Which methods of training are the most effective for you personally?
Chapter
8
Training and
Development
Copyright © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
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O B J E C T I V EI S
S
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
,
1. Define what is meant by training and explain why it is a critical function
for corporations today.
K a needs assessment, including performing
2. Explain how to conduct
organizational, task,
A and person analyses and deriving instructional
objectives for a training program.
S
3. Know how to design a training program to facilitate learning.
S
4. Identify the critical elements related to transfer of training.
A
5. Compare and contrast the various techniques available for training,
N advantages and disadvantages, with particular
including their relative
emphasis on e-learning.
D
6. Identify criteria used
R to evaluate training effectiveness.
7. Understand different
A experimental designs that can be used for evaluating
training programs.
8. Understand the components of training programs for employee orientation
2
and onboarding, teamwork,
generational issues, diversity awareness, sexual
harassment, and international
assignments.
1
6
1
OVERVIEW
Thave referred to the empirical research linking particular human
Throughout this book we
resource practices to corporate
financial performance. The last chapter emphasized the
S
critical role of performance measurement and management as characteristics of “highperformance work practices.”1 This same body of research also points to the importance of
training and development as contributors to the “bottom line” of corporate performance.
Training has evolved substantially in recent years with evidence indicating more organizational investment in training and development. Those leaders who understand how to
drive business results in an increasingly competitive, global environment recognize that
a better-trained workforce improves performance and that investing in employee learning
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Figure 8-1
Trends in the Workplace
Importance
of ethics
Economic climate
dictates how
companies operate
Concept of
work changing
Increase in diversity
in the workplace
Changes brought about
by global network and
communications
W
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L
I
S
,
Trends
in the
Workplace
Impact of technology
on work and home life
Security concerns
on a global scale
Faster work pace
requires more flexibility
K
A
S
S
and development is critical to achieving success.2 See Figure 8-1 for current trends in the
A development (HRD) systems. Given the intense
workplace shaping human resource
pressure to compete, improve quality
N and customer service, and lower costs, leading American companies have come to view training as a key to organizational survival and success.
D
In fact, ASTD’s 2010 State of the Industry report noted that despite the uncertain economic
conditions affecting companies, there
R was still a continued dedication to workplace training in firms worldwide. By their investments in learning, executives highlighted their
A
belief that employee learning and development is critical to the survival, recovery, and
Employee skill-level a top
priority
Training and Fortune’s
“Best Companies”
future growth of their firms.3 In another review, it was found that “many organizations are
more likely to include training solutions
2 as part of a systemwide change to gain competitive advantage.”4
1 world view the skill level of their workforce as the
Many employers throughout the
top priority for planning. According
6 to the Society for Human Resource Management’s
workplace forecast published in 2011, one of the top 10 trends is global competitiveness
1
and the need for an educated and skilled
workforce. This suggests the need for continual
training for employees, especially T
given the fact that large numbers of Baby Boomers are
expected to leave the workforce around the same time. As a result, many HR professionals
are worried about a skills shortageS
in the U.S. labor force.5 Another survey of those firms
planning to hire new employees indicated that 39 percent of them said they expected to
encounter some difficulty in finding qualified individuals for their new positions. Even
though there are several workers available for every open position in the United States, HR
professionals are still having trouble finding the right people to match the skills required
for their job openings.6
Organizations with exceptional training opportunities and programs often make Fortune
magazine’s list of the “Best Companies to Work For,” an honor that also translates into
financial success. One study found that companies that made Fortune’s list had 50 percent
less turnover than their peers and returned about three times more money for stockholders.7
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8 / Training and Development
Copyright © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
U.S. workers are not
competing well on
trainability
To become a leading-edge company, a firm will need to be more concerned with the types
of programs it uses to improve workplace learning and performance, not simply with
how much money it spends on training. A transformation of a firm’s training efforts and
other practices and systems that support training may be needed. For example, successful
firms align their training with high-performance work practices (e.g., self-directed work
teams, access to business information), innovative compensation practices (profit sharing,
group-based pay), and innovative training practices (e.g., mentoring or coaching programs,
training information systems). According to ASTD’s 2010 review of the industry, top companies expect their employees to allocate a meaningful amount of time to formal learning
and development activities.8
Not only must firms invest in the continual learning of workers in order to be competitive, but many companies are providing training to workers who are new to the workforce.
Many companies also include an assessment of workforce trainability as part of their analysis for expansion and plant
W openings. Unfortunately, recent evidence indicates that many
U.S. workers are not competing well on the trainability criterion. In 2005, Toyota selected
I United States as the place for a new plant for its mini-SUVs.
Ontario, Canada, over the
Toyota chose Canada over
L several U.S. states offering substantial financial incentives
based to some extent on the relative trainability of Ontario’s workforce. The president of
L
the Automotive Parts Manufacturers’ Association stated that the educational level in parts
of the United States wasIso low that trainers for Japanese plants have to use “pictorials” to
teach some illiterate workers how to use high-tech equipment. Other reports support the
S
contention that auto companies with plants in parts of the United States are disappointed in
, workforce.9
the trainability of the U.S.
Many firms provide life training in addition to skills training. When Marriott Hotels
hires new workers, it enrolls them in a 6-week training course with classes on hotel duties
K At Burger King, basic training for starting restaurant jobs also
and self-esteem and stress.
includes Life 101 (e.g., teaching
employees how to balance a checkbook, the importance of
A
getting to work on time). Ecolab established partnerships with welfare-to-work community
S program at a Wisconsin plant to teach entry-level employees
groups and started a training
math, basic physics, andS
blueprint-reading skills.10
This chapter provides an overview of employee training. We will discuss the imporA of the organization’s competitive strategy and the need to
tance of training in the context
link training needs withN
the mission and goals of the organization. You will learn how to
design and evaluate a training program and to tailor the training to particular situations.
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DEFINING TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT
Training should be aligned
with strategy
Training is defined as any attempt to improve employee performance on a currently
2
held job or one related to it. This usually means changes in specific knowledge, skills,
1 be effective, training should involve a learning experience, be
attitudes, or behaviors. To
a planned organizational6activity, and be designed in response to identified needs. Ideally,
training also should be designed to meet the goals of the organization while simultaneously meeting the goals 1
of individual employees. The term training is often confused with
the term development. T
Development refers to learning opportunities designed to help
employees grow. Such opportunities do not have to be limited to improving employees’
S jobs. At Ford, for example, a new systems analyst is required
performance on their current
to take a course on Ford standards for user manuals. The content of this training is needed
to perform the systems analyst job at Ford. The systems analyst, however, also may enroll
in a course entitled “Self-Awareness,” the content of which is not required on the current
job. This situation illustrates the difference between “training” and “development.” The
focus of “development” is on the long term to help employees prepare for future work
demands, while “training” often focuses on the immediate period to help fix any current
deficits in employees’ skills.
The most effective companies look at training and career development as an integral
part of a human resources development (HRD) program carefully aligned with corporate
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business strategies. This is a critical factor for those firms rated as ASTD’s Best
Companies.11 It is also important for individual employees. In fact, in a survey reported
in 2010 by the Corporate Executive Board, 20,000 high-potential employees revealed
that being connected to their firm’s corporate strategy was top on their list as something
that drove or engaged them.12 During tough economic times, it is especially important
for training to be aligned to corporate strategic business objectives. This can be done by
(1) aligning efforts with the organizational mission and business goals, (2) using training to address skill gaps, (3) designing job-focused instructional objectives, (4) creating sound
training programs that promote learning and transfer to jobs, and (5) collaborating with
sponsors and others outside the training department to promote transfer of training to
jobs.13 The American Society for Training and Development (ASTD) award winners for
the Very Best Learning Organizations are those that strike a balance between training
and other types of learning efforts (e.g., performance analysis, organizational development, talent management, process
Wimprovement). In 2010, the ASTD listed 31 firms
that were successful in creating a valuable learning culture despite tough economic
times and budget cutbacks. TheseI firms were able to create engaged learning environments, use new ways of deliveringLlearning via social media tools, and create innovative
cultures. These included 22 from the United States, 6 from India, 2 based in Turkey,
L
and 1 from Singapore. The top 10 winners included firms from all around the world in
I
diverse industries, such as Intercontinental
Hotels Group, Datatel, NIT Technologies
Limited (India), University Health System, Yapi ve Kredi Bankasi A.S. (Turkey), Barilla
S
America, Inc., CaridianBCT, Farmers Group, Inc., ESL Federal Credit Union, and
14
,
Wipro Technologies (India).
ASTD’s BEST
organizations
K
EXTENT OF TRAININGA AND DEVELOPMENT
In the United States, ASTD estimated
S that companies spent $125.88 billion on employee
learning and development in 2009 with a slight increase in the dollar amount spent on
S
training per employee.15 In 2009, ASTD’s
BEST organizations reported an average of 47
hours of learning content for each employee,
a 15.9 percent increase from 2008. The BEST
A
award winners were defined as those organizations honored for demonstrating a clear link
N
between learning and performance in their firms. Common characteristics of BEST winning organizations were:
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■ Evidence that learning has an enterprise-wide role or linkages from the executive team
to the organization’s strategy. A
■
■
■
Evidence that learning has value in the organization’s culture (e.g., learning opportunities for employees, C-level involvement, learning for growth of the organization, and
2
innovation).
Evidence that learning links to 1
individual and organizational performance (e.g., alignment with the business, efficiency, measurement of the effectiveness of learning, and
6
success with non-training solutions for business needs).
1 and performance initiatives.16
Evidence of investments in learning
T
The ASTD BEST Award winner Datatel, an information technology and consulting
S
firm, averages about $3,000 per employee
annually on training and employees average
about 80 hours a year in training. As the chief financial officer, Kevin Boyce, says “our
philosophy is to take care of our people. If our people are prepared, knowledgeable, and
have the right skills, they will take care of our customers.”17 Farmers Group, Inc., a finance
and insurance company, invests upwards of $106,000 to hire, train, and develop new employees in its University of Farmers program, which includes both classroom and online
education.18 Training has been viewed positively among employees. Approximately twothirds of employees, regardless of age or gender, view the training they have received from
their employers to be useful in helping them perform their current job duties. They were
less enthusiastic about how well it has prepared them for higher-level jobs (about half were
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8 / Training and Development
Figure 8-2
Average Percent of Learning
Content for ASTD’s Best
Award Winners
Learning Content Area
Managerial and supervisory training
Profession or industry-specific training
Processes, procedures, business practices
Mandatory and compliance training
Other (quality, product knowledge)
IT and systems training
Customer service training
New employee orientation
Interpersonal skills training
Sales training
Executive Development
Basic skills training
Percentage of all Training
13%
11%
10%
10%
10%
7%
7%
7%
7%
6%
6%
4%
W
Source: ASTD 2011 State of theIIndustry Report. www.astd.org.
L
L
satisfied). They also viewed
I the training their employer provided as critical for determining
whether or not they would stay with their current firm.19
S a variety of training programs to meet their organizational
Corporations are offering
needs. Figure 8-2 lists ,the most frequent types of learning content offered by ASTD’s
20
Copyright © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
Best organizations as rated in 2011. The importance of training is likely to continue in
the future given recent trends in the workforce. As the United States shifts from manufacturing to service jobs, more
K workers are needed in service-based industries. In addition,
increasing technology demands that current employees enhance their skills and technical
A U.S. Steel (USX) invested money in training for workers so
sophistication. For example,
that they would be able to
Suse the new technology they implemented in its production processes. Similarly, Xerox spent about $7 million on its training center to assist its sales staff
S to better meet customers’ needs for handling documents.21
in gaining additional training
Employees at RJR Nabisco
A who have been confronted with new technology in their jobs
are given the option of receiving retraining or early retirement.22 Employees themselves are
N
asking for additional training in using new technology.23
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A OF TRAINING
A SYSTEMS VIEW
Needs assessment phase
Development phase
Evaluation phase
The basic process of training is illustrated in Figure 8-3. Three major steps are involved:
assessment, development,
2 and evaluation. The goal of the assessment phase is to collect
information to determine if training is needed in the organization. If it is needed, it is then
important to determine 1
where in the organization it is needed, what kind of training is
needed, and what specific
6 knowledge, abilities, skills, or other characteristics (KASOCs)
should be taught. This information is collected by conducting three types of analyses: at
the organizational, job, 1
and individual levels of analysis. After the information is compiled, objectives for theTtraining program can be derived. The goal of the development
phase of training is to design the training environment necessary to achieve the objecSmust review relevant learning issues, including characteristics of
tives. This means trainers
adult learners and learning principles as they apply to the particular training and potential
trainees under consideration. Also, trainers must identify or develop training materials
and techniques to use in the program. Finally, after the appropriate learning environment
is designed or selected, the training is conducted. The goal of the evaluation phase is to
examine whether the training program has been effective in meeting the stated objectives.
The evaluation phase requires the identification and development of criteria, which should
include participants’ reactions to the training, assessments of what they learned in the
training program, measures of their behavior after the training, indicators of organizational
results (e.g., changes in productivity data, sales figures, employee turnover, accident rates),
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Figure 8-3
A Systems Model
of Training
NEEDS ASSESSMENT
DEVELOPMENT
EVALUATION
Identify or develop criteria to
evaluate training outcomes:
Identify needs for training by
conducting needs analyses:
• Organization
• Task or job
• Person
• Reactions
• Learning
• Behavior change
• Organizational results
Derive instructional objectives
Choose evaluation design
W
I
Design a learning environment by examining:
L
• Characteristics of adult learners
• Learning
principles
L
I
S
or develop training
, Identify
materials and methods
K
A
S
S
A
N
D
R
A
Conduct training
Conduct evaluation and
cost-effectiveness of
training program
and return on investments (ROI) or,
2 as discussed in Chapter 6, utility analysis. An experimental design is chosen to assess the effectiveness of training. The choices of the criteria
1 training is conducted in order to ensure that training
and the design are both made before
will be properly evaluated. After the
6 training is completed, the program is then evaluated
using the criteria and design selected.
Discrepancies between
Research and Practice
1
T
Research in training is needed now more than ever before as the demand for training inS since much of the literature on training comes from
creases in organizations.24 In addition,
Majority of U.S. companies
do not do formal needs
assessment
a variety of scientific fields (e.g., industrial and organizational psychology, human resource development, cognitive psychology, anthropology, education, human factors, computer science), it is increasingly important to integrate the findings across those disciplines.
Various fields in psychology even define training differently.25
Compared to other areas of HRM, practitioners have a fairly strong knowledge of
some areas of training research.26 A recent survey of training processes used in corporate
America revealed some discrepancies between the academic recommendations regarding training program development and evaluation and the current state of the practice.27
While larger companies were more likely to have done formal needs assessments, written
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8 / Training and Development
Research findings often
ignored
specific instructional objectives, and evaluated the training with something other than a
simple, post-training reaction questionnaire, the majority of all classes of respondents did
none of these things. Small businesses rarely did any of these things as part of their training. Over 60 percent of all surveyed companies, regardless of company size, relied only on
trainee reactions to assess the training, taken upon completion of the training, and had no
systematic follow-up to further evaluate the training. Less than 10 percent of companies
used any form of control group to evaluate the effects of the training. Over 50 percent of
companies admitted that managerial training programs were first tried because some other
company had been using them. As one training director put it, “A lot of companies buy
off-the-shelf training programs just because they had heard or knew that a competitor was
using the same training. Shouldn’t we expect more data to determine training needs?”
Other scholars also have noted the gaps between research and practice in the training
field. Practitioners28 point out that research findings are often ignored and faddish programs are adopted withW
little proven utility. In addition, training needs assessments and
evaluations are often rare despite their importance, and most training is informal even
I approach to use.
though this is not the best
In order to address some
L of the gaps between research and practice, the American
Society for Training and Development has initiated and published its ASTD 2006
L
Research-to-Practice conference proceedings. In this extensive report, it has included
I a variety of training issues such as evaluation efforts, learning
almost 20 articles examining
transfer, and web-based and classroom instruction. The intent of the proceedings was to
S
share knowledge that will affect practice in the field.29
Copyright © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
,
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NEEDS ASSESSMENT
A
The first step in training is to determine that a need for training actually exists. An organization should commit itsS
resources to a training activity only if the training can be expected
to achieve some organizational
goal. The decision to conduct training must be based on
S
the best available data, which are collected by conducting a needs assessment. This needs
Aconducted in the context of a human resource planning (HRP)
analysis ideally should be
program and timely andN
valid performance data. Companies that implement training programs without conducting a needs assessment may be making errors or spending money
D
unnecessarily. For example, a needs assessment might reveal that less-costly interventions
(e.g., personnel selection,
Ra new compensation system, job redesign) could be used instead
of training. Despite the importance of conducting needs assessments, few employers conA
duct such an analysis in the context of their strategic plans or any form of strength, weakThree primary types
of analysis
Performance discrepancies
ness, opportunity, or threat analysis (SWOT analysis).
A needs assessment2is a systematic, objective determination of training needs that
involves conducting three primary types of analyses. These analyses are used to derive
1 program. The three analyses consist of an organizational
objectives for the training
analysis, a job analysis6
, and a person analysis.30 After compiling the results, objectives
for the training program can be derived.
1that a training need is any discrepancy between what is desired
Many trainers suggest
and what exists. Thus one
T of the goals of the needs assessment is to note any discrepancies. For example, the World Bank determined through a needs assessment that many of its
SEurope required training in transforming state-owned businesses
constituents from Eastern
into self-sustaining businesses. The organization contracted with a number of universities
to develop and provide the necessary training. Comparisons between the expected level
of performance specified (from the job analysis) and the current level of performance
exhibited (evident in the person analysis) may indicate performance discrepancies. The
Sheraton Corporation, for example, specified that all hotel managers must be familiar with
the implications of the 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) for hotel operations
(see Chapter 3). A test on the law was administered, and scores on the test were used as a
basis for identifying those managers who needed training on the implications of the law.
Performance discrepancies, however, should not be automatically interpreted as a need for
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training. The analyst must determine whether the discrepancy is a skill or knowledge deficiency, thus requiring training. If, however, the required skill is present and performance is
still lacking, then the problem may be motivational in nature and thus require some other
type of organizational intervention (e.g., new reward or discipline system). One study
noted that organizations that conducted needs analyses were better able to use the results in
the design and evaluation phases than organizations that did not.31
Organizational
Analysis
Focus on where training
should be placed
Organization analysis tests
hypotheses regarding
training needs
An organizational analysis tries to answer the question of where the training emphasis
should be placed in the company and what factors may affect training. To do this, an examination should be made of the organizational goals, personnel inventories, performance
data, and climate and efficiency indexes. This examination should ideally be conducted in
the context of the labor supply forecast and gap analysis. Organization system constraints
that may hamper the training process
W also should be explored. Training does not exist in
a vacuum, and the context in which it occurs has an impact on whether individuals will
I detailed surveys of the workforce to determine trainlearn.32 Many companies rely on very
ing needs as part of the planning effort.
L Motorola and IBM, for example, conduct annual
surveys that assess particular training needs in the context of the company’s short- and
L
long-term goals.
I goals of the organization and any trends that may
The review of short- and long-term
affect these goals is done to channel the training toward specific issues of importance to
S
the firm (e.g., improved customer satisfaction, increased productivity). For example, after
,
Merrill Lynch pleaded guilty to a number
of fraudulent business practices, the chief executive officer (CEO) ordered training in business ethics for all employees. To reduce layoffs,
IBM retrained hundreds of employees to be sales representatives. Not only was IBM able
to minimize layoffs, but the larger K
sales staff was able to attack another corporate goal: to
improve customer satisfaction.
A
Data from a human resource information system (HRIS) can reveal projected employee
SThe more sophisticated inventories also can indicate
mobility, retirements, and turnover.
the number of employees in each KASOC
or competency group, which can then be comS
pared to what is needed based on the gap analysis of the HR planning process. For exA Division decided to change to a new programming
ample, the Ford Manufacturing Systems
language for future support work. The
N first step it took was to determine the extent to which
current staff was sufficiently skilled in the new language. The HRIS quickly revealed how
D
many of the staff had at least basic knowledge of and experience with the new language.
A review of climate and performance
R efficiency data is important to identify problems
that could be alleviated with training.33 Climate indexes are quality-of-work-life indicators
A
and include records on turnover, grievances, absenteeism, productivity, accidents, attitude
surveys, employee suggestions, and labor–management data (e.g., strikes, lockouts). Job
satisfaction indexes provide data on2employee attitudes toward the work itself, supervision,
and co-workers. Performance data should be the specific record of important outcomes
over a specific period. A record of1competency assessment could be useful data as well.
Multirater data should be maintained
6 here also. Efficiency indexes consist of costs of labor,
materials, and distribution; the quality of the product; downtime; waste; late deliveries;
repairs; and equipment utilization.1 These data are examined to find any discrepancies
between desired and actual performance.
T
It is also important to identify any organization system constraints on training efforts.
S are not clear to top management, they may not
For example, if the benefits of training
plan and budget appropriately for training. Consequently, the training program may not be
properly designed or implemented. Omni Hotels requires senior executives to attend training programs to ensure that they are supportive of the training that lower-level managers
receive. In addition, the training staff makes sure that the training is tailored to Omni so
that trainees can more readily see the value of the training.34
Organizational analysis should test hypotheses about training needs. For example, a
retail marketing manager received a complaint from a vendor that the sales staff did not
understand the advantages of a particular product. The manager then “mined” the customer
survey and complaint database to determine the extent to which product knowledge of the
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8 / Training and Development
sales staff was a problem. He was able to determine that the complaint may have been an
isolated event. Organizational analysis should be about testing theories of where (and why)
training is needed. Complaints about a product or service should be carefully examined to
determine the extent and importance of the problems(s) described in the complaints. Of
course, data can also be “mined” or collected to determine an optimal way to do things
which can then drive training content.
Job Analysis
Focus on what should be
taught in training
Person Analysis
Copyright © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
Focus on who should
receive training
Identify performance
discrepancies
A job analysis tries to answer the question of what should be taught in training so that the
trainee can perform the job satisfactorily. As discussed in Chapter 4, a job analysis should
document the tasks or duties involved in the job as well as the KASOCs (or competencies) needed to carry out the duties. When conducting a job analysis to determine training needs, both a worker-oriented approach, which focuses on identifying behaviors and
KASOCs, and a task-oriented
W approach, which describes the work activities performed,
should be used. The critical incident technique (CIT) is particularly valuable because it
I on the job and the consequences of specific work behaviors.
provides considerable detail
A task-oriented approach
L is beneficial in identifying specific training objectives that are
used in curriculum development and program evaluation. Ideally more than one method
L
of job analysis should be used to determine training needs. If interviews or questionnaires
I exist between what a supervisor says is an important job duty
are used and discrepancies
and what an employee states, these discrepancies should be resolved before any training
S
programs are designed.35
The O*NET is also a, very valuable resource for training needs and content for many
jobs and job families. Occupations included in the O*NET database describe specific
training needs for each occupation. For example, the O*NET analysis for “Advertising and
K
Promotions Managers” describes
over 20 tasks that have to be mastered in order to excel
in this occupation.
A
S
A person analysis attempts
S to answer the question of who needs training in the firm and
the specific type of training needed. To do this, the performance of individuals, groups, or
A (taken from the performance appraisal data) or assessments of
units on major job functions
KASOCs or competencies
N are compared to the desired levels. Many companies use selfassessments in this process. For example, Ford determined the training needs for a new
D
computer language based on a self-assessment questionnaire distributed to the staff. At
the managerial level, many
R organizations (e.g., IBM, AT&T, Federal Express, the World
Bank, and the Federal Aviation Administration) use peers and subordinates to provide
A
performance information about their managers. At Ford, each supervisor is responsible for
completing an individual training plan for each subordinate. The plan is developed jointly
by the supervisor and the2subordinate. The two decide on the courses that should be taken
and the time frame for completion. The goal is for each employee to reach a certain level
1necessary for current and future tasks. Many organizations in the
of proficiency considered
service sector rely on customers
for information about sales personnel. Bloomingdale’s,
6
for example, uses “paid” customers to assess the sales techniques of probationary employ1 to determine the appropriate managerial intervention to take
ees. The data are then used
with the employee (e.g.,T
training, discipline, new compensation).
Performance discrepancies are used to indicate areas needing attention. It is important
Sdiscrepancies are due to a lack of KASOCs, which KASOCs are
to determine whether any
missing, and whether they can be developed in employees through training. Individuals
may lack the necessary skills or perceive themselves as lacking the skills (i.e., they may
lack confidence in their abilities). In these cases, training may be needed. In other situations, employees may have the skills yet lack the needed motivation to perform, and other
action may be called upon (e.g., changes in the reward system, discipline). Employees also
can be tested on the desired behaviors using a performance test such as those discussed
in Chapter 6. If they can perform the duties satisfactorily, the organization will know that
skills training is not required. The U.S. Navy, for example, uses miniature training and
testing in order to determine skill level prior to comprehensive training. Pratt & Whitney
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and Office Depot are among the many companies that use an assessment center to measure
supervisory skills judged to be critical based on its goals. Person analysis can also be used
to assess trainability—whether the individual is capable of benefiting from the training
and who, among candidates, might benefit the most. We discuss trainability later in the
chapter. Research is clear that individual difference variables such as cognitive ability and
motivation to learn are related to trainability and the extent to which someone will learn.36
Techniques for
Collecting Needs
Assessment Data
A variety of techniques have been suggested for conducting a needs assessment and for
collecting data to use in the organizational, job, and person analyses. Figure 8-4 lists these
techniques. Some techniques (e.g., work sampling) can be used for more than one type of
analysis. Thus efforts to coordinate and integrate results are recommended.
Deriving Instructional
Objectives
After completing the three types of analyses in the needs assessment, the training profesI
sional should begin to develop instructional
or learning objectives for the performance discrepancies identified. InstructionalLobjectives describe the performance you want trainees
to be able to exhibit. Well-written learning objectives should contain observable actions
L
(e.g., time on target; error rate for things that can be identified, ordered, or charted), meaI
surable criteria (e.g., percentage correct),
and the conditions of performance (e.g., specification as to when the behavior should occur). ESL Federal Credit Union, one of ASTD’s
S
Best organizations, has SMEs (subject matter experts) help to identify strategic objectives
and then create training objectives.,
Some sample learning objectives for a training program with sales employees are
W
■
■
Advantages of deriving
objectives
Figure 8-4
Organizational Analysis
Organizational goals and objectives
HRIS data
Skills/competency inventories
Organizational climate indexes
Efficiency indexes/performance data
Changes in systems or subsystems
(e.g., equipment)
Management requests
Exit interviews
Management-by-objectives or work
planning systems
After training, the employee willKbe able to smile at all customers even when exhausted
or ill, unless the customer is irate.
A
After training, the employee will be able to calculate markdowns on all sales merchanScorrectly 100 percent of the time.
dise (e.g., 30 percent markdown)
S
Although training programs can be developed without deriving learning objectives,
A
there are several advantages to developing
them. First, the process of defining learning
objectives helps the trainer identifyN
criteria for evaluating training programs. For example,
specifying an instructional objective of a 20 percent reduction in waste reveals that measures of waste may be important D
indicators of program effectiveness. Second, learning
objectives direct trainers to the specific
R issues and content to focus on. This ensures that
trainers are addressing important topics that have been identified through strategic planA trainees by specifying what is expected of them at
ning. Also, learning objectives guide
2
1
Data Sources Used in Training Needs Assessment
6
Job/Task Analysis
Job descriptions 1
Job specifications or task analysis
T
Performance standards
Performing the jobS
Work sampling
Reviewing literature on the job
Asking questions about the job
Training committees/conferences
Analysis of operating problems
O*NET data
Person Analysis
Performance appraisal data
Work sampling
Interviews
Questionnaires
Tests (KASOCs)
Attitude surveys
Training progress charts/checklists
Assessment centers
Critical incidents
Self-efficacy measures
Source: Academy of Management Review by M. L. Moore and P. Dutton. Copyright 1978 by Academy of Management (NY). Reproduced with permission of
Academy of Management (NY) in the format Textbook via Copyright Clearance Centre.
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8 / Training and Development
the end of training. Finally, specifying objectives makes the training department more accountable and more clearly linked to other human resource activities, which may make the
training program easier to sell to line managers.
DEVELOPMENT OF
THE TRAINING PROGRAM
After a needs analysis has been conducted and the staff is confident that training is needed
to address the performance problem or to advance the firm’s strategic mission, the training
program is developed. This can be done by an in-house training staff or by outside consultants. Many firms now even design and manage their own corporate training centers. Some
of the companies that have
W their own corporate universities include Toyota, BB&T, Ford,
Disney, GE, Union Carbide, IBM, Home Depot, Xerox, Motorola, Phillips Petroleum,
I
McDonald’s, Black & Decker,
Aetna Life & Casualty, Kodak, and Goodyear Tire & Rub37
ber. To develop the program,
L the trainer should design a training environment conducive
to learning. This can be done by setting up preconditions for learning and arranging the
L learning. Following this, the trainer should examine various
training environment to ensure
training methods and techniques
to choose the combination most beneficial for accomI
plishment of the instructional objectives of the training program.
S
,
Copyright © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
Designing a Learning
Environment for
Training
To design a training program in which learning will be facilitated, trainers should review
the basic principles of how individuals learn. Learning principles should be reviewed and
K of the training program and materials. Also, issues of how to
integrated into the design
maximize transfer of new behaviors back to the job should be addressed. Finally, trainers
A
should design their programs to meet the needs of adults as learners, which means underSlearn. For example, adult learners want to set their own goals
standing how adults best
for training since they see
S themselves as capable of self-direction. In addition, they often
enjoy experiential learning techniques and self-directed learning more than conventional
AThey are problem-centered and are more receptive to training
informational techniques.
that enables them to solve
N problems of particular interest to their situation. They want to
be able to apply the training they receive to their day-to-day work experiences and are less
Dif they cannot see a direct application to their work situation.38
interested in the program
Figure 8-5 illustrates how
Ran instructional model can have training implications in order to
maximize learning and transfer back to the job.
A
Preconditions
of Learning
Trainability
Ability and motivation
to learn
Trainees must be ready to learn before they are placed in any training program. To ensure
2
this, trainers should determine whether trainees are trainable (i.e., whether they have the
ability to learn and are motivated
to learn). In addition, trainers should try to gain the sup1
port of trainees and their supervisors prior to actually implementing the program.
6
1
Before the learner can benefit
from any formal training, he or she must be trainable or
ready to learn. This means
the
trainee must have both the ability and the motivation to
T
learn. To have the ability, the trainee must possess the skills and knowledge prerequisite to
S way to determine this is to give trainees a performance test or
mastering the material. One
work sample (i.e., an example of the types of skills to be performed on the job) and measure how quickly they are able to learn the material or how well they are able to perform
the skills. Assessing trainees’ ability to learn is of increasing concern to corporate America.
In view of the increasing technological knowledge required in most jobs, many Americans
are not being educated at a level compatible with the requirements of most entry-level jobs.
This situation appears to be getting worse in the United States since the entry-level jobs of
the future are being “up-skilled” while the pool of qualified workers is shrinking.
It has been estimated that over 30 million workers in the United States are functionally
illiterate, meaning that they cannot read or write well enough to perform their job duties.
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3 / Developing Human Resource Capability
Figure 8-5
A Summary of Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction and Training Implications
Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction
Training Implications
Learning is promoted when learners
are engaged in solving real-world
problems
• Ensure that the problems addressed in the training correspond to real-world tasks in the
organization
• Increase task complexity and diversity over multiple lessons to ensure that trainees have
experienced an adequate sampling of task-based experience
• Relate what trainees know about organizational mission and objectives to the training they
will complete
• Relate the skill and knowledge trainees will master to what they already know about their
jobs
• Inform trainees that the skills, knowledge, and thought processes they will build during
training are like those that exemplary performers use to perform their jobs
• Employ examples for concept learning, procedural demonstrations, process visualizations,
and behavior modeling depicting what exemplary performers actually think and do on the
job
• Draw attention to any mental models that support situational interpretations, decision
making, or problem solving on the job
• Point out relevant similarities and differences across multiple demonstrations
• Provide enough authentic job-based practice to master the instructional objectives and
exemplary performance on the job
• Provide coaching and immediate feedback during practice
• Build trainees’ self-efficacy by letting them know that successful training performance
means they can feel confident they can perform the job tasks
• Provide opportunities for trainees to publicly demonstrate their new skills in ways that
commit them to applying what they learned on the job
• Provide post training opportunities for trainees to continue discussing how they are applying what they learned to their jobs and ways to improve
• Provide post training opportunities for managers to monitor and reinforce the application
of learned skills on the job
Learning is promoted when existing
knowledge is activated as a foundation
for new knowledge
Learning is promoted when new
knowledge is demonstrated to
the learner
Learning is promoted when new
knowledge is applied by the learner
Learning is promoted when new
knowledge is integrated into the
learner’s world
W
I
L
L
I
S
,
K
A
S
Sun Oil, Campbell Soup, and Digital
S Equipment work with state and local governments
in partnership programs to help address literacy issues among the workforce.39 Research
clearly shows that employees withAhigher cognitive ability and basic math and reading
skills are more trainable.40
N
It’s not enough that trainees have the ability to learn the skills; they must also have the
D
desire or motivation to learn. Research also finds that employees who are more conscientious, more oriented toward learning,
R less anxious, and younger are more trainable.41 One
way to assess motivation to learn is to examine how involved they are in their own jobs and
A
career planning. The assumption is that those individuals who are more highly involved
Source: Modified from: Merrill, M. D. (2002). First principles of instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development, 50(3), 43–59.
Learning and individual
characteristics
will have higher motivation to learn.42 It is also important to assess the attitudes and expectations of trainees regarding training
2since their views will most likely affect their reactions
to the program and the amount they learn.43 For example, employees who choose to attend
1 are required to attend.44 Some companies link suctraining learn more than those who
cessful completion of training programs
6 and acquired skills with compensation. At Ford,
employees must select 40 hours of training from a list of options. An employee must fulfill
1
the 40 hours to qualify for merit pay.
Given the increasing use of distance
T learning formats, it is also important to assess learners’ readiness to participate in online learning. The readiness of learners to enter into disS a critical role in increasing their course-completion
tance learning environments may play
and program-retention rates. Thus, a tool, the E-learning Readiness Self-Assessment,
has been designed to provide a quick, yet comprehensive analysis of preparedness for
success in an online training program. It addresses questions about the learner’s access
to technology, online skills, motivation, online audio, Internet skills, and views about
training success.45
Gaining the Support
of Trainees and Others
If trainees do not see the value of training, they will be unlikely to learn new behaviors
or use them on their jobs. Trainees should be informed in advance about the benefits that
will result from training. If they see some incentives for training, it may strengthen their
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8 / Training and Development
Supervisory support
is critical
motivation to learn the behaviors, practice them, and remember them. To gain the support
of trainees for the training program, the trainer must point out the intrinsic (e.g., personal
growth) and extrinsic (e.g., promotion) benefits of attending training.
In addition to garnering the support of trainees for training, the support of their supervisors, co-workers, and subordinates should be sought. For example, if the trainees’ supervisors are not supportive of training, then they may not facilitate the learning process (e.g.,
allow employees time off for training, reward them for using new skills). Likewise, if their
peers or subordinates ridicule them for attending training, they may not be motivated to
attend training programs or to learn.46 Trainers can improve the likelihood of acquiring others’ support for training by getting their opinions on the content of training, the location,
and the times. At Patapsco Valley Veterinary Hospital located in Ellicott City, Maryland,
staff members are consistently asked for their opinions on the most convenient times to
hold training sessions. In addition, the owners of the practice set a positive example by
attending the training sessions
W themselves and by rewarding employees for participating
in training and using their new skills on the job. At Grant Thornton, one of ASTD’s Best
I
firms, the CEO shows support
for knowledge sharing by having a blog on the front page of
the firm’s knowledge sharing
L platform, “K-Source.”
L
I
After ensuring that the preconditions
for learning are met, trainers should build a training
Conditions of the
environment
in
which
learning
is
maximized.
To do this, trainers need to decide how to
Learning Environment
S
best arrange the training environment by addressing the issues that follow.
,
Whole versus
Part Learning
Research has shown that when a complex task is to be learned, it should be broken down
into its parts if this can be done. Trainees should learn each part separately, starting with the
simplest and going on toKthe most difficult. However, part learning should be combined
with whole learning; that
Ais, trainees should be shown the whole performance so that they
know what their final goal is. The training content should be broken down into integrated
S be learned until it can be performed accurately. Then a trainee
parts, and each part should
should be allowed to putS
all the parts together and practice the whole task. One method that
combines part and whole learning is called progressive part learning. In this approach, the
A learn and practice that first part along with a second part, then
trainees learn one part, then
learn and practice the first
Nand second parts along with a third part, and so on. This might be
used if the topics to be taught are somewhat interdependent (e.g., a communications course
D
that involves sessions on active listening, being assertive, using nonverbals).
Massed versus
Spaced Practice
Practice is important for trainees to learn a new skill or behavior. Trainers can observe the
A
practice sessions and provide feedback to the trainees to correct their mistakes. Spaced
practice (i.e., practicing the new behavior and taking rest periods in between) is more effective than massed practice
2 (practicing the new behavior without breaks), especially for
motor skills. For example, it would be easier for you to learn how to play golf by having a
1 going out to practice putting, rather than learning how to do all of
lesson on putting and then
the possible golf shots (e.g.,
6 putting, chipping, pitching, driving, etc.) and then going out to
play. If a learner has to concentrate for long periods without some rest, learning and reten1 like cramming for an examination: rapid forgetting sets in very
tion may suffer. It’s a little
soon. Consequently, spaced
T practice seems to be more productive for long-term retention
and for transfer of learning to the work setting. Of course, it takes longer for spaced practice
than for massed practice,Sso trainees may resist it (e.g., they may be less receptive to attending four half-day workshops than two full-day sessions). On the other hand, tasks that are
difficult and complex seem to be mastered and then performed better when massed practice
is provided first, followed by briefer (spaced) sessions with more frequent rest periods.47
Copyright © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
R
Spaced practice is generally
more effective
Overlearning
Overlearning (i.e., practicing far beyond the point of performing the task successfully) can
be critical in both acquisition and transfer of knowledge and skills. Generally, overlearning
increases retention over time, makes the behavior or skill more automatic, increases the
quality of the performance during stress, and helps trainees transfer what they have learned
back to the job setting.48 Overlearning is desirable in a program when the task to be learned
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3 / Developing Human Resource Capability
Overlearning is recommended when the task will
not be immediately
practiced
is not likely to be immediately practiced in the work situation and when performance must
be maintained during periods of emergency and stress. For example, overlearning skills for
driving or flying may be important so that in a crisis situation the individual will be able
to quickly remember what actions should be taken. Pat Head Summitt, rated as the top
coach (most wins among both men and women coaches) in collegiate basketball, believes
in the importance of overlearning, which she calls “discipline.” She has had her nationally
ranked team, the Tennessee Lady Volunteers, practice their plays over and over again in
preparation for critical games.49 This might be one reason why the Lady Vols have won
eight National Basketball Championships!
Goal Setting
Goal setting can help employees improve their performance by directing their attention
to specific behaviors that need to be changed. If employees set specific, challenging goals,
they can reach higher levels of performance. For example, research has shown that goal
setting has led to an average productivity
W increase of 19 percent.50 Goal setting improves
performance because it affects four mechanisms: (a) it directs and focuses a person’s beI effort toward attaining the goal, (c) it encourages an
havior, (b) it increases an individual’s
individual to persist toward the goalLor work harder and faster to attain it, and (d) it enables
an individual to set specific strategies for attaining the goal.51 Training programs should
L
include specific, yet challenging goals so trainees can reach higher levels of performance
or greater mastery of the training Imaterial. Trainees should be encouraged to set public
goals and to record their accomplishments to ensure greater transfer of their training skills.
19 percent increase
in productivity
Knowledge of Results
S
, they need to receive timely and specific feedback or
For trainees to improve performance,
knowledge of results. Feedback serves informational and motivational purposes. It shows
trainees any gap between their performance and the desired performance and what particular skills or behaviors they need toKcorrect. Also, it can motivate them to meet their performance goals once they see that A
they are coming close to accomplishing them. Trainers
should build into the training environment opportunities for providing feedback to trainees.
For example, the trainer could giveSpop quizzes to trainees during the session and call out
the correct answers. Trainees could
S then quickly score their work to see how well they
are doing in the session and where they need additional learning or practice. Sometimes
A another (e.g., observers can be used in role-plays to
trainees can provide feedback to one
provide feedback to role-players). N
Attention
Attention to objectives
Retention
Rehearsal helps
D
Trainers should try to design training programs and materials to ensure that trainees devote
attention to them. They can do thisR
by choosing a training environment that is comfortable
to trainees (e.g., that has good temperature, lighting, seats, plenty of room, snacks) and free
A
from distractions (phone calls, interruptions from colleagues). This is becoming increasingly more critical and challenging as trainees bring more and more technology (BlackBerry devices, cell phones, iPads, 2
laptops) into the classroom. No matter how motivated
trainees are, if the environment is not comfortable to work in, trainees will have difficulty
1sure that trainees are familiar with and have accepted
learning. Trainers also should make
the learning objectives. They can do
6this by asking trainees to describe how accomplishing
the objectives will resolve problems on the job. If trainees are able to translate learning
objectives into relevant job issues, 1
they may pay more attention to the training sessions.
T
The ability to retain what is learned is obviously relevant to the effectiveness of a training
program. Many factors have been S
found to increase retention. If the material presented is
meaningful to trainees, they should have an easier time understanding and remembering it.
Trainers can make the content meaningful by (1) presenting trainees with an overview of
what is to be learned so that they will be able to see the overall picture, (2) using examples,
concepts, and terms familiar to the trainees (e.g., use medical terms and examples when
training doctors and nurses), and (3) organizing the material from simple to complex (teach
someone how to serve the ball before you teach him/her strategies in tennis). Retention
also can be enhanced by rehearsal or requiring trainees to periodically recall what they
have learned through tests. The ideas listed in Figure 8-5 provide some good tips for how
to ensure retention.
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8 / Training and Development
Using Learning
Principles to Develop
Training Materials
The learning principles described previously should be considered not only when designing the training environment but also when developing training materials. Any materials
used with trainees should be able to stimulate them into learning and remembering the information. To ensure that this occurs, trainers need to make sure that the learning principles
are built into their training materials. For example, the materials should provide illustrations and relevant examples to stimulate trainees. In addition, the objectives of the material
should be clearly stated and a summary should be provided.52
Transfer of Training
The ultimate goal of a training program is that the learning that occurs during training be
transferred back to the job. Research strongly supports the view that the post-training climate
will affect whether training influences behaviors or results on the job. To maximize transfer,
the following suggestions have been offered.53 These include ideas for before the training is
W session itself, and once the employee has returned to the job.
conducted, during the training
I
L
1. Align the training program with the organization’s needs using competency modeling.
2. Involve supervisorsLand trainees in the project team.
I design theory.
3. Use sound instructional
4. Develop application-oriented
objectives based on the competency.
S
,
During Training
Copyright © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
Before Training
1. Maximize the similarity between the training context and the job context. That is,
the training shouldK
resemble the job as closely as possible. At GE, for example,
the “action-learning” process focuses on real business problems.
A
2. Require practice of the new behaviors and overlearning in training.
S
3. Provide realistic work-related tasks.
S in training books to note ideas during training.
4. Provide extra spaces
5. Include a variety ofAstimulus situations in the practice so trainees will learn to
generalize their knowledge
and skills. Many coaches set up grueling basketball
N
schedules with top-ranked teams so that their teams get to play in a variety of
D for the NCAA playoffs each year.
situations and be ready
6. Label or identify the
R important features of the content to be learned to distinguish
the major steps involved.
A
7. Develop, and have available on the job, job aids to remind employees of the key
action steps necessary on the job. For example, Alcoa uses job aids in many of
its manufacturing jobs.
2
8. Make sure that the1general principles underlying the specific content are understood in training.
6
9. Provide opportunity (time) to synthesize material or plan for application. At Lockheed Martin, trainers
1 from the Robert H. Smith School of Business leading the
Executive Leadership Strategies Program give executives time at the end of each
T
day to synthesize their learning for the day. They also have them present their
S
synthesis for the week-long
training at the end of the week, along with an action
plan for how they will apply the skills.
10. Build the trainee’s self-efficacy for learning and using the new skills. Self-efficacy
is a feeling of control and accomplishment, the sense that you can control your
own destiny. Self-efficacy is related to motivation to learn, which is subsequently
related to motivation to transfer the skills. Trainers can use verbal persuasion
as one tactic to convince trainees that they can learn the tasks. Self-efficacy has
been shown to be related to learning using a sample of Navy warfare officers
in midlevel managerial positions. In addition, encourage trainees to develop an
action plan including specific measurable goals.54
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3 / Developing Human Resource Capability
After Training
1. Encourage trainees to practice skills on their jobs in between training sessions.
For example, the executive education programs conducted by the Robert H.
Smith School of Business for some of its corporate clients (e.g., SAIC, Lockheed
Martin) often require “homework assignments” such as customer-value projects,
organizational systems projects, and individual leadership development plans in
between attendance at sessions. The assignments encourage trainees to apply their
new skills in the workplace, using an action learning model.
2. Ensure that there is a supportive climate for learning and for transferring new
behaviors. This can be done by building managerial support (emotional and financial) for training, providing trainees with the freedom to set personal performance
goals, and encouraging risk taking among trainees. One study used 505 supermarket managers from 52 stores W
and found that the work environment, measured by
training climate and learning culture, was directly related to the transfer of trained
I to encourage peer support since this type of supbehaviors.55 It is also important
port has been shown to influence
L transfer of training skills.56
3. Have trainees present their new learning to co-workers once they return.
L
4. Once back on the job, employees should be given opportunities to demonstrate that
I example, one study of plane mechanics from the
they can use the new skills. For
Air Force found that after training
S they were given opportunities to perform only
about half of the tasks they learned in training.57 Likewise, in a study of university
,
employees, it was found that situational
constraints (e.g., adequate resources, time)
limited the amount that trainees could transfer new skills to the work environment.58
5. Encourage continual learningK
by employees. They should realize that one-time
training in an area is not sufficient to maintain effective skills. Retraining also
A
may be needed to update skills.
S
Relapse Prevention
Sometimes, despite trainers’ best efforts to get individuals to transfer what they have
S
learned back to the job, it is difficult for trainees to maintain new behaviors or skills over
A situations and revert back to their old habits. Most
a long period. They encounter high-risk
people experience relapses after learning
new behaviors. Think about all the times you
N
or someone you know went on a diet or started an exercise program. Perhaps you were
quite successful sticking to the planDafter attending a training program (e.g., online Weight
Watchers). Then, one weekend you
Rgo on a trip with friends. Next thing you know you
are eating lots of snacks and ignoring your exercise plan. This is a relapse. The same thing
A have attended a training program. For example, a
often happens to employees after they
manager learns how to control his temper in training, yet the first time returning back to the
job he encounters an irate employee and he screams at the person. Relapse prevention is
2 emphasizes the learning of a set of self-control and
needed to assist trainees.59 This model
coping strategies when the trainee 1
is faced with high-risk situations.60
Employees should be made aware of the relapse process itself by informing them that
6
there are some situations that make it difficult for trainees to use their new behaviors. For
example, they may be faced with peers
1 or supervisors who are not supportive of their new
skills.61 They should learn to identify and anticipate high-risk situations they will face
T
when returning from training. They should be instructed on how to cope in these situations.
S trainees’ self-efficacy so that they can effectively
Teaching these issues should increase
use their new training skills back on the job.
Choosing Methods for
the Training Program
Training methods can be divided into two categories.
1. Methods that are primarily informational or transmittal in nature; that is, they use
primarily one-way communication in which information is transmitted to the learners.
2. Methods that are experiential in nature; that is, the learner interacts with the instructor, a computer/simulator, customers, or other trainees to practice the skill.
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8 / Training and Development
Experiential methods
favored by trainees
Figure 8-6
Uses
LECTURE
Gaining new knowledge
To present introductory material
Copyright © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
AUDIOVISUALS
Gaining new knowledge
Gaining attention
INDEPENDENT STUDY
Gaining new knowledge
Completing degree requirements
Continuous education
Some of the major methods, including their uses, benefits, and limitations, are described
next and in Figures 8-6 and 8-7. Electronic learning, or e-learning, can be both an informational and an experiential method of training.
Most training programs utilize several training techniques since no one approach is best
suited for every purpose. According to the 2010 State of the Industry report by ASTD, most
of the top 31 firms reported using a mix of various techniques to deliver training. There
has also been an increased interest in the use of blended training approaches in organizations. This often means the integration of classroom and e-learning training approaches.62
For example, Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu has an “Upstream Sales Boot Camp,” which uses
workshops, virtual learning, and coaching session, as well as a “Client Experience Lab,”
which is an immersive interactive one-day experience.63 IBM’s international sales training
program includes both classroom and on-the-job training (OJT), which is given over one
year. AMC Theatres uses videotapes, detailed training manuals, and OJT programs to train
ushers and concession personnel.
To determine which combination of methods to select for
W
a particular training program, a developer should first clearly define the purpose of and the
I In addition, an assessment of the resources (e.g., staff, budget,
audience for the training.
materials) available to conduct
the training is necessary. It is also important to consider
L
whether the focus will be on skill acquisition, maintenance, or generalization of the skill
L
to other areas. One recent study found that trainees rated as more effective those methods
I They also preferred more individualized training methods, like
that involved them more.
one-on-one instruction, and technology-based methods such as computer simulations, mulS
timedia presentations, and computer-assisted programmed instruction.64
,
At a minimum, the training
methods selected should (1) motivate the trainee to learn
the new skill, (2) illustrate the desired skills to be learned, (3) be consistent with the
K
A
Informational Training Methods
S
Benefits
S
A
Equally good as programmed instruction
and television
N
Low cost
D at one time
Reaches a large audience
Audience is often comfortable
with it
R
A
Can reach a large audience at one time
Allows for replays
Versatility
Can reduce trainer, travel, and facility costs
2
1
Allows trainees to go 6
at their own pace
Minimizes trainers’ time
1
Minimizes costs of development
T
S
Limitations
Learners are passive
Poor transfer
Depends on the lecturer’s ability
Is not tailored to individual trainees
Is not tailored to individual trainees
Must be updated
Passive learners
Expensive to develop a library of materials
Materials must be designed to adjust to
varying reading levels
Performance depends on trainee’s
motivation
Is not applicable for all jobs
E-LEARNING
Gaining new knowledge
Pretraining preparation to ensure
that all trainees have similar
backgrounds
Convenient
Allows trainees to go at their own pace
Can guarantee mastery at a specified level
Expensive to develop
Is not easily applicable for all tasks
(e.g., cognitive tasks, verbal,
psychomotor)
Does not lead to higher performance
than lectures
Encourages active trainee involvement
Provides immediate feedback to trainees
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3 / Developing Human Resource Capability
Figure 8-7
Experiential Training Methods
Uses
Benefits
Limitations
Learning job skills
Good transfer
Apprenticeship training
Limited trainer costs
Job rotation
High trainee motivation
Depends on the trainers’ skills and
willingness
May be costly due to lost production
and mistakes
May have frequent interruptions on the job
Often is haphazardly done
Trainees may learn bad habits
ON-THE-JOB TRAINING
E-LEARNING
Gaining new knowledge
Self-paced
W
I
L
Convenient
Can reduce costs
L
I
Effective for learning and transfer
Can practice most of the S
job skills
,
Drill and practice
Individualized training
Standardization over time
Feedback given
EQUIPMENT SIMULATORS
To reproduce real-world conditions
For physical and cognitive skills
For team training
Trainees may have difficulties with
computers
Limited interactions for trainees
Less useful for training interpersonal skills
or psychomotor tasks
Costly to develop
Requires good fidelity
GAMES AND SIMULATIONS
Decision-making skills
Management training
Interpersonal skills
Resembles the job tasks
Provides feedback
Presents realistic challenges
K
A
Decision-making practiceS
Real-world training materials
S
Active learning
Problem-solving practice A
N
Gains experience of other roles
D
Active learning
Close to reality
R
A
CASE STUDY OR ANALYSIS
Decision-making skills
Analytical skills
Communication skills
To illustrate diversity of solutions
ROLE-PLAYING
For changing attitudes
To practice skills
To analyze interpersonal problems
BEHAVIORAL MODELING
To teach interpersonal skills
To teach cognitive skills
To teach training/teaching skills
Allows practice
Provides feedback
Retention is improved
Strong research evidence
SENSITIVITY TRAINING
To enhance self-awareness
To allow trainees to see how others see them
Use multiple methods
2
1
Can improve self-concept6
Can reduce prejudice
1
Can change interpersonal behaviors
T
S
Highly competitive
Time-consuming
May stifle creativity
Must be updated
Trainers often dominate discussions
Initial resistance of trainees
May not take it seriously
Time-consuming
May be costly to develop
May be threatening
May have limited generalizability
content (e.g., use an interactive approach to teach interpersonal skills), (4) allow for active
participation by the trainees to fit with the adult learning model, (5) provide opportunities for practice and overlearning, (6) provide feedback on performance during training,
(7) be structured from simple to complex, (8) encourage positive transfer from the training to the job, and (9) be cost effective. In many cases, trainers will use different techniques. For example, teaching supervisors how to give performance feedback may first
begin with a lecture or overview of the performance appraisal process, followed by smallgroup discussions or videotapes depicting effective coaching, and then role-plays to have
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8 / Training and Development
supervisors practice their feedback skills. In addition to using multiple methods for training
employees, employers should also have numerous ways for employees to enhance their
learning. At ASTD’s BEST rated firms in 2010, the top 10 tools or approaches being used
consisted of: classroom instruction (97.1 percent), assessments (75.2 percent), in-person
coaching (71.9 percent), blended learning (e.g., combinations of synchronous and asynchronous classroom and e-learning) (68.5 percent), in-person mentoring (66.3 percent),
learning management systems (63.5 percent), asynchronous learning systems such as ondemand modules (63 percent), synchronous learning system (e.g., WebEx, Centra, Adobe
Acrobat Connect) (63 percent), courseware authoring tools (e.g., Toolbook Instructor,
Adobe Captivate, Trivantis Lectora) (56.5 percent), and rapid development tools (e.g.,
Articulate Presenter, Toolbook Assistant, PowerPoint conversion tools) (53.9 percent).65
Informational Methods
Lectures
Informational methods W
are used primarily to teach factual material, skills, or attitudes.
Generally, they do not require the trainee to actually experience or practice the material
I session. Some of the more commonly used informational techtaught during the training
niques include lectures, L
audio and video media, and self-directed learning (SDL) methods.
E-learning is one of the most popular approaches today.
L
I most commonly used technique for training employees and
The lecture method is the
teaching students. As the 2010 ASTD State of the Industry report noted, classroom inS
struction is not being replaced by emerging technologies and informal learning. In fact,
, reported that their organizations currently use classroom instruc97 percent of respondents
tion and less than 1 percent no longer use it. Instead, new technologies supplement classroom instruction.66 The method is often supplemented with group discussions, audiovisual
aids, motion pictures, orK
television. The approach can also vary in the degree to which discussion is permitted, since
A some lectures involve all one-way communication, while others may allow trainees to participate by asking questions or providing comments. Despite
S recent research shows that lecture-based training is quite an
the criticism of this method,
effective way to facilitate
Sthe transfer of theories, concepts, procedures, and other factual
material.67 In addition, a meta-analysis of the effects of lecture, modeling, and active parA of older trainees found that all three methods had positive
ticipation on the performance
effects on learning and skill
N measures.68
Copyright © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
Audio and Video Media
Two good websites for
creating podcasts
D
A variety of audiovisuals are available to trainers, including films, videos, slides, overheads, audiotapes, flip charts,
R and chalkboards. Videoconferencing has gained in popularity as costs have become more affordable for employers and different systems have
A
become more compatible. The staff of Greenberg Traurig, an international law firm, set up
a videoconference system that is used almost constantly to share information and multimedia presentations in the 2
375-attorney firm.69 FedEx Kinko’s has videoconferencing facilities available at over 150 U.S. locations,with costs of about $225 per hour.70 Other firms
using videoconferencing1include JCPenney, IBM, AT&T, and Texas Instruments. Many
firms also use webinars 6
to make workshops available to employees. At Weichert Co., its
own university has integrated face-to-face learning with online discussions (webinars) to
1
help train real estate agents.
Podcasting is anotherTpopular method to reinforce and promote training to its target audience. It involves recording a portion of audio or video content that is useful and posting
it online or on the firm’sSintranet site and providing a link to download the recording. The
use of podcasting has shown some benefits for the training function, including reduced training costs, increased participation, and greater learner engagement. One organization reported
being able to deliver its training for $30,000 instead of $125,000 since it reduced the number
of training sessions by 50 percent. Another firm was able to get 70 percent participation instead of the usual 40 percent participation by using podcasts for training. Two helpful sites
for creating podcasts are: www.freeconference.com and www.audioacrobat.com. Use the
first website to get participants’ permission to be recorded and the second site to publish
your podcast. Audio Acrobat generates the appropriate HTML codes for the website, the
e-mails, and the downloads. There are both audio and video podcasts that can be used.
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3 / Developing Human Resource Capability
Podcasts will not replace live, in-person training, but they are making it easier for trainees
to engage in training on their own schedule, with some of the latest technology, and at a
reasonable price.71
Self-Directed Learning
(SDL) Methods
Advantages of SDL
SDLRS and outcomes
Several informational methods for training are considered to be SDL approaches because
the trainee takes responsibility for learning the necessary knowledge and skills at his or
her own pace. A wide range of decisions can be given to the trainee, including the topic of
study, objectives, resources, schedule, learning strategy, type and sequence of activities,
and media. In most cases, trainees work without direct supervision, set their own pace, and
are allowed to choose their own activities, resources, and learning environments. Generally, the training department’s role is to provide assistance by establishing learning centers
with available materials and by having trained facilitators on hand for questions. Larger
companies such as Motorola, Sunoco, and Office Depot have been successful in setting up
such centers and encouraging self-directed
learning by employees. In these centers, trainW
ees can be given self-assessment tools or instruments.
The advantages of SDL includeI (1) reduced training time, as compared to more conventional methods (e.g., lecture); L
(2) more favorable attitudes by trainees compared to
conventional techniques; (3) more consistency with an adult learning approach; (4) miniL
mal reliance on instructors or trainers; (5) mobility (i.e., a variety of places can be used
I can learn at their own pace); (7) consistency of the
for training); (6) flexibility (trainees
information taught to all trainees; and (8) cost savings. There are also several disadvanS
tages, including (1) high developmental time for course materials and extensive planning
,
requirements, (2) difficulties in revising
and updating materials, and (3) limited interactions with peers and trainers.
Research indicates that employees with high levels of readiness for SDL as measured
K
by the Self-Directed Learning Readiness
Scale (SDLRS) were more likely to be higher72
level managers, to be outstanding performers,
to possess greater creativity,73 and to have
A74
a higher degree of life satisfaction. Also, employees who were outstanding performers
S
in jobs requiring high levels of creativity
or problem solving or involving high levels of
change were more likely to have high
SDLRS
scores. In addition, employees with higher
S
SDLRS scores were successful in relatively unstructured learning situations in which more
A75 A variety of SDL approaches are available. Two
responsibility rests on the learners.
of the more commonly used techniques
N include independent study and various forms of
e-learning. Independent study requires a trainee to read, synthesize, and remember the
D
contents of written material, audio or videotapes, or other sources of information. The training or personnel department can develop
R a library of materials for trainees to use in teaching
themselves at their own pace various skills or knowledges. Companies such as Coors, DigiA
tal Equipment Corporation, Kraft, and U.S. Gypsum utilize extensive self-study materials
for their sales employees. Trainees can also design their own training curriculum by opting
for correspondence courses or enrolling
2 in independent study courses at local schools or on
the web. Generally, in these programs, trainees are required to master the content on their
1
own without direct supervision. Sanofi-aventis
is one of the largest pharmaceutical firms
and a winner of the 2007 ASTD BEST
firms.
In
addition to classroom training, it has an
6
extensive self-directed learning program consisting of more than 700 courses offered via
1 and online. Every employee is encouraged to create
CD-ROM, textbook, audio CD, DVD,
an individual development plan, andTemployees are required to earn continuing professional
education hours annually. Trainers have used Brainshark Rapid Learning, an asynchronous
S
development tool, to create online learning
objects and to track learners’ progress.76
E-learning is typically (although not always) an individualized learning method
that allows for study of material online. With the proliferation of e-learning, podcasts,
and webinars, the control of learning is shifting from the trainer to the learner, although
e-learning typically includes both self-paced and instructor-led online learning. According
to the ASTD 2010 State of the Industry report, the use of e-learning is at its highest level
yet, and in 2009, 27.7 percent of all formal learning hours were made available online.
Often, a tough economic climate favors the use of e-learning to improve efficiency since
trainees can access the material at any time or from any location. UBS uses an e-based
program to train new stockbrokers. Best Buy uses e-learning for technical training such as
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8 / Training and Development
More effective for training
“declarative” knowledge
Copyright © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
Social Media
Technologies
for Learning
installing car stereos. Caterpillar has an extensive e-learning program. Intercontinental Hotels Group offers “The Academy,” which enables employees to access in-depth e-learning
opportunities on key business topics such as finance, coaching, and branded customer
experience. ICICI Bank refreshes training by sending daily text-messages to employees’
mobile phones.77
Most programs build in the important learning principles by (1) specifying what is to be
learned (i.e., the behavioral objectives); (2) breaking down the learning topic into small,
discrete steps; (3) presenting each step to the trainee and requiring him or her to respond to
each step of the learning process (by reading each part); (4) testing the trainees’ learning
at each step (by responding to questions); (5) providing immediate feedback to the trainee
on whether his or her response was correct or incorrect; and (6) testing the level of skill
or knowledge acquired at the end of the training module. E-learning has replaced “programmed instruction” in training classification but is based on the same principles. One
recent study found that web-based
instruction was more effective than classroom instrucW
tion for teaching declarative knowledge, and was equally effective in teaching procedural
knowledge, and traineesIwere equally satisfied with both methods.
L
L
ASTD’s 2011 State of the Industry reports indicated that social media technologies are
I
gaining in use for work-related
learning (in addition to personal usage). Some of the most
common types of social media technologies being used for learning include: shared workS
spaces (e.g., SharePoint, Google Docs), social networks (e.g., Facebook, LinkedIn), Podcasts, Wikis, Blogs (e.g.,, Wordpress, LiveJournal), Shared Media (e.g., YouTube, Flickr),
Micro-blogs (e.g., Twitter, Yammer), Social bookmarking (e.g., Digg, reddit), Virtual
worlds (e.g., Second Life), and Augmented realities (e.g., Layar). They also revealed
generational differencesKin usage of these technologies for work. As expected, younger
generations such as Millennials
were more likely to use the majority of technologies more
A
often than older generations (Baby Boomers) except for podcasts and virtual worlds. More
S
than 80 percent of respondents
also indicated that they expected the use of social media
for learning in their organizations
to increase over the next 3 years. This is important since
S
Millennials believe that social media are very useful for learning. Farmers Group, Inc., is
A social media for its training function. Through its “Agency
one firm that has been using
Insider” program, it allows
N the trainees to specify how they want to receive the learning,
via Twitter, Facebook, e-mail, or RSS feed. Genpact, a business unit within GE located in
D
India, uses a blended learning model including classroom instruction, e-learning courseware, webinars, knowledge
R portals, and blogs to help employees learn new knowledge
and skills.78
A
Online courses rely on a self-directed learning approach and are gaining in popularity
with the rise of podcasts, teleconferences, and instant messaging. Online training is a viable alternative to classroom
2 training and is used to teach almost everything. Despite the
numerous benefits of online courses, HR professionals should exercise caution when using
1 “soft skills.” Participants need opportunities to interact and
a web-based format to teach
practice to truly learn them.
6 If online courses will be used to teach softer skills, trainers
should use a variety of exercises, videos, audios, and graphics so that trainees enjoy the
1 to practice the skills. Trainers should also make sure that the
training and are more likely
online courses are designed
T to show how learning will promote success on the job, use
peers to support the training, break the skills into concrete learning modules, provide feedS and create opportunities to practice the skills. Some e-learning
back throughout the course,
designers have been working on creating activities that are both interactive and effective
and “don’t leave learners stuck on autopilot.”79
Experiential Methods
Experiential methods are often used to teach physical and cognitive skills and abilities.
These techniques include OJT, computer-based training (CBT), equipment simulations,
games and other simulations, case analyses, role-playing, and behavior modeling. In addition, a variety of electronic training-delivery media and distance learning techniques have
become popular as instructional/experiential methods.
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3 / Developing Human Resource Capability
On-the-Job Training
Much industrial training is conducted on the job (e.g., at the work site and in the context
of the job). Often, it is informal, as when an experienced worker shows a trainee how to
perform the job tasks. The trainer may watch over the trainee to provide guidance during
practice or learning. For example, sales employees use coaching calls where a senior sales
person coaches a new sales employee. Five steps are utilized.80
1. Observation of the new employee.
2. Feedback obtained by the new employee.
3. Consensus (i.e., the coach and the new employee arrive at an agreement as to the
strengths and weaknesses of the sales call).
4. Rehearsal of a new sales call.
5. Review of the employee’s performance.
Conditions when OJT
is best
In 2006, Ruby Tuesday’s restaurants
W introduced a “master’s” program. Company leaders attended training and were certified as “burger masters.” They then went back to their
I consistency among restaurants. They also opened
restaurants to teach their staff to ensure
a culinary arts center, which is dedicated
L to building a hands-on training experience for all
employees from hourly to senior managers. Within the first year, they were able to retain
L
more highly trained staff and turnover was decreased by 20 percent from the previous year.81
I with the development of new employees, it can also
Although OJT is often associated
be used to update or broaden the skills of existing employees when new procedures or
S
work methods are introduced. In some cases, the trainer may be a retired employee. For
instance, at Corning Glass Works,,new employees are paired with retirees for a brief onthe-job introduction regarding the company culture and market data. Following this, they
are exposed to formal classroom and field training.82 Many companies combine OJT with
K
formal classroom training. At McDonald’s,
after a 3-hour induction, new employees are
partnered with a buddy who is a member
of
the
training squad.83 Dow Chemical alternates
A
sales employees between classroom training at corporate headquarters and OJT experiS Wang Laboratories spends up to 9 months alternatences in the field for a year. Similarly,
ing salespeople from company headquarters
and field offices. Restaurant employees at the
S
Hard Rock Café are trained by OJT and the use of job aids (i.e., training materials). WorkA 84
ers view this approach very favorably.
OJT is best used when one-on-one
N training is necessary, only a small number (usually
fewer than five) of employees need to be trained, classroom instruction is not appropriate,
D
work in progress cannot be interrupted, a certain level of proficiency on a task is needed
for certification, and equipment or R
safety restrictions make other training techniques inappropriate. The training should emphasize equipment or instruments that are to be used as
A
well as safety issues or dangerous processes.
Apprenticeship programs often are considered OJT programs because they involve
a substantial amount of OJT, even2though they do consist of some off-the-job training.
Typically, the trainee follows a prescribed order of coursework and hands-on experience.
1 apprenticeship programs, and many require a miniThe Department of Labor regulates
mum of 144 hours of classroom instruction
each year as well as OJT with a skilled em6
ployee.85 Many professions (e.g., medicine) or trades require some type of apprenticeship
1 2 to 5 years. Some of the most common occupations
program that may last anywhere from
to offer apprenticeship programs include
electricians, carpenters, plumbers, pipe fitters,
T
sheet-metal workers, machinists, tool-and-die makers, roofers, firefighters, bricklayers,
S operating engineers, correction officers, and mecooks, structural-steel workers, painters,
86
chanics. In Europe, apprenticeships are still one of the most likely ways for individuals
to gain entry into skilled jobs, while in the United States only 2 percent of high school
graduates enter apprenticeship programs.87 This is a problem for the U.S. workforce since
the pool of qualified skilled labor for future jobs has been shrinking. In France in one apprenticeship program alone, there are currently 4,200 apprentices with the Association
des Compagnons du Devoir (elite artisans responsible for restoring historical sites such as
Notre Dame Cathedral and Arc de Triomphe). Restricted to men, they begin as young as
15 and undertake up to 9 years of lessons, community chores, and hands-on training with
6,500 companies that have contracts with them. They train for an additional 2 years and
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8 / Training and Development
have to complete a personal building project. Only one in 10 typically survives the apprenticeship period and is allowed to join the ranks of Compagnons.88
Another commonly used technique for OJT training is job rotation, which involves
moving employees from one job to another to broaden their experience. Many U.S. companies are showing greater interest in having their employees be able to perform several job
functions so that their workforce is more flexible and interchangeable. For example, in the
automobile industry today, it is fairly common to see employees being trained on two or
more tasks (e.g., painting and welding). This might be done in order to relieve employees’
boredom as well as make the company less dependent on specialized workers. GE requires
all managerial trainees to participate in an extensive job rotation program in which the
trainees must perform all jobs they will eventually supervise. This helps managers develop
the broader background required for future managerial positions. At Lockheed Martin, a
leadership development program was established for new HR college recruits. They are
rotated to a variety of HRW
departments (recruiting, selection, compensation) to gain broader
experiences as HR professionals.
Copyright © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
Computer-Based Training
(CBT)/E-Learning
I
SHRM conducted a survey
L and found that when used effectively, e-learning has been able
to deliver training for large numbers of employees at reduced costs and that there was
L
an increased usage of e-learning during an economic downturn.89 Another study found
I was more effective than classroom instruction for teaching
that web-based instruction
declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge. Interestingly, the researchers also noted
S
that trainees were more satisfied with web-based classes that had higher levels of human
,
interaction than lower levels.
When trainees were not given the opportunity to interact
with others during web-based courses, they preferred classroom instruction.90 One leading provider of CBT software, CBT Group, has training deals with Cisco Systems, IBM,
K
Informix, Microsoft, Netscape
Communications, Novell, Oracle, PeopleSoft, SAP, and
Sybase, among others. A
Effective computer skill training is vital to organizational productivity. One recent
study demonstrated thatS
the behavior modeling approach to computer skill training could
be improved by incorporating
S symbolic mental rehearsal (SMR). SMR is a specific form
of mental rehearsal that establishes a cognitive link between visual images and symbolic
A recommend that practitioners use SMR for improving the
memory codes. The authors
effectiveness of computer
Nskill training.91
Chunking refers to chopping computer-based training into its smallest parts and sendD
ing them through a network so that learners receive just the instruction they need when they
need it. Spring Corporation
R chunks CBT on the corporate intranet and is one of the leaders
in using training over an intranet.92 The most popular processing software packages (e.g.,
A
Microsoft Word) use CBT to introduce learners to the use of the software. The U.S. Armed
Forces use CBT extensively for training many of their technicians. In fact, the military
and NASA have numerous
2 advanced technologies such as intelligent tutoring systems and
virtual reality that are used for training purposes.93 In some CBT programs, trainees interact
directly with computers1to actually learn and practice new skills. This is done similarly
to the PI system and is 6
called computer-assisted instruction (CAI). For example, Dialect
Interactive Lectures (DIALECT) are university lectures that have been converted into
multimedia-based digital1 learning material. DIALECT use animation, computer simulations, and hyperlink facilities
T to guide students through lectures.94 CBT has the advantage
of being self-paced, standardized, self-sufficient, easily available, and flexible. This is parS fast-paced environment, where organizations cannot afford
ticularly important in today’s
for employees to be away from the job for large amounts of time. In fact, many employees
view it as a proven way to save time and money while delivering consistent content.
Electronic training-delivery media involve some of the fastest-growing instructional
methods. The latest round of CBT-oriented software offers revolutionary ways in which
interactive training is developed and delivered. Multimedia training programs often feature
text, graphics, sound, pictures, videos, simulations, and hyper-text links that enable trainees to structure their own learning experiences.95 The Home Depot delivers training on its
more than 40,000 products to employees via the company’s web-based training model, a
video-driven e-learning experience that consists of 15 minutes of video and synchronized
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3 / Developing Human Resource Capability
test, followed by an assessment.96 Most CBT systems support links to the Internet and to
corporate intranets. Internet-based e-learning has emerged as a cost- and time-efficient way
to address many companies’ training needs. For example, B&W Pantex, a nuclear weapons
management site, replaced many of its classroom sessions with computer-based training
and quick stand-up meetings by frontline managers. Since 2007, it found that training efficiency improved by 49 percent. Many of ASTD’s BEST firms also use online learning in
combination with other techniques.97
Distance Learning
Programs
Benefits of distance
learning
Online education is the fastest growing sector of the training market. Online learners have
gone from 3 million in 2001 to more than 6 million by 2006.98 Many resources now exist
for designing and implementing distance learning programs.99 In addition, a comprehensive list of vendors is provided by the Distance Education Clearinghouse website (http://
www.uwex.edu/disted).
To incorporate a “green” perspective
W into its training, Tata Consultancy Services Ltd
converted its in-house conference to a virtual conference. Employees across 40 locations
I using web-, video, or audio-conferencing facilities.
around the world were able to connect
This led to a large increase in participation
and a reduction in the conference’s carbon
L
footprint and expenses.100 The Schwan Food Company expanded the educational opportuL
nities it offered to its employees. It contracted with three accredited institutions to create
I
7-week online modules that help students
earn bachelor’s degrees in 3 years or less. It also
created an associate’s degree and an MBA. University Health Systems created an online
S
multicultural sensitivity series that included on-demand video presentations by subject
101
,
matter experts.
Research on the effectiveness of distance education programs has only begun.102 In
general, offering training or educational programs over the Internet enables employees
to access high-quality education atKtheir own pace. They have access to class material,
conduct research without traveling,
Aand have dialogs with professors and classmates via
e-mail, bulletin boards, and chat rooms. Some programs use videoconferencing or transmit
lectures via satellite. In this regard,Sstudents may have an easier time juggling careers and
families.103 Numerous organizations
S have successfully used distance ...
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