Chapter 1 What is art history? A thing of beauty is a joy forever Keats Can art have a history? We think about art as being timeless, the ‘beauty’ of its appearance having meaning, significance, and appeal to humankind across the ages. At least this usually applies to our ideas about ‘high’, or fine, art, in other words painting and sculpture. This kind of visual material can have an autonomous existence – we can enjoy looking at it for its own sake, independent of any knowledge of its context, although of course viewers from different time periods or cultures may see the same object in contrasting ways. Art appreciation and criticism When we look at a painting or sculpture, we often ask the following questions: who made it?; what is the subject?; when was it completed? These are quite valid questions that are often anticipated and answered in, for example, the captions to illustrations in art books and the labels to works displayed in museums and galleries. For many of us these pieces of information are sufficient. Our curiosity about the who, what, and when of art is satisfied and we can get on with appreciating the artwork, or just enjoying looking at it. For those of us also interested in how, 1 Art History information on the technique used – for instance, oil or tempera (see Chapter 6) – might help us to appreciate further the skill of the artist. The important thing to note about this kind of art appreciation is that it requires no knowledge of art history. The history of an individual work is contained within itself and can be found in the answers to the questions who, what, when, and how. These are the kinds of details that appear in catalogues of museum and gallery collections or those produced for art sales, where perhaps information about the original patron (if relevant) might also answer the question why. Auction houses, museums, and galleries also place emphasis on the provenance of a work of art. This is the history of who has owned it and in which collections it has been held. This acts as a kind of pedigree for the work and might be used to help prove that it is an authentic work by a given artist. All this information is important in determining the monetary value of a painting or sculpture but need not necessarily be important for art history. In this way, art appreciation requires no knowledge of the context of art; the ‘I know what I like and I like what I see’ approach to gallerygoing is sufficient. And this is absolutely fine. We can enjoy looking at something just for what it is and art can become absorbed into what might be called popular culture. Art appreciation can also involve the more demanding process of criticizing the art object on the basis of its aesthetic merits. Usually aspects such as style, composition, and colour are referred to, and more broadly reference is made to the artist’s other work, if known, or to other artists working at the same time or within the same movement or style. Connoisseurship Art appreciation and criticism are also linked to connoisseurship. By its very name this implies something far more elitist than just enjoying looking at art. A connoisseur is someone who has a 2 specialist knowledge or training in a particular field of the fine or decorative arts. The specialist connoisseur may work for an auction house – we have all seen how on television programmes such as the Antiques Roadshow experts are able to identify and value all manner of objects, not just paintings, on the basis of looking at them closely and asking only very few questions of the owner. This kind of art appreciation is linked to the art market and involves being able to recognize the work of individual artists as this has a direct effect on the work’s monetary value. 3 What is art history? Another aspect of connoisseurship is its relationship to our understanding of taste. A connoisseur’s taste in relation to art is considered to be refined and discriminating. Our concept of taste in relation to art is quite complicated, and inevitably it is bound up in our ideas about social class. Let me take a little time to explore this more fully. I have already discussed the practice of art appreciation – art available for all and seen and enjoyed by all. By contrast, connoisseurship imposes a kind of hierarchy of taste. The meaning of taste here is a combination of two definitions of the word: our faculty of making discerning judgements in aesthetic matters, and our sense of what is proper and socially acceptable. But by these definitions taste is both culturally and socially determined, so that what is considered aesthetically ‘good’ and socially ‘acceptable’ differs from one culture or society to another. The fact that our taste is culturally determined is something of which we have to be aware, and this crops up throughout this book. Here, though, it is important to think about the social dimension of taste as having more to do with art as a process of social exclusion – we are meant to feel intimidated if we don’t know who the artist is, or worse still if we don’t feel emotionally moved through the ‘exquisiteness’ of the work. We have all read or heard the unmistakable utterances of these connoisseurs. But luckily their world does not belong to art history. Instead, art history is an open subject available to everyone with an interest in looking at, thinking about, and understanding the visual. It is my intention in this book to describe how we can engage with art in these ways. Art History History as progression For art to have a history we expect not only a timeless quality but also some kind of sequence or progression, as this is what history leads us to expect. Our history books are full of events in the past that are presented as part of either the continual movement towards improvement, or as stories about great men, or as epochs of time that stand out from others – for instance, the Italian Renaissance or the Enlightenment. In regard to these kinds of frameworks for thinking about the past, the history of art does not disappoint. In the coming together of these two separate strands, we see how history reorders visual experience, making it take a range of forms. The most popular of these include writing about the history of art from the point of view of artists – usually ‘great men’. Alternatively, we find art historians have sought to define the great stylistic epochs in the history of art, for example the Renaissance, Baroque, or Post-Impressionism. Each of these traditions can be written about independently of the others and they have provided a backbone for histories of art. Here I use the plural since the results of each of these ways of writing about the history of art are different, placing different emphasis on what is important – in some cases the artist, in others the work or the movement to which the work belongs. The problem with concentrating on formal elements such as style is that style itself becomes the subject of discussion rather than the works of art. As we become preoccupied with marking out stylistic changes, we have to use our knowledge of what came after the work under discussion. The benefit of hindsight is essential here – how else could we know that the beginnings of an interest in nature and naturalism in the art of Early Renaissance Italy prefigured the consummate achievements of artists of the High Renaissance in this regard? Working backwards from the present imposes a line of development of which the outcome is already known. In this way, tracks or routes through the art of the past can favour certain styles – this is certainly the case with classical art and its reinterpretations. 4 Also, histories of art that focus solely on style can easily neglect other aspects of an artwork such as its subject matter or its function. It is possible to narrate a history of artistic style using representations of the male and female body. This might begin with the representation of physical perfection achieved in ancient times by the Greeks. By the Middle Ages, however, there was little interest in the naturalistic depiction of the human form. But by the Renaissance period increased knowledge of human anatomy and nature meant that art had become more ‘life-like’. But this kind of history could also be told using representations of cats and dogs, although most would agree that domestic pets have not been a principal focus for artists over the last two millennia. In the case of biographical histories, we look for evidence of youth, maturity, and old age in the work of an artist. This works quite well if the artist lived for a long time, but an untimely death does not lend itself to this kind of narrative arch. Claude Monet’s (1840– 1926) early work The Poppy Field (1873) differs from the cycles of pictures of the same object at various times of day he produced in the 1880s and 1890s, as seen in his views of Rouen Cathedral (1894; Fig. 1) or Haystacks (1891). But although we can see similar preoccupations in the interest in light, shade, and colour as a way of modelling form, these phases of Monet’s career stand distinct from 5 What is art history? Yet style has played a significant role in the formulation of histories of art, and it is only in recent years that the notion of stylistic progress in Western art has been reassessed. Indeed, the emphasis on style leads us to expect the notion of progression and constant development in art. If we want art to represent the world we think we see, then we can impose an expectation of a continual move towards naturalism. But how do we then think about art that is not interested in naturalistic representation? This kind of abstract or conceptual art can be sidelined and deemed of secondary importance – sometimes it is labelled ‘primitive’ or ‘naı̈ve’ art, with a pejorative air. In many ways modern art confronts this prejudice, but often provokes cries of ‘is it art?’. his late works, such as the large-scale paintings of the lily ponds at his Japanese-style garden at Giverny. This kind of biographical approach isolates the artist from their historical context. We often forget that Monet’s late works were painted in the early 20th century – at the same time as Picasso was experimenting with Cubism. Evidence and analysis in art history It is important to discuss what kind of archive art history can draw upon, as the range of material used to construct these histories extends well beyond the works themselves. For instance, history has its documents, written records of the past; archaeology focuses on the material record, physical remains of the past; whilst anthropology looks to social rituals and cultural practices as a way of understanding past and present peoples. Art history can draw upon all these archives in addition to the primary archive of the artwork. In this way, art history is the stepping stone into various ways of interpreting and understanding the past. 7 What is art history? Is there then a distinction to be made between the interaction of art and history, and art history? That is to say that histories of art can have a single focus on style or the work in relation to the biography of the artist, where our expectations of a progressive history are inflicted on the visual. What I am suggesting here is that we turn the question on its head and put art in the driving seat, so to speak. By using art as our starting point we can see the complex and intertwined strands that make up art history. This implies that art history is a subject or academic field of enquiry in its own right, rather than the result of the rules of one discipline being applied to another. I return to this point on a regular basis in this book. I aim to set out how histories of art have been constructed, to describe the ways in which we have been encouraged to think about art as a result, and also to introduce other ways of thinking about the visual in terms of its history. Art History In contradiction to this, what is known as the ‘canon’ of art regiments our understanding and interpretation of the evidence. In this instance, the canon is artwork regarded by influential individuals – not least connoisseurs – as being of the highest quality. In art history the canon has usually, but not exclusively, been associated with the ‘traditional’ values of art. In this way the canon plays an important role in the institutionalization of art, as new works can be judged against it. As such it is a means of imposing hierarchical relationships on groups of objects. This hierarchy usually favours the individual genius and the idea of the ‘masterpiece’. Moreover, the canon promotes the idea that certain cultural objects or styles of art have more value (both historical and monetary) than others. One of my principal interests in this book is the impact of canonical works that are considered defining examples of taste and of historical significance on art history. I have been using the words ‘art’ and ‘visual’ almost interchangeably. This raises another important question – what are the subjects of art history? Traditionally, the history of art has been concerned with ‘high art’. But a range of artefacts has been included in the discipline, and these have changed over time. When talking about the Renaissance, for instance, it is quite easy to confine discussion to known artists such as Michelangelo or Raphael and to works of painting or sculpture, or their preparatory processes such as drawings. But the remains of the visual outputs of different cultures and epochs are quite varied and invite a range of interpretations. We are all familiar with the rock art of prehistoric times, but the reasons behind its production and who produced it remain enigmatic. We look at the cave paintings at Lascaux in the Dordogne, France, and see in them hunting scenes – depictions of everyday life. But rock art also includes abstract designs and shapes. So could this kind of art have had a more mystical function? Some argue that these images are the work of shamans – members of a religious cult who used hallucinogenic drugs as part of their practice of worship – and these images come from the unconscious as a result. 8 In the case of non-Western art, everyday objects, sometimes referred to as material culture, are the best evidence we have for the artistic output of a given society. A Mayan vase (Fig. 2) may well tell us something about the religious or social rituals, as well as indicate the way in which artists chose to represent their world. However, in later periods in Western art, vases – and other everyday objects – have not always enjoyed such attention. Even the exquisite designs on the soft paste porcelain of the Sèvres factory or the classical scenes on Wedgwood vases take second place to the high art of the same period – at least as far as art historians are concerned. It is important to remember, however, that ceramics and furniture were often considered more valuable and prestigious possessions at the time of their production than were painting or sculpture. So the emphasis and value we place on high art may in fact misrepresent its significance in the eyes of contemporaries. And the way in which art history can distort objects in terms of their contemporary and present-day meaning 9 What is art history? A different question arises if we look at ancient Greece. The world inhabited by this civilization is seen as a high point in the history of art. But most ancient Greek sculpture is known only through Roman copies, a problem discussed in more detail later on in this volume. And we have very little knowledge of ancient Greek paintings. Partly in response to these gaps in our knowledge, attention has focused on Greek vases, which even from as early as 800 bce were decorated. The plentiful remains of Greek vases demonstrate a range of painting styles from the geometric designs of the Archaic period through to the silhouette-like bodies on Black Figure vases and the more painterly, fluid representations of the human form on Red Figure vases. These relics from the past are everyday objects, yet, perhaps due to the paucity of specimens of high art, they are venerated examples of ancient Greek art. Perhaps unsurprisingly, their history is mapped against that of Greek sculpture and is the story of ongoing development in the pursuit of the representation of human physical perfection. Art History 2. Mayan cylindrical vessel decorated with the image of a dignitary wearing a blossom headdress. and significance is something I return to at various points in this book. In recent years the term art history has itself come under question. The so-called New Art History, now a generation old, sought to reassess the way in which we think and write about histories of visual objects. New Art History was particularly influenced by theoretical ways of thinking about art to bring out its social, cultural, and historical meaning. I discuss the various ways of writing and thinking about art history in subsequent chapters; it is enough to say here that the notion of works of art having historical meaning beyond their role in the narrative of the work of great artists or of styles of art was revolutionary. So much so that the subject is still divided between ‘new’ and ‘old’ even 20 years later. This book does not advocate either way of thinking about art 10 It is true that there is a difficulty in this relationship between the verbal and the visual; they are both discrete methods of description. This tension is further explored in the next chapter. We are perhaps more familiar with the use of words to describe art, where one system of articulation is brought to bear on the other. But we must remember that this also works the other way around – the visual can describe and represent the verbal, phenomena usually expressed in words. 11 What is art history? history. I see the merit of both approaches, and I very much want to question the object, confront it, in order to explore its broadest possible meaning and significance. But at the same time I do not want to lose sight of the object itself – its physical properties, and in many cases its sheer aesthetic appeal. After all, I am arguing that art history is a separate discipline from history – the visual is then its primary material, the starting point for any kind of historical enquiry. Although it is important to be able to articulate the appearance of a work of art, to describe and analyse the visual using words is not an end in itself. And making this kind of visual analysis is not always as easy as it sounds. Art history has its own vocabulary, or taxonomic system, that enables us to speak precisely about the objects we see in front of us, as can be appreciated from the glossary at the end of this book. But the ability to discuss or analyse a work of art, even using a sophisticated taxonomic system, is not art history. Certainly, it is the act of accurately describing a work, and this process may be intertwined with the practice of connoisseurship, but this satisfaction with articulating what is in front of us remains largely the preserve of art appreciation. If we compare this practice to the study of English literature, for instance, the point becomes clearer. We would neither consider reading out the text of King Lear, nor a synopsis of the plot of the play, the definitive analysis of this work by Shakespeare. It may be that these processes are a necessary part of the analysis, but they are not an end in themselves. Similarly, we should not accept the description of an artwork as the end of the process of study. UnderstandingArts Formal Analysis Performing in ART Elements of Art The elements of art are the building blocks used by artists to create a work of art. Line is a mark with greater length than width. Lines can be horizontal, vertical, or diagonal; straight or curved; thick or thin. Shape is a closed line. Shapes can be geometric, like squares and circles; or organic, like free-form or natural shapes. Shapes are flat and can express length and width. Forms are three-dimensional shapes expressing length, width, and depth. Balls, cylinders, boxes, and pyramids are forms. Space is the area between and around objects. The space around objects is often called negative space; negative space has shape. Space can also refer to the feeling of depth. Real space is three-dimensional; in visual art, when we create the feeling or illusion of depth, we call it space. Color is light reflected off of objects. Color has three main characteristics: hue (the name of the color, such as red, green, blue, etc.), value (how light or dark it is), and intensity (how bright or dull it is). • White is pure light; black is the absence of light. • Primary colors are the only true colors (red, blue, and yellow). All other colors are mixes of primary colors. • Secondary colors are two primary colors mixed together (green, orange, violet). • Intermediate colors, sometimes called tertiary colors, are made by mixing a primary and secondary color together. Some examples of intermediate colors are yellow green, blue green, and blue violet. • Complementary colors are located directly across from each other on the color wheel (an arrangement of colors along a circular diagram to show how they are related to one another). Complementary pairs contrast because they share no common colors. For example, red and green are complements, because green is made of blue and yellow. When complementary colors are mixed together, they neutralize each other to make brown. Texture is the surface quality that can be seen and felt. Textures can be rough or smooth, soft or hard. Textures do not always feel the way they look; for example, a drawing of a porcupine may look prickly, but if you touch the drawing, the paper is still smooth. ;ZkYWj_ed ;ZkYWj_ed J^[@$FWkb=[jjoCki[kc J^[@$FWkb=[jjoCki[kc Wjj^[=[jjo9[dj[h © 2011 J. Paul Getty Trust point ž(&''@$FWkb=[jjoJhkij 169 UnderstandingArts Formal Analysis Performing in ART Principles of Design The principles of design describe the ways that artists use the elements of art in a work of art. Balance is the distribution of the visual weight of objects, colors, texture, and space. If the design was a scale, these elements should be balanced to make a design feel stable. In symmetrical balance, the elements used on one side of the design are similar to those on the other side; in asymmetrical balance, the sides are different but still look balanced. In radial balance, the elements are arranged around a central point and may be similar. Emphasis is the part of the design that catches the viewer’s attention. Usually the artist will make one area stand out by contrasting it with other areas. The area could be different in size, color, texture, shape, etc. Movement is the path the viewer’s eye takes through the work of art, often to focal areas. Such movement can be directed along lines, edges, shape, and color within the work of art. Pattern is the repeating of an object or symbol all over the work of art. Repetition works with pattern to make the work of art seem active. The repetition of elements of design creates unity within the work of art. Proportion is the feeling of unity created when all parts (sizes, amounts, or number) relate well with each other. When drawing the human figure, proportion can refer to the size of the head compared to the rest of the body. Rhythm is created when one or more elements of design are used repeatedly to create a feeling of organized movement. Rhythm creates a mood like music or dancing. To keep rhythm exciting and active, variety is essential. Variety is the use of several elements of design to hold the viewer’s attention and to guide the viewer’s eye through and around the work of art. Unity is the feeling of harmony between all parts of the work of art, which creates a sense of completeness. ;ZkYWj_ed ;ZkYWj_ed J^[@$FWkb=[jjoCki[kc J^[@$FWkb=[jjoCki[kc Wjj^[=[jjo9[dj[h © 2011 J. Paul Getty Trust point ž(&''@$FWkb=[jjoJhkij 171 Theme 3: Places Art Vocabulary background—the part of a scene that appears most distant; what is behind the foreground and middle ground canvas—a piece of cloth used for a painting decorative arts—high-quality objects that are both functional and decorative color—how the eye sees light reflected off objects drawing—a picture made with pen, pencil, charcoal, or chalk composition—how things are placed in a work of art cool colors—colors, such as blue, green, and white, associated with the sky, water, ice, and cooler temperatures foreground—the part of a scene that appears closest; what is in front of the middle ground and background © 2012 J. Paul Getty Trust LANGUAGE THROUGH ART 1 line—a mark that is longer than it is wide paintbrush—a tool used to paint man-made—made by people medium—the form of a work of art, such as a drawing, painting, or photograph painting—a picture made by applying paint to a piece of wood or cloth middle ground—the middle distance; what is between the foreground and background photograph—an image captured with a camera natural—not made by people 2 LANGUAGE THROUGH ART © 2012 J. Paul Getty Trust Art Vocabulary portrait—a picture of a person or group of people still life—a type of art that has natural things (such as flowers, vegetables, or fruits) and man-made things (such as baskets, bottles, or dishes) placed together pose—the position of a body texture—how an object feels to the touch warm colors—colors, such as red, orange, and yellow, associated with fire, heat, the sun, and warmer temperatures sketchbook—a blank book that an artist draws in © 2012 J. Paul Getty Trust LANGUAGE THROUGH ART 3 IMAGE CREDITS (all works are in the collection of the J. Paul Getty Museum, unless otherwise noted): (p. 75) The Entry of the Animals into Noah’s Ark, Jan Brueghel the Elder, Flemish, 1613. Oil on panel, 92.pb.82; The Rest on the Flight into Egypt with St. John the Baptist, Fra Bartolommeo, Italian, Florence, about 1509. Oil on panel, 96.pb.15; Still Life with Flowers and Fruit, Claude Monet, French, 1869. Oil on canvas, 83.pa.215; Bed (Lit à la Turque), attributed to Jean-Baptiste Tilliard, French, Paris, about 1750–60. Two-toned gilded beechwood; modern silk upholstery, 86.da.535; Chandelier, Gérard-Jean Galle, French, Paris, about 1818–19. Gilt bronze, enameled metal, glass, 73.dh.76; Paneling, Unknown artist, French, Paris, about 1719. Painted and gilded oak; modern plaster plaque, 97.dh.2; Taddeo Copying Raphael’s Frescoes in the Loggia of Villa Farnesina (detail), Federico Zuccaro, Italian, about 1595. Pen and brown ink, brush with brown wash, over black chalk and touches of red chalk, 99.ga.6.13; The Entry of the Animals into Noah’s Ark, Jan Brueghel the Elder, Flemish, 1613. Oil on panel, 92.pb.82. (p. 76) View of the Grand Canal and the Dogana (detail), Bernardo Bellotto, Italian, Venice, about 1740. Oil on canvas, 91.pa.73; Oval Basin, attributed to Bernard Palissy, French, Paris, about 1550. Lead-glazed earthenware, 88.de.63; Still Life: Tea Set (detail), Jean-Étienne Liotard, Swiss, Geneva, about 1781–83. Oil on canvas mounted on board, 84.pa.57; The Entry of the Animals into Noah’s Ark, Jan Brueghel the Elder, Flemish, 1613. Oil on panel, 92.pb.82; Still Life with Lemons, Oranges and a Pomegranate (detail), Jacob van Hulsdonck, Dutch, about 1620–40. Oil on panel, 86.pb.538; Kitchen Still Life with a Maid and Young Boy (detail), Frans Snyders and Jan Boeckhorst, Flemish, about 1650. Oil on canvas, 78.pa.207; Still Life with Flowers and Fruit (detail), Claude Monet, French, 1869. Oil on canvas, 83.pa.215; The Painter in His Studio (detail), Pietro Longhi, Italian, about 1741–44. Oil on canvas, 2011.20. Purchased in part with funds realized from the sale of paintings donated by Burton Fredericksen and William Garred; Still Life with Fruit and Decanter, Roger Fenton, British, London, 1860. Albumen print, 85.xm.354.4. (p. 77) Portrait of Louis XIV, Workshop of Hyacinthe Rigaud, French, probably Paris, after 1701. Oil on canvas, 70.pa.1. Gift of J. Paul Getty; Portrait of a Nurse and Young Child, Unknown maker, American, about 1850. Hand-colored daguerreotype, 84.xt.172.4; Bust of Mary Seacole, Henry Weekes, British, 1859. Marble, 95.sa.82; Man with a Hoe, Jean-François Millet, French, Barbizon, 1860–62. Oil on canvas, 85.pa.114; Sketchbook II, João Glama-Ströberle, Italian, Rome, 1741. Getty Research Institute; Still Life with Lemons, Oranges and a Pomegranate, Jacob van Hulsdonck, Dutch, about 1620–40. Oil on panel, 86.pb.538; Still Life with Fruit and Decanter, Roger Fenton, British, London, 1860. Albumen print, 85.xm.354.4. 4 LANGUAGE THROUGH ART © 2012 J. Paul Getty Trust WRITING IN THE DISCIPLINES: ART HISTORY Producing an art history paper involves, for many students, a modification not only in their way of writing, but also in their way of seeing. This realization may cause a certain amount of anxiety at first, but you will likely find yourself more prepared than you realized. Remember that the visual arts are physical things; the elements that constitute them are designed to be understood, implicitly or explicitly, by your body. So should a moment of exasperation or despair strike you anywhere in the writing process, go back to what’s physical: the work of art itself — the canvas, the sculpture, the bell tower — and your body. Art exists for your eyes, for your senses, your brain and your heart. When in doubt, go back to the art, and look — quietly, thoroughly, and without any expectation or agenda — until you can’t see anything new, and then turn it upside down and look at it again. Write down everything, no matter how minor it may seem; your notes should be copious, and there’s no such thing as redundancy at this stage. Make sure you know what you think about the work before you read what anyone else has to say. THE ART HISTORY PAPER Introduction Art history introductions do not differ radically from history or comparative literature introductions. Mention which works you’ll be discussing, including the name of the artist, the title of the work (italicized; if the original title is not in English, you may include it in parentheses), the year(s) in which it was made, and, if you want to include illustrations, the figure number. For example: Degas’s Ballet Rehearsal on Stage (Répétition sur la scène, 1874; fig.1). For a ten-page paper, two or three works are usually plenty. Your thesis statement might be the answer to a question or a statement of your argument. In either case, make sure that your thesis suits the assignment and that it will support a coherent argument or examination. Remember that, depending on the particular assignment, your thesis may be fairly broad (simply stating that Van Gogh and Gauguin may both be considered Post-Impressionists, for instance) or argumentative (stating that Van Gogh’s work directly influenced Gauguin). In the latter case, you may want to outline briefly in the introduction what you will be using for evidence to support this argument, and how you intend to interpret this evidence. N.B. You do not need to cite the works of art themselves in your bibliography. The body of the paper: types of discussions In the body of your paper, each paragraph should deal with a specific topic and/or component of your argument. Some common discussions (though NOT necessarily paragraph topics!) are as follows: • A straightforward, detailed description of the work(s). Imagine you are describing the work to someone who has never seen it, or to someone who is blind. A thorough description not only lets your reader know what there is to be seen in the work, but also which elements you feel are most significant. For this reason, you may want to emphasize certain formal elements over others, drawing your reader’s particular attention to color, composition, or handling, if these elements will later constitute an especially salient part of your argument. • A formal analysis. In art history, ‘formal’ refers to form — that is, how the work looks, how it was made, what it’s made of, etc. This includes, but is not necessarily limited to: color, line, composition, light, handling (also known as brush stroke or facture), scale, proportion, balance, rhythm, and various techniques which may be present, such as chiaroscuro, structural color, pentimento, etc. In this portion of your paper you examine how the work manages to say what it does, how composition or lighting helps you to understand certain portions of its meaning. Also, if the work formally recalls another work (Manet’s Olympia, for example, makes reference to Titian’s Venus of Urbino), you most likely want to mention this in your formal discussion. • An historical analysis. Art history scholarship is, naturally, a combination of historical and aesthetic considerations. In an historical analysis you consider such questions as: where was the work made? For whom was it made? At which point in the artist’s life and/or career was it made? What was happening politically, socially, culturally, intellectually, when the work was made? In essence, you situate the work in its time; make sure you have done fairly extensive historical research before beginning this section, so that you can determine which or how much historical background is relevant to your topic or argument. Though it may be tempting to include excessive historical information in your paper (because it’s usually interesting and fills up your word count), try to avoid this! You won’t be fooling anyone, and you’ll weaken your own argument. • Iconograhical and iconological analysis. These two terms were made famous by the art historian Erwin Panofsky; even if you don’t make specific reference to him in your paper, you will likely be employing his methods to some extent. First, to distinguish the two terms: • Iconography refers to the recognizable symbols in a work, and how those disparate symbols add up to a scene with a comprehensible meaning. For example: nude woman + apple + snake = temptation of Eve. Iconography may also, in some circumstances, refer to the representation of a given subject (the temptation of Eve) throughout history. • Iconology is essentially what the iconography means; it is the process of dismantling the ‘sign’ of art into its signifying components. In other words, it examines the relationship between form and content; it attempts to determine and describe how and why the work manages to say what it does. An iconological analysis of a Temptation of Eve would determine what that particular version of the scene conveys or implies. (Keep in mind that these implications may or may not have been conscious on the part of the artist or patron.) Consider both the original function of the work and how this may differ from its current function; a work that was at the time of its production considered dangerous and radical may now be regarded as the standard of tradition and artistic conservatism. • Theory and criticism. Art theory and criticism refers to reading a work or an artist through a certain intellectual lens, e.g. a psychoanalytic reading of Munch, or a feminist reading of Ingres’ La Grande Odalisque. Another kind of theoretical discussion might examine the effect of a non-artistic phenomenon on art, eg. Jackson Pollock’s work in the context of a post-war American need to create a culture of masculinity and superiority (an example drawn from http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/arthistory.html). Theory is exciting, useful, volatile, and tricky; if you are ‘doing theory’ yourself, make sure that your theories are grounded in the art. If the theoretical approach doesn’t fit the work, it will be obvious. If you want someone else’s theory to lend weight or depth to your own observations, remember: you don’t need to accept every theory you read! If it sounds ridiculous, it very well may be. If you do accept the theory, however, you may use that critic’s words to support your own interpretations. (Remember to cite their influence on your argument; plagiarism is not tolerated at AUP, nor anywhere else.) If you disagree with a critic and want to draw him or her into a polemic, make sure that this will actually advance your own argument. In conclusion ... As you engage with the art in any or all of the ways detailed above, remember to always keep your thesis statement in mind. After you draw attention to a particular feature of the work, whether formal or historical, ask yourself, “So what?” Explain what that feature means in the context of your argument. And of course: when in doubt, go back to the work of art! Enjoy yourself, be honest, thoughtful, rigorous, and unpretentious. Good luck! Now go write! :-) — Madeleine LaRue, Art History ’09 P.S. Further (and very helpful resources): [hyperlink to handout] AUP’s “Writing Art History Papers” handout http://www.skidmore.edu/academics/arthistory/paperpg/index.html General tips on art history research, paper formatting, etc. http://www.wesleyan.edu/writing/workshop/departments/arha.html Includes “Questions to ask of Painting/Sculpture/Architecture,” and great information on how to organize your paper http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/arthistory.html Good overview on art history writing, plus more on iconography/iconology, patronage study, theory & criticism, and citation. Includes a bibliography of even more resources! T he Nesbitt-Johnston W riting C enter H amilton College C linton, N Y 13323 W riting a Formal A nalysis in A rt H istory The goal of a formal analysis is to explain how the formal elements of a work of art affect the representation of the subject matter and expressive content. The emphasis should be on analyzing the formal elements²not interpreting the artwork. That said, an understanding of the meaning of the work is the final goal of any formal analysis. Getting Started: It may be helpful to start by looking at the work of art and identifying the visual elements. How are they arranged? Is the work balanced? Is there a focal point? Is there a sense of movement? You might consider why the artist chose to include certain elements and how each element contributes to your response to the work. Formal elements of painting: ‚ picture plane ‚ composition ‚ color - hue - value - saturation - intensity - warm/cool - primary/secondary - complementary ‚ line - contour lines - lines of direction or movement ‚ shape ‚ contrast ‚ texture ‚ technique [linear vs. painterly] ‚ illusionistic space T he T hesis Statement: Your thesis should provide a framework for your analysis and suggest your interpretation of the work. A thesis statement does not necessarily involve a statement of argument or original insight, but it should let the reader know how WKHDUWLVW¶VIRUPDOFKRLFHVDIIHFWWKHYLHZHU Example of an effective thesis statement: In Club Night, George Bellows uses high contrast, shape, and line to capture the energy of the athletes and provide an evocative and sensational interpretation of the club scene. Formal elements of sculpture: ‚ scale ‚ in-the-round vs. relief ‚ directionality ‚ shape [organic vs. geometric] ‚ open form /closed form [silhouette] ‚ material ‚ texture ‚ volume ‚ light and shadow ‚ color ‚ technique [additive vs. subtractive] T he A nalysis: Although description is an important part of a formal analysis, description is not enough on its own. You must introduce and contextualize your descriptions of the formal elements of the work so the reader understands how each HOHPHQWLQIOXHQFHVWKHZRUN¶VRYHUDOO effect on the viewer. You may include your emotional responses to a work, but you must explain them and back them up with evidence, the formal elements that elicit your emotional response (Barnet, 34). Example of effective analysis: %HOORZV WUDFHV WKH ER[HUV¶ OLPEV ZLWK GLVWLQFW DUFLQJ OLQHV WKDW define the curvature of each muscle and give the viewer a sense of the energy in their bodies. These long brushstrokes convey stability and fluidity, whereas the short brushstrokes in the bo[HUV¶ XSSHU ERGLHV VXJJHVW DQ LPPHQVH DFFXPXODWLRQ RI WHQVLRQ OLNH D FRLOHG VSULQJ Additionally, strong diagonal lines in the boxers create a sense of lunging, dynamic movement. Note: All description and analysis should relate to your thesis. Suggested Structure for a Formal A nalysis: Introduction: The introduction should identify the title of the work of art, the name of the artist, and the date when it was created. You may also indicate the medium, the period in which it was created and its current location. While biographical information about the artist is not necessary, if you know VRPHWKLQJ DERXW WKH DUWLVW¶V LQWHUHVWV RU WKH LQWHUHVWV RI WKH SHULRG WKDW PD\ have influenced this work, you may include it here. Typically, your introduction should conclude with your thesis statement, which will suggest the meaning or content of the work in order to introduce the formal elements you have chosen to analyze. Body/Development of A nalysis: In the most straightforward organization, each element you discuss in your paper should be analyzed in its own paragraph. You may find it helpful to begin each paragraph with a topic sentence about the significance of the element and end with a concluding statement. You may also organize your analyses of the formal elements according to major figures, a focal point, or other significant effects in the composition. Conclusion: The conclusion may summarize your findings and relate back to the theme presented in your introduction; however, you should avoid simply repeating what you offered in the introduction. You may also include any new ideas, insights, or understandings you gained about the work through the analysis process. Wor k Referenced: Barnet, Sylvan. A Short Guide to Writing About Art . Eighth Edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2008. ... For more information about writing a formal analysis, see the handout titled ³:ULWLQJ DQ $UW History Paper,´ on the Writing Center Web site, RU 6\OYDQ %DUQHW¶V A Short Guide to Writing About Art, Eighth Edition. This handout is based on handouts provided by Prof. Deborah Pokinski and compiled by Hannah =XFNHU¶ HZ would like to thank Prof. Sharon Williams for her feedback and assistance. 2/14 Copyright © 2014 The Trustees of Hamilton College. All rights reserved. Art & Art History: Formal Analysis & Comparative Analysis Although a work of art can be analyzed on multiple levels and in multiple contexts, several key details are almost always addressed in formal analyses and comparative analyses. This handout provides helpful questions to ask about a piece of art in order to direct attention to the most salient details in the oftenoverwhelming amount of information any one work possesses. These questions should be considered, but only addressed in the final analysis if they are relevant details to the overall meaning and impact of the work. Formal Analysis: A formal analysis is quite simply an analysis of the forms utilized in the work of art. It is a close inspection of the artist’s use of aspects such as color, shape, line, mass, and space. The formal analysis moves beyond simple description in that it connects the elements of the work to the effects they have on the viewer. Considering this connection enables the writer to discuss the meaning of the work. Begin with a brief but thorough description of the work. • • • • What is the title? Who is the artist? What year was it created? What is the physical condition of the work? Is it dirty, clean, restored? Include historical information. • • • • What country or region was it made in? Does it belong to a particular movement, age, or school of thought? Does it have an influential patron? Is this work typical or atypical of its period, style, or artist? What artistic influences can be seen in the artist’s work? Analyze the work itself. How does the art “work?” That is, what details in the piece are used to convey its meaning? Consider how these details function by themselves and together as a whole. Architecture and Space: • • • • • What is the form of the structure, and what is the function? How do form and function complement each other? Is the structure useful? How do people move throughout the structure? Are there significant accommodations or restrictions to this movement? Is the building or space structurally sound, given its location, design, and materials? What role does daylight play? Is the inside bright or somber? Do the exterior and interior complement each other? Is either adorned with ornamentation in the form of statuary, color, or paintings? Paintings, Drawings, and Etchings: • • • • • • • • • How does the artist use color? Are there stark contrasts or is it blended? Are there symbolic meanings behind the color choices? How does the artist use line? Are forms linearly arranged or disordered? Are there geometric shapes implied by the forms in the piece? Are the forms in the piece realistic or abstract? Are they fully one style or do they mix the two? Sculpture and 3-D Pieces: What is the medium of the piece, and how does it affect the viewer’s impression? (For example, stone gives a sense of permanence and strength.) What was the purpose of this piece? In what setting was it originally placed? Is the piece unusually large or small? Is the piece representational or abstract? Is the artist exploring forms or space within forms? Is the piece a portrait of a person? What type of impression does it give of the subject? Is the pose strong or relaxed? Are there objects with the person? Comparative Analysis: The comparative analysis starts with a formal analysis of two or more individual pieces, and then adds another level of discussion that evaluates relevant similarities and differences between the pieces. This added level is useful in revealing details about trends within historical periods, regional similarities, or growth of an individual artist over time. • In describing the individual pieces, keep to the same conventions used when doing an individual formal analysis. • Ask yourself why this comparison is relevant. There is a wealth of information in why your professor has asked for a comparison of two particular pieces. • Depending on the length and complexity of comparison, one of the two following basic structures will be more appropriate: • “Lumping” involves discussing all details of one work, and then all details of the second work. This method is preferred in lengthy or broad comparisons to avoid zipping back and forth between the works too quickly. Remember to compare the two works by referring back to the first work when discussing the second. This will ensure that you don’t simply write two descriptions. • “Splitting” involves discussing a particular point in both works before moving on to another point. This method is preferred in comparisons dealing with fine details instead of a broader look at each work as a whole. Remember to discuss each point evenly to maintain a clear, parallel structure. Undergraduate Writing Center | The University of Texas at Austin | http://uwc.utexas.edu | FAC 211 | 512.471.6222 Handout created by Zach Garcia, June 2006 | Last revised by Tamara Smith, March 2009 SMC AH2 Spring 2017 WEEK 1 : Introductions Formalism and Content This is an overview of some important terms related to writing about and discussing art. The term!formalism!comes!from critical art theory, which resembles “aesthetics discussion.” Content is one aspect of the artwork. This will also touch on point of view (POV), which is an important factor as we look at and discuss artworks. Viewing Art Personal Level When we are looking at art, when we find or “run into” an artwork or exhibition, we typically have an initial response or impression. This response to what we see (or hear, etc.) is formed by a lifetime of knowledge and experience and the culture and time in which we live. The expression “Beauty lies in the eye of the beholder” gets at the subjective and personal nature of perception —and of the “first impression,” in particular. There’s nothing wrong with one’s first impression or response—it is, after all, a personal response. It’s your point of view. Formal Analysis Formal analysis is a close and analytical way of looking at and discussing a work of art. It includes!describing the work in terms of various design elements, such as color, shape, texture, line, lighting, mass, and space, as well as a discussion of how those elements have been used (the design principles). Formal analysis moves beyond!description of the artwork and its content by linking the elements of the work to the effects that they have on the viewer. This is discussion of the artwork from the point of view of “here is the artwork, and this is what I see and can make sense of . . .” Formal analysis uses art terminology to!consider the effects of an artwork the viewer (you), and it’s a process that enables us to think about and consider the overall meaning of the artwork. NOTE: Formal analysis does not use or require research. The more informed you are, the deeper your analysis will!go—but that depth depends on experience and knowledge, not on research. Content Content is simply the the subject matter of an artwork. It’s the images you see—like the trees in a painting of a forest, or the town, the sky, and the moon in Van Gogh’s Starry Night. Content can play a role in formal analysis, but the content aspect is less important than the “artwork” aspect. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original Revised material. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously Formalism, Content, and Context. Authored by: Kurt Madison. Located at: http://www.spokanefalls.edu/. Project: Kaleidoscope. License: CC BY: Attribution 1 SMC AH2 Spring 2017 WEEK 1 : Introductions Artistic Elements Definitions and Qualities of Line Essentially, when you put two or more points together you create a line. A line can be lyrically defined as a point in motion. There are many different types of lines, all characterized by their length being greater than their width. Lines can be static or dynamic depending on how the artist chooses to use them. They help determine the motion, direction and energy in a work of art. We see line all around us in our daily lives; telephone wires, tree branches, jet contrails and winding roads are just a few examples.! Look at the photograph below to see how line is part of natural and constructed environments. Photo by!NASA. CC BY-NC In this image of a lightning storm we can see many different lines. Certainly the jagged, meandering lines of the lightning itself dominate the image, followed by the straight lines of the light standards, the pillars holding up the overpass on the right and the guard rails attached to its side. There are more subtle lines too, like the gently arced line at the top of the image and the shadows cast by the poles and the standing figure in the middle.! Lines are even implied by falling water droplets in the foreground. 2 SMC AH2 Spring 2017 WEEK 1 : Introductions The Nazca lines!in the arid coastal plains of Peru date to nearly 500 BCE were scratched into the rocky soil, depicting animals on an incredible scale, so large that they are best viewed from the air. Let’s look at how the different kinds of line are made. Diego Velazquez’s Las Meninas!from 1656, ostensibly a portrait of the Infanta Margarita, the daughter of King Philip IV and Queen Mariana of Spain, offers a sumptuous amount of artistic genius; its shear size (almost ten feet square), painterly style of naturalism, lighting effects, and the enigmatic figures placed throughout the canvas–including the artist himself –is one of the great paintings in western art history. Let’s examine it (below) to uncover how Velazquez uses basic elements and principles of art to achieve such a masterpiece. Diego Velazquez, Las Meninas, 1656, oil on canvas, 125.2” x 108.7”. Prado, Madrid.!CC BY-SA 3 SMC AH2 Spring 2017 WEEK 1 : Introductions Actual lines are those that are physically present. The edge of the wooden stretcher bar at the left of Las Meninas!is an actual line, as are the picture frames in the background and the linear decorative elements on some of the figures’ dresses. How many other actual lines can you find in the painting? Implied lines are those created by visually connecting two or more areas together. The space between the Infanta Margarita—the blonde central figure in the composition—and the meninas, or maids of honor, to the left and right of her, are implied lines. Both set up a diagonal relationship that implies movement. By visually connecting the space between the heads of all the figures in the painting we have a sense of jagged motion that keeps the lower part of the composition in motion, balanced against the darker, more static upper areas of the painting. Implied lines can also be created when two areas of different colors or tones come together. Can you identify more implied lines in the painting? Where? Implied lines are found in threedimensional artworks, too. The sculpture of the Laocoon below, a figure from Greek and Roman mythology, is, along with his sons, being strangled by sea snakes sent by the goddess Athena as wrath against his warnings to the Trojans not to accept the Trojan horse. The sculpture sets implied lines in motion as the figures writhe in agony against the snakes. Laocoon Group, Roman copy of Greek original, Vatican Museum, Rome. Photo by Marie-Lan Nguyen. CC BY-SA Straight or classic lines provide structure to a composition. They can be oriented to the horizontal, vertical, or diagonal axis of a surface. Straight lines are by nature visually stable, while still giving direction to a composition. In!Las Meninas, you can see them in the canvas supports on the left, the wall supports and doorways on the right, and in the background in matrices on the wall spaces between the framed pictures. Moreover, the small horizontal lines created in the stair edges in the background help anchor the entire visual design of the painting. 4 SMC AH2 Spring 2017 WEEK 1 : Introductions Straight lines, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison. CC BY Expressive lines are curved, adding an organic, more dynamic character to a work of art. Expressive lines are often rounded and follow undetermined paths. In Las Meninas you can see them in the aprons on the girls’ dresses and in the dog’s folded hind leg and coat pattern. Look again at the Laocoon to see expressive lines in the figures’ flailing limbs and the sinuous form of the snakes. Indeed, the sculpture seems to be made up of nothing but expressive lines, shapes and forms. 5 SMC AH2 Spring 2017 WEEK 1 : Introductions Organic lines, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison. CC BY There are other kinds of line that encompass the characteristics of those above yet, taken together, help create additional artistic elements and richer, more varied compositions. Refer to the images and examples below to become familiar with these types of line. 6 SMC AH2 Spring 2017 WEEK 1 : Introductions Outline, or contour line is the simplest of these. They create a path around the edge of a shape. In fact, outlines define shapes. Outline, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison. CC BY Cross contour lines follow paths across a shape to delineate differences in surface features. They give flat shapes a sense of form (the illusion of three dimensions), and can also be used to create shading. Cross Contour, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison. CC BY 7 SMC AH2 Spring 2017 WEEK 1 : Introductions Hatch lines are repeated at short intervals in generally one direction. They give shading and visual texture to the surface of an object. Hatch, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison. CC BY Crosshatch lines provide additional tone and texture. They can be oriented in any direction. Multiple layers of crosshatch lines can give rich and varied shading to objects by manipulating the pressure of the drawing tool to create a large range of values. Crosshatch, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison. CC BY 8 SMC AH2 Spring 2017 WEEK 1 : Introductions Line quality is that sense of character embedded in the way a line presents itself. Certain lines have qualities that distinguish them from others. Hard-edged, jagged lines have a staccato visual movement while organic, flowing lines create a more comfortable feeling. Meandering lines can be either geometric or expressive, and you can see in the examples how their indeterminate paths animate a surface to different degrees. A Line, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison. CC BY Although line as a visual element generally plays a supporting role in visual art, there are wonderful examples in which line carries a strong cultural significance as the primary subject matter. Space Space is the empty area surrounding real or implied objects. Humans categorize space: there is outer space, that limitless void we enter beyond our sky; inner space, which resides in people’s minds and imaginations, and personal space, the important but intangible area that surrounds each individual and which is violated if someone else gets too close. Pictorial space is flat, and the digital realm resides in cyberspace. Art responds to all of these kinds of space. Clearly artists are as concerned with space in their works as they are with, say, color or form. There are many ways for the artist to present ideas of space. Remember that many cultures traditionally use pictorial space as a window to view realistic subject matter through, and through 9 SMC AH2 Spring 2017 WEEK 1 : Introductions the subject matter they present ideas, narratives and symbolic content. The innovation of linear perspective, an implied geometric pictorial construct dating from fifteenth-century Europe, affords us the accurate illusion of three-dimensional space on a flat surface, and appears to recede into the distance through the use of a horizon line and vanishing points. See how perspective is set up in the schematic examples below: One Point Perspective, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison. CC BY One-point perspective occurs when the receding lines appear to converge at a single point on the horizon and used when the flat front of an object is facing the viewer. Note: Perspective can be used to show the relative size and recession into space of any object, but is most effective with hard-edged three-dimensional objects such as buildings. A classic Renaissance artwork using one point perspective is Leonardo da Vinci’s The Last Supper!from 1498. Da Vinci composes the work by locating the vanishing point directly behind the head of Christ, thus drawing the viewer’s attention to the center. His arms mirror the receding wall lines, and, if we follow them as lines, would converge at the same vanishing point. 10 SMC AH2 Spring 2017 WEEK 1 : Introductions Leonardo da Vinci, The Last Supper, 1498. Fresco. Santa Maria della Grazie. Work!is in the public domain. Two-point perspective occurs when the vertical edge of a cube is facing the viewer, exposing two sides that recede into the distance, one to each vanishing point. Two Point Perspective, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison. CC BY 11 SMC AH2 Spring 2017 WEEK 1 : Introductions View Gustave Caillebotte’s Paris Street, Rainy Weather!from 1877 to see how two-point perspective is used to give an accurate view to an urban scene.! The artist’s composition, however, is more complex than just his use of perspective. The figures are deliberately placed to direct the viewer’s eye from the front right of the picture to the building’s front edge on the left, which, like a ship’s bow, acts as a cleaver to plunge both sides toward the horizon. In the midst of this visual recession a lamp post stands firmly in the middle to arrest our gaze from going right out the back of the painting. Caillebotte includes the little metal arm at the top right of the post to direct us again along a horizontal path, now keeping us from traveling off the top of the canvas. As relatively spare as the left side of the work is, the artist crams the right side with hard-edged and organic shapes and forms in a complex play of positive and negative space. Three-point perspective is used when an artist wants to project a “bird’s-eye view”, that is, when the projection lines recede to two points on the horizon and a third either far above or below the horizon line. In this case the parallel lines that make up the sides of an object are not parallel to the edge of the ground the artist is working on (paper, canvas, etc). Three-point perspective (with vanishing points above and below the horizon line shown at the same time). Design by Shazz, CC BY 12 SMC AH2 Spring 2017 WEEK 1 : Introductions The perspective system is a cultural convention well suited to a traditional western European idea of the “truth,” that is, an accurate, clear rendition of observed reality. Even after the invention of linear perspective, many cultures traditionally use a flatter pictorial space, relying on overlapped shapes or size differences in forms to indicate this same truth of observation. Examine the miniature painting of the Third Court of the Topkapi Palace!from fourteenthcentury Turkey to contrast its pictorial space with that of linear perspective. It’s composed from a number of different vantage points (as opposed to vanishing points), all very flat to the picture plane. While the overall image is seen from above, the figures and trees appear as cutouts, seeming to float in mid air. Notice the towers on the far left and right are sideways to the picture plane. As “incorrect” as it looks, the painting gives a detailed description of the landscape and structures on the palace grounds. Third Court of the Topkapi Palace, from the Hunername, 1548. Ottoman miniature painting, Topkapi Museum, Istanbul. CC BY-SA 13 SMC AH2 Spring 2017 WEEK 1 : Introductions Color Color is the most complex artistic element because of the combinations and variations inherent in its use. !Humans respond to color combinations differently, and artists study and use color in part to give desired direction to their work. Color is fundamental to many forms of art. Its relevance, use and function in a given work depend on the medium of that work. While some concepts dealing with color are broadly applicable across media, others are not. The full spectrum of colors is contained in white light. Humans perceive colors from the light reflected off objects. A red object, for example, looks red because it reflects the red part of the spectrum. It would be a different color under a different light. Color theory first appeared in the 17th century when English mathematician and scientist Sir Isaac Newton discovered that white light could be divided into a spectrum by passing it through a prism. The study of color in art and design often starts with color theory. Color theory splits up colors into three categories: primary, secondary, and tertiary. The basic tool used is a color wheel, developed by Isaac Newton in 1666. A more complex model known as the color tree, created by Albert Munsell, shows the spectrum made up of sets of tints and shades on connected planes. There are a number of approaches to organizing colors into meaningful relationships. Most systems differ in structure only. Traditional Model Traditional color theory is a qualitative attempt to organize colors and their relationships. It is based on Newton’s color wheel, and continues to be the most common system used by artists. Blue Yellow Red Color Wheel. Released under the GNU Free Documentation License 14 SMC AH2 Spring 2017 WEEK 1 : Introductions Traditional color theory uses the same principles as subtractive color mixing (see below) but prefers different primary colors. • • • • The primary colors are red, blue, and yellow. You find them equidistant from each other on the color wheel. These are the “elemental” colors; not produced by mixing any other colors, and all other colors are derived from some combination of these three. The secondary colors are orange (mix of red and yellow), green (mix of blue and yellow), and violet (mix of blue and red). The tertiary colors are obtained by mixing one primary color and one secondary color. Depending on amount of color used, different hues can be obtained such as red-orange or yellow-green. Neutral colors (browns and grays) can be mixed using the three primary colors together. White and black lie outside of these categories. They are used to lighten or darken a color. A lighter color (made by adding white to it) is called a tint, while a darker color (made by adding black) is called a shade. Color Interactions Beyond creating a mixing hierarchy, color theory also provides tools for understanding how colors work together. Monochrome The simplest color interaction is monochrome. This is the use of variations of a single hue. The advantage of using a monochromatic color scheme is that you get a high level of unity throughout the artwork because all the tones relate to one another. See this in Mark Tansey’s Derrida Queries de Man!from 1990. Analogous Color Analogous colors are similar to one another. As their name implies, analogous colors can be found next to one another on any 12-part color wheel: Analogous Color, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison. CC BY 15 SMC AH2 Spring 2017 WEEK 1 : Introductions You can see the effect of analogous colors in Paul Cezanne’s oil painting Auvers Panoromic View Color Temperature Colors are perceived to have temperatures associated with them. The color wheel is divided into warm and cool colors. Warm colors range from yellow to red, while cool colors range from yellow-green to violet.! You can achieve complex results using just a few colors when you pair them in warm and cool sets. Warm cool color, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison. CC BY Complementary Colors Complementary colors are found directly opposite one another on a color wheel. Here are some examples: • • • purple and yellow green and red orange and blue Complementary Color, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison. CC BY Blue and orange are complements. When placed near each other, complements create a visual tension. This color scheme is desirable when a dramatic effect is needed using only two colors. The painting Untitled!by Keith Haring is an example. You can click the painting to create a larger image. 16 SMC AH2 Spring 2017 WEEK 1 : Introductions Value Value is the relative lightness or darkness of a shape in relation to another. The value scale, bounded on one end by pure white and on the other by black, and in between a series of progressively darker shades of grey, gives an artist the tools to make these transformations. The value scale below shows the standard variations in tones. Values near the lighter end of the spectrum are termed high-keyed, those on the darker end are low-keyed. Value Scale, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison, CC BY In two dimensions, the use of value gives a shape the illusion of mass and lends an entire composition a sense of light and shadow. The two examples below show the effect value has on changing a shape to a form. 2D Form, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison, CC BY 3D Form, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison, CC BY 17 SMC AH2 Spring 2017 WEEK 1 : Introductions !This same technique brings to life what begins as a simple line drawing of a young man’s head in Michelangelo’s Head of a Youth and a Right Hand!from 1508. Shading is created with line (refer to our discussion of line earlier in this module) or tones created with a pencil. Artists vary the tones by the amount of resistance they use between the pencil and the paper they’re drawing on. A drawing pencil’s leads vary in hardness, each one giving a different tone than another. Washes of ink or color create values determined by the amount of water the medium is dissolved into. The use of high contrast, placing lighter areas of value against much darker ones, creates a dramatic effect, while low contrast gives more subtle results. These differences in effect are evident in ‘Guiditta and Oloferne’ by the Italian painter Caravaggio, and Robert Adams’ photograph Untitled, Denver!from 1970-74. Caravaggio uses a high contrast palette to an already dramatic scene to increase the visual tension for the viewer, while Adams deliberately makes use of low contrast to underscore the drabness of the landscape surrounding the figure on the bicycle. Caravaggio, Guiditta Decapitates Oloferne, 1598, oil on canvas. National Gallery of Italian Art, Rome. This work is in the public domain 18 SMC AH2 Spring 2017 WEEK 1 : Introductions Balance All works of art possess some form of visual balance – a sense of weighted clarity created in a composition. The artist arranges balance to set the dynamics of a composition. A really good example is in the work!of Piet Mondrian, whose revolutionary paintings of the early twentieth!century used non-objective balance instead of realistic subject matter to generate the visual power in his work. In the examples below you can see that where the white rectangle is placed makes a big difference in how the entire picture plane is activated. Image by Christopher Gildow. Used with permission. The example on the top left is weighted toward the top, and the diagonal orientation of the white shape gives!the whole area a sense of movement. The top middle example is weighted more toward the bottom, but still maintains a sense that the white shape is floating. On the top right, the white shape is nearly off the picture plane altogether, leaving most of the remaining area visually empty. This arrangement works if you want to convey!a feeling of loftiness or simply direct the viewer’s eyes to the top of the composition. The lower left example is perhaps the least dynamic: the white shape is resting at the bottom, mimicking the horizontal bottom edge of the ground. The overall sense here is restful, heavy and without any dynamic character. The bottom middle composition is weighted decidedly toward the bottom right corner, but again, the diagonal orientation of the white shape leaves some sense of movement. Lastly, the lower right example places the white shape directly in the middle on a horizontal axis. This is visually the most stable, but lacks any sense of movement. Refer to these six diagrams when you are determining the visual weight of specific artworks. 19 SMC AH2 Spring 2017 WEEK 1 : Introductions There are three basic forms of visual balance: • • • Symmetrical Asymmetrical Radial Examples of Visual Balance.!Left: Symmetrical. Middle: Asymmetrical. Right: Radial.! Image by Christopher Gildow. Used with permission. Symmetrical balance is the most visually stable, and characterized by an exact—or nearly exact —compositional design on either (or both) sides of the horizontal or vertical axis of the picture plane. Symmetrical compositions are usually dominated by a central anchoring element. There are many examples of symmetry in the natural world that reflect an aesthetic dimension. The Moon Jellyfish fits this description; ghostly lit against a black background, but absolute symmetry in its design. Moon Jellyfish, (detail). Digital image by Luc Viator, licensed by Creative Commons 20 SMC AH2 Spring 2017 WEEK 1 : Introductions But symmetry’s inherent stability can sometimes preclude a static quality. View the Tibetan scroll painting!to see the implied movement of the central figure Vajrakilaya. The visual busyness of the shapes and patterns surrounding the figure are balanced by their compositional symmetry, and the wall of flame behind Vajrakilaya tilts to the right as the figure itself tilts to the left. Tibetan scroll paintings use the symmetry of the figure to symbolize their power and spiritual presence. Spiritual paintings from other cultures employ this same balance for similar reasons. Sano di Pietro’s ‘Madonna of Humility’, painted around 1440, is centrally positioned, holding the Christ child and forming a triangular design, her head the apex and her flowing gown making a broad base at the bottom of the picture. Their halos are visually reinforced with the heads of the angels and the arc of the frame. Sano di Peitro, Madonna of Humility, c.1440, tempera and tooled gold and silver on panel.! Brooklyn Museum, New York.!Image is in the public domain 21 SMC AH2 Spring 2017 WEEK 1 : Introductions The use of symmetry is evident in three-dimensional art, too. A famous example is the Gateway Arch in St. Louis, Missouri (below). Commemorating the westward expansion of the United States, its stainless steel frame rises over 600 feet into the air before gently curving back to the ground. Another example is Richard Serra’s Tilted Spheres !(also below). The four massive slabs of steel show a concentric symmetry and take on an organic dimension as they curve around each other, appearing to almost hover above the ground. Eero Saarinen, Gateway Arch, 1963-65, stainless steel, 630’ high. St. Louis, Missouri.! Image Licensed through Creative Commons Richard Serra, Tilted Spheres, 2002 – 04, Cor-ten steel, 14’ x 39’ x 22’. Pearson International Airport, Toronto, Canada.!Image Licensed through Creative Commons 22 SMC AH2 Spring 2017 WEEK 1 : Introductions Asymmetry uses compositional elements that are offset from each other, creating a visually unstable balance. Asymmetrical visual balance is the most dynamic because it creates a more complex design construction. A graphic poster from the 1930s shows how offset positioning and strong contrasts can increase the visual effect of the entire composition. Poster from the Library of Congress archives.!Image is in the public domain Scale and Proportion Scale and proportion show the relative size of one form in relation to another. Scalar relationships are often used to create illusions of depth on a two-dimensional surface, the larger form being in front of the smaller one. The scale of an object can provide a focal point or emphasis in an image. In Winslow Homer’s watercolor A Good Shot, Adirondacks!the deer is centered in the foreground and highlighted to assure its place of importance in the composition. In comparison, there is a small puff of white smoke from a rifle in the left center background, the only indicator of the hunter’s position. Click the image for a larger view. Scale and proportion are incremental in nature. Works of art don’t always rely on big differences in scale to make a strong visual impact. A good example of this is Michelangelo’s sculptural masterpiece Pieta!from 1499 (below). Here Mary cradles her dead son, the two figures forming a stable triangular composition. Michelangelo sculpts Mary to a slightly larger scale than the dead Christ to give the central figure more significance, both visually and psychologically. 23 SMC AH2 Spring 2017 WEEK 1 : Introductions Michelangelo’s Pieta, 1499, marble.!St. Peter’s Basilica, Rome. Licensed under GNU Free Documentation License!and Creative Commons When scale and proportion are greatly increased the results can be impressive, giving a work commanding space or fantastic implications. Rene Magritte’s painting Personal Values!constructs a room with objects whose proportions are so out of whack that it becomes an ironic play on how we view everyday items in our lives. American sculptor Claes Oldenburg and his wife Coosje van Bruggen create works of common objects at enormous scales. Their Stake Hitch!reaches a total height of more than!53 feet and links two floors of the Dallas Museum of Art. As big as it is, the work retains a comic and playful character, in part because of its gigantic size. 24 SMC AH2 Spring 2017 WEEK 1 : Introductions Emphasis Emphasis—the area of primary visual importance—can be attained in a number of ways. We’ve just seen how it can be a function of differences in scale. Emphasis can also be obtained by isolating an area or specific subject matter through its location or color, value and texture. Main emphasis in a composition is usually supported by areas of lesser importance, a hierarchy within an artwork that’s activated and sustained at different levels. Like other artistic principles, emphasis can be expanded to include the main idea contained in a work of art. Let’s look at the following work to explore this. We can clearly determine the figure in the white shirt as the main emphasis in Francisco de Goya’s painting The Third of May, 1808!below. Even though his location is left of center, a candle lantern in front of him acts as a spotlight, and his dramatic stance reinforces his relative isolation from the rest of the crowd. Moreover, the soldiers with their aimed rifles create an implied line between them selves and the figure. There is a rhythm created by all the figures’ heads—roughly all at the same level throughout the painting—that is continued in the soldiers’ legs and scabbards to the lower right. Goya counters the horizontal emphasis by including the distant church and its vertical towers in the background. In terms of the idea, Goya’s narrative painting gives witness to the summary execution of Spanish resistance fighters by Napoleon’s armies on the night of May 3, 1808. He poses the figure in the white shirt to imply a crucifixion as he faces his own death, and his compatriots surrounding him either clutch their faces in disbelief or stand stoically with him, looking their executioners in the eyes. While the carnage takes place in front of us, the church stands dark and silent in the distance. The genius of Goya is his ability to direct the narrative content by the emphasis he places in his composition. Francisco de Goya y Lucientes, The Third of May, 1808, 1814. Oil on canvas. The Prado Museum, Madrid.!This image is in the public domain Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Shared previously • Artistic Principles. Authored by: Christopher Gildow. Located at: https://learn.canvas.net/courses/24/ modules#module_19. Project: Open Course Library. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercialShareAlike 25 
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