family's income and employment, it is from one household member. This introduces memory errors estimating work experience and income for the other family members. In addition, the interview takes place in March and covers the previous calendar year. This requires remembering back as far as fifteen months. So I ask you: how many weeks you think each of your family members worked last year and whether it was full time? Now as an exercise, try to confirm this! If a family member worked 35 or more hours per week for a majority of the year (say 27 weeks), they are classified as full time. This overstates the number of poor, full-time workers by about 10 percent. Hourly wages are imputed by dividing annual earnings by usual hours employed. If these "usual" hours are an overestimate of actual hours, then wages will be underestimated. For 2005, the Census Bureau estimated that there were 704,000 single (unrelated) individuals who worked full-time year-round yet were under the poverty line. Working full-time at the federal minimum wage would have produced income of around $10,300 (more in the many states that have a higher minimum wage); the poverty line for a single person under 65 in 2005 was $10,160. Either figures on work experience are exaggerated or these workers are earning less than the minimum wage. The Minimum Wage With any change in the minimum wage, there would be winners and losers. Winners would include those who keep their jobs and hours worked at the minimum wage. Also benefiting would be those earning above the minimum, whose productivity is a multiple of low-skilled workers (with pay being a function of the value of marginal product). Losers include those who lose their jobs, those who find their hours reduced, customers (who may pay higher prices), and employers/firm owners (higher costs, lower profits). Debates about raising the minimum involve empirical perceptions of the number of winners versus losers. Low Wages Supply and demand can also illustrate why unskilled labor wages are relatively low. Assume two labor markets, each with a supply and demand curve; one is unskilled labor, the other skilled. If demand for skilled has expanded relative to that of the unskilled, and/or if the supply of the unskilled has expanded more than that of the skilled, then the wage difference between skilled and unskilled will be more pronounced. This analysis can also be applied to the dual labor market theory in the appendix. Student Experiences Lastly, I want to ask how many of you have worked at the minimum wage or less. Are you aware of any sub-minimum wage for those under age 20 during the first 90 days of work or for those who are full time college students in any occupations? How many of you had your hourly wage increased? What were the causes of the raise? Do you think that low wages are permanent for the poor? Video (Watch if you have time) A segment of Nightline “On the Edge: America’s Working Poor” from 4/15/04 is available from ABC News (http://www.abcnewsstore.com). Web Links A paper “Poverty Among Working Families: Findings From Experimental Poverty Measures” can be found at http://www.census.gov/prod/2000pubs/p23-203.pdf. Information about the minimum wage is available at http://www.dol.gov/dol/topic/wages/minimumwage.htm. A good source of research studies relating to employment, earnings, and wage rates is http://www.nber.org. A study on the effects of raising the minimum wage on employment (it’s likely much smaller than one would think) http://irle.berkeley.edu/files/2010/Minimum-Wage-Effects-Across-State-Borders.pdf CHAPTER 9 - THE "UNDERCLASS": CULTURE AND RACE INTRODUCTION Since the War on Poverty was declared in 1964, billions of dollars have been spent in the U.S. on programs to reduce poverty. Over the same time period, GDP in real dollars has more than tripled, GDP per capita has more than doubled, while over 70 million new jobs have been created. Yet, the number of poor and the poverty rate are still substantial. We observe behavior among some groups that is decidedly unconventional: preferring welfare to work, producing babies out of wedlock, engaging in crime, and dropping out of school. So, an important question to ask would be: Does an "underclass" exist that is isolated from mainstream society and economy? If so, is it due to flawed character, restricted opportunity, and/or big brother? In addressing these sensitive questions, the possibility of a "culture of poverty" is explored in this chapter. Many "experts" have weighed in with theories, research, and opinions on these issues. These include Oscar Lewis, William Julius Wilson, William Shockley, and Charles Murray. A number of disciplines shed light on this topic, including anthropology, sociology, political science, as well as economics. The crux of the matter is whether underclass behavior is due to external forces (such as restricted opportunities) or is a voluntarily adopted culture. The controversy over the nature, size, and origins of the underclass continues. Adding fuel to the fire are findings on IQ, intelligence, and economic status. Minorities score lower on IQ tests; does this imply that they are less intelligent, less capable, and less likely to succeed in a high-tech economy? Some other things After reading the chapter, think about this: What kinds of evidence could resolve the issue of cultural inertia.? If a minority teenager drops out of school, is that sufficient evidence to assert a cultural trap? What if a good job offer is declined? Intelligence and race is another hot button topic. Are some racial groups handicapped by lower intelligence? Is IQ a good measure of intelligence? You can explain how an IQ test works and what the numbers mean. Also, try thinking about the role that environment has on IQ scores. There’s also a number of studies that look at intergenerational income mobility by race. What does this mean? Basically, if your parents make more than a particular percentage of the population, how much will you make relative to other people. Stanford University economist Raj Chetty uses huge amounts of data from tax records to paint pictures of intergenerational mobility. One finding in a recent paper is that African-Americans are far less likely to move up in the income distribution than White Americans. For instance Black men who are born into households in the 75th percentile of the income distribution make 12% less than White men born into White households making the same amount. How important is intergenerational mobility? Try watching these videos if you have time Many experts in this area have been videotaped in interviews and TV talk shows. Some that you might consider for stimulating experience are: IQ and Race (Charles Murray, ABC NewsNightline, October 21, 1994), Solving Black Inner-City Poverty (William Julius Wilson, PBS World of Ideas with Bill Moyers, 1989), America Beyond the Color Line (PBS Video, 2003), The Two Nations of Black America (PBS Frontline Video, 1997). Web Links 1. Articles by Charles Murray (such as “The Underclass Revisited”) can be downloaded at http://www.aei.org. 2. An online forum with William Julius Wilson (from November 29, 1996) is at http://www.pbs.org/newshour/forum/fall_96.html. 3. A discussion of the Two Nations of Black America (including an interview with Wilson) is at http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/race. 4. A description of how intergenerational income mobility differs by race and gender. Below are a New York Times story with helpful data visualizations and the original 2018 study. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/03/19/upshot/race-class-white-andblack-men.html http://www.equality-of-opportunity.org/assets/documents/race_paper.pdf 5. Study on how more lenient criminal punishments can positively affect defendants’ future prospects. https://www.dropbox.com/s/9qrexa7fqer1s7u/Diversion_in_the_Criminal_Justice_ System.pdf?dl=0 CHAPTER 10 - EDUCATION AND ABILITY INTRODUCTION A central tenet of our society is that education and ability will be rewarded. The first section of this chapter considers the link between education and income. It is shown that unemployment rates, full time work status, occupation, earnings, and hence poverty rates are strongly correlated to the amount of one's education. In fact, the earnings gap between better- and lesser- educated workers appears to be widening. However, the labor market does reward the educational attainments of some groups better than others (whites versus blacks, males versus females). To what extent is the lack of education a cause of poverty? Education acts as a sorting device for employers; it is a proxy for human capital, which is difficult to measure. It is noted that upgrading education will only be effective to the extent that there is a demand for higher skilled workers. On this basis, lack of education may not explain a substantial amount of poverty. The second section of the chapter looks at the relationship between ability and income. Ability is a difficult concept to pin down. Levels of ability are typically inferred from measured IQ, educational attainment, or even income. Such inferences may beg the issue of causation. It is also observed that the distribution of poverty is not well explained by the distribution of either IQ or educational achievement. Beware the Fallacy of Composition What is true for one, may not be true for all. If one individual obtains more education, he or she is likely to be rewarded with better jobs and higher incomes. If everyone gets more education, the types of jobs and income earned may be little affected. While enhancing skills speaks to the supply of labor, overall improvements in income will also require sufficient demand for (skilled) labor. Averages and Income Overlaps It is true that on average, those with more education have higher incomes. But within each group possessing a certain education level, there is a broad distribution of income. Therefore, many high school dropouts may earn more than some college graduates. Try identifying high-paying jobs that require little education and jobs that require extensive education but pay little. What jobs do you think of for each category? Why do you think that is the case? Perhaps riskier? Impact on family life? Discrimination? Figures 10.2 and 10.3 show that equally educated whites earn more than blacks; males earn more than females. Reasons for this anticipate the upcoming two chapters on discrimination. Why Don't the Poor Stay in School? In a benefit-cost framework, it can be demonstrated that it may be rational for someone to drop out of school. Take a 16 year old with two years of high school left. If he or she stays in school, they forego the possibility of full time earnings, giving up say $13,000 per year. This opportunity cost is the major cost of continuing secondary education. The benefit would be higher earnings, say $8,000 more per year after graduation (beginning two years from now), for 47 working years. Since the dollar values occur at different points in time, we need to apply a discount rate when converting each cash flow to its current dollar equivalent (present value). If the student is poor, they will be very "present-oriented." The future is uncertain; the need for money now is paramount. This implies a high discount rate, say 30%. That is, they would rather have $1 today than $1.29 in one year. The present value of further education to this student is negative! Such a problem can be easily set up on a spreadsheet, such as Excel (using the =NPV function). Notice with a more normal discount rate (say 10%), the present value of finishing high school is substantial. Web Links 1. Table 10.2 and Figures 10.2 and 10.3 can be updated at http://www.census.gov. The unemployment rates and usual weekly earnings by educational attainment are available monthly and quarterly, respectively, at http://stats.bls.gov (for the former, click on Economic News Releases, Current, Employment Situation Summary, Table A-4; for the latter, click on Usual Weekly Earnings of Wage and Salary Workers, Table 4). 2. An interesting visualization of how school districts are drawn and how this may affect school quality. https://www.vox.com/2018/3/5/17080218/school-segregation-getting-worsedata 3. Alternative views on the value of education. Bryan Caplan makes the case that education is not terribly useful for building human capital. https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2018/01/whats-college-goodfor/546590/ 4. Labor Force Participation rates by educational attainment https://www.bls.gov/spotlight/2017/educational-attainment-of-the-laborforce/pdf/educational-attainment-of-the-labor-force.pdf Discussion Rubric Rubric: I will be grading on four things: (1) citation of the readings and outside sources, (2) whether or not the questions were addressed, (3) originality in response, (4) if they are responding to another student, how did they respond to the original response instead of talking past them (1) Students will be expected to properly cite both the weekly reading and an outside source. This source can be a book, news article, or even a personal experience. I want to see evidence that they've at least engaged with the reading on some level, not only that they've read it, but thought about how they could connect what they've learned with something else in their experience. 0 points for no sources, 1 Citing both in a superficial manner. They might mention a statistic, but don't explain its significance with relation to the question, 2 Citing both sources properly and using facts presented to build and defend their point. (2) Students will have to answer the questions fully. By this I mean, they must address each part of the question, and not just address part of it. 0 Talks past the original post, posting something that isn't relevant, 0.5 Gives a lazy or nonsubstantive answer. An example would be, "I agree/disagree" without defending their argument in any substantive manner. Makes assertions without backing them up 1 Makes substantive point that address the question but don't dig that deeply into the question, the premises behind it, or show interest in the material 2 Makes substantive, insightful points that show a deep understanding of the material, effort on the poster's point. Shows that the student engaged with the weekly reading. (3) I don't want students to just repeat each other. I want them to dig for unique answers to the question 0-1 Largely regurgitates statements made by others or the main reading. Doesn't show much independent thought 2 Brings in differing, nuanced perspective to material, that others may not have considered. (4) Response Students will have to respond to other students, and their responses will largely be graded on the above points, and they'll be expected to actually respond to other students and not just talk past them. Students will have to respond to two other posts. They can respond to the original post in a thread or to responses to that post. The grade will be the average of the two responses.
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Running head: DISCUSSION RESPONSES

Discussion Responses
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DISCUSSION RESPONSES

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Discussion Responses

Response to Student One
Thank you for your post it has been very informing and tackled the discussion
question accurately about the factors that have created the disparities and the reasons as to
why poverty rate in the country is still high and the unemployment rate is low. Many people
have engaged in achieving a higher education to enable them to compete in the vast job
market and the increasing job opportunities in the country. As you have stated in your post, it
is apparent that many people are pursuing higher education and this has led to many people
looking for employment in the white-collar job sectors. In addition, many people who are
employed in a white-collar job often receive a higher income and this is...


Anonymous
Just what I was looking for! Super helpful.

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