The Grounded Theory Review (2014), Volume 13, Issue 1 Marshaling Resources: A Classic Grounded Theory Study of Online Learners Barbara Yalof, American College of Education and Harcum College Abstract Classic grounded theory (CGT) was used to identify a main concern of online students in higher education. One of the main impediments to studying online is a sense of isolation and lack of access to support systems as students navigate through complex requirements of their online programs. Hypothetical probability statements illustrate the imbalance between heightened needs of virtual learners and perceived inadequate support provided by educational institutions. The core variable, marshaling resources, explains how peer supports sustain motivation toward successful program completion. Understanding the critical contribution virtual interpersonal networks make towards maximizing resources by group problem solving is a significant aspect of this theory. Keywords: Online learning, e-learning, personal learning networks, peer networks Background Online programs present a particularly appealing alternative to face-to-face programs in higher education as economic realities force more students to retain employment to pay for spiraling costs of education. The economic potential of the growing online market has not been lost on institutions of higher learning. Traditional programs have struggled to sustain a viable student base, but they can increase their numbers through the addition of national and international online students (Appana, 2008). In 2012, enrollment in online courses grew 9%, with the proportion of students enrolled in online courses at 32%, an all-time high (Allen & Seaman, 2013). In light of the continual growth of online courses it is particularly alarming that attrition in online programs can exceed that of traditional programs by 10-20% (Allen & Seaman, 2010). Not only do students who leave an online program forfeit learning opportunities, but the institution also suffers lower enrollment, thereby imposing financial strain and reducing the vibrancy of the student body. Sustainability of programs in higher education relies heavily on recruitment of student populations who complete their programs and conclude that their academic experience has been a worthwhile investment (Gittings, 2010). Empirical studies have not explained sufficiently how institutions can reduce online attrition (Kember & Leung, 2009; Tinto, 2012). Kember (1989) recognized the need to generate theories that explain attrition from online programs. He maintained that it is difficult to draw conclusions because the number of constructs in this substantive area is 16 The Grounded Theory Review (2014), Volume 13, Issue 1 “unwieldy if not unmanageable” (p. 279). The use of CGT provides the writer a greater understanding of the “motivational drivers” (Glaser, 1998, p. 32) of a particular group of participants. Discovering the main concern of online students through the systematic application of GT methodology draws into focus the dominant psychological coping mechanisms of online students. The Theory of Marshaling Resources The main concern for online learners distilled from this study is a feeling of disconnect or isolation, which may manifest itself as panic or anger, when confronted with a barrier to success. Because studying online is accomplished in a solitary virtual environment, students interact with the computer and must be able to navigate the learning management system and engage with the material in the absence of peer support. As learners progress through their programs, they find inconsistencies between their own expectations and needs and their online educational environment (Kiliç-Çakmak, Karatas, & Ocak, 2009). Glaser (1978) discusses how people position themselves (in this case, for success) by purposefully managing others. Students learn how to maximize resources and reduce frustration by building peer connections. As groups progress from mutual dependency to reciprocity, trust builds, and relationships deepen. Harnessing the power of this safe haven they have created online, students vent and reinvigorate. Marshaling resources illuminates how and why people find camaraderie when they need to feel a stronger sense of connection. Given the promise of grounded theory to analyze patterns of human behavior in a systematic manner, I conducted a study around the grand tour question “Please talk about your experience as an online learner” to develop a theory that would provide a “theoretical foothold”(Glaser & Strauss, 1965, p. 268) into understanding problems that confront online students. What issues contribute to the high rate of attrition? Data were coded and compared and relationships between concepts analyzed to reveal several hypothetical probability statements to explain patterns of behavior problematic for participants (Glaser, 1978). The processes of constant comparison analysis (CCA) of data (Glaser, 1965), concurrent theoretical sampling, and the researcher’s theoretical sensitivity were the tools used to guide the emergent theory (Holton, 2010). Theoretical memos served as the basis for comparison and were written by the researcher “as they strike the analyst while coding” (author’s italics) (Glaser, 1978, p.83). Information was gathered from 18 undergraduate and graduate students in 14 online colleges. These participants administer, counsel, and teach in online programs, and provide divergent perspectives on pertinent issues. Theoretical sampling guided the choice of participants. In order to saturate categories, I chose participants who are satisfied with their programs, who had been extremely frustrated at some point, and who had dropped out. Information from experts was solicited and discussion groups of online learners in professional learning networks were examined and coded for relevant information to provide a well-rounded view of the current state of online education (Glaser, 2007). Marshaling resources highlights the power of social networking to fend off isolation and to create a network of like-minded peers who together solve problems that seem 17 The Grounded Theory Review (2014), Volume 13, Issue 1 unsolvable alone. The ability to trust others from afar transforms the learner’s experience of aloneness into one of powerful bonding. Marshaling resources includes the interrelated indicators of mattering, teaching ambience, navigating emotions, tipping point, breaking off, and replenishing. Mattering A nurturing presence, be it human or spiritual, is crucial to success in online learning. Online students may never meet anyone from their college, yet they want to believe they matter and what they are doing has value. Learners realize they may need to create a system of support, as they find the educational institution is unable to provide for all of their needs. Many develop a group of people who at first care about the same thing and then learn to care about each other; sometimes very deeply. Properties of mattering are sustaining motivation, practicing expertise, virtual invisibility, and connecting virtually. As a group coalesces, members form an emotional scaffold during stressful times. Peer networks eliminate isolation and associated feelings of anger and depression that occur if progress is twarted. Mattering applies also to the belief that the work accomplished in the online program will be beneficial for future employment and merits the significant hours of work involved. Coursework that complements practical skills is inherently motivating. One respondent notes “when assignments include freedom to use class assignments to enhance my employment skills, I feel that I am really learning and wanting to be there.” When coursework does not offer immediate application to work, students turn to peers to sustain motivation and enrich learning through socialization. Students enhance the creation or building of their own support systems through practicing expertise. Oftentimes, they provide information to peers in a quasi-teaching role, thereby enhancing their own feelings of self-worth by sharing their skills. In the online classroom, a more informed peer scaffolds a less knowledgeable peer by interpreting what is going on. This allows one person to lean safely on another without fear of being judged. These roles can reverse at any time, as tutoring relationships become the basis for personal relationships, which in turn become part of a support network. In this way, particularly in classrooms with low teacher presence, online students enlist others to make sense of assignments and achieve mastery over material. In turn, they reach out to help others as they internalize the power of reciprocity. Benevolent behavior helps people form friendships, which lead to co-building knowledge and teamwork (Knowles, 2008). Eventually, if mutually desired, repeated exchanges lead to a more intimate personal involvement. It is important to note that most of these group members never meet, yet are described as “family”. Without the benefit of face-to-face interaction, problem solving is more complex and can contribute to virtual invisibility, a feeling that, because you cannot be seen, your request can go unnoticed or ignored? One participant with a dual role as online teacher and student remarks how easy it is to ignore an online student in need. Those who study online 18 The Grounded Theory Review (2014), Volume 13, Issue 1 usually have time-sensitive issues, and stress compounds as time passes and nothing is resolved. A participant notes, “Once I get angry, I am wasting my time when I should be working.” It is relatively easy to mitigate these negative feelings. Data show that a simple act of a quick, personalized reply is effective in alleviating negative emotions, which begin to swell when people feel ignored. Relationships help redefine an isolating environment into a more nurturing one. Connecting virtually to others is a powerful motivator, as participants speak of not wanting to let down the people who believe in them. Teaching Ambience Encouragement from one who cares serves as a motivator for online students. The course instructor, though not visible in a corporeal sense, provides the teaching ambience, which directly affects course effectiveness and student satisfaction. A participant compares course experiences with a peer who had a different teacher in this same course. The peer teacher is warm and nurturing, while the other is non-responsive. The participant’s desire to continue online studies is revitalized after a course with a teacher who appreciates and shares her sense of humor. Data show many times it is the course instructor who guides the student back into the class and makes the most important contribution to student success. Properties of teaching ambience are feeling lost, rubric reply, and positioning to share. Instructor absence contributes to a sense of feeling lost in the online classroom. Data reveal this: as online teacher presence decreases, student struggle increases. Controlling class is a property of teaching ambience that attributes skill and willingness of the instructor to provide timely, constructive support and structure to student success. Without a visible and competent instructor presence, participants are susceptible to losing interest easily. One participant remarks that she sometimes feels as if she is her own teacher, and she has a grader who passes judgment, and she is not sure if she is learning. A learning environment ideal for constructing knowledge provides parameters for mutual respect and makes students feel safe to express themselves. In the absence of a strong teacher presence to enforce rules and classroom structures, numerous concerns arise. Participants note problems interpreting assignments and intense “unmonitored arguments among students.” Indolent peers might create annoyances, while other vocal students participate in arguments that derail learning through learner disengagement. This study corroborates research by Cull, Reed, and Kirk (2012) who note that chaos that can ensue without supportive presence of a knowledgeable instructor. This presence is essential to student intellectual growth and emotional stability; it stabilizes the group, and prevents flare-outs that derail learning. Rubric reply is a response that comes from a teacher in the form of feedback that lacks personalization. Many times comments are made and grade deductions are taken without specifics of how to improve their work. Data show assignments are difficult to 19 The Grounded Theory Review (2014), Volume 13, Issue 1 interpret and seem vague, and students feel they must tiptoe softly rather than ask for clarification. Online students can be nurtured by fellow students and in turn may nurture, but prefer to choose whom they nurture. Positioning to share is an aspect of the teaching environment as it informs classroom ambience relating to collaboration. The majority of online students do not want to collaborate, and view the forced collaboration of the online environment as impeding their learning. Certain conditions must be met in order for these students to build a mentoring relationship. They must possess a certain level of need for the relationship in order for them to engage. One participant says she understands that collaboration is “supposed to be a growth experience,” but does “not want to end up doing the extra work involved when folks do not live up to my standards.” High functioning online students are frustrated by the apathy of students who are supposed to be fellow collaborators. Eventually, foundering but motivated students gain confidence, and are welcomed as group members. The desire to build connections may begin in collaborative groups if potential members are identified by their positive response to nurturing. Navigating Emotions Navigating emotions involves the skill of the online learner to progress through complex learning management systems and degree requirements without letting negativity become overwhelming. Online students often encounter situations or emergencies, and students may think of dropping out if they encounter rigid authoritarian policies and attitudes. Remaining flexible is a property of navigating emotions. Online learners suffer less when institutions are flexible, and data revealed this to be contrary to the case in many situations. Navigating emotions is characterized by tiptoeing softly and relinquishing control. Tiptoeing softly involves not wanting to stand out as a complainer. In instances that do require clarification and support, online students try to finesse communications with those who are in a position to judge their work. One student describes a situation where she had misunderstood an assignment and received a poor grade, “Although I felt that it was her responsibility to provide remediation for me, you don’t want to alienate.” Online students often feel they have been wrongly judged, yet do not believe the fight is important enough to risk losing the teacher’s good graces. Relinquishing control applies as online learners reflect on the emotional turmoil of feeling misunderstood. Relinquishing resistance by continuing on despite these feelings, they are able to let negative comments go. One participant was unable to do this and was affronted by every perceived slight to her intelligence. The student was infuriated by not being able to challenge the teacher face-to-face and point-by-point. She ultimately left her program, feeling she could not control the situation from afar. Participants speak of seeing online chats become filled with angry rants. Few noticed angry comments within the classroom discussions; most negative comments were posted on the chat boards not seen by those who had the power to assess their performance. Students who develop trusted peers with whom they share are not likely to flame out in this way. 20 The Grounded Theory Review (2014), Volume 13, Issue 1 Many comments on chat boards are posted to receive support, be understood, and be heard. One student on a chat group I coded declared that she was finished; she has had enough. She received so many supportive replies in response to her cry and saw how much her trajectory towards program completion mattered to peers that she was mollified. Today I received a Linked In request from her with the much-desired “Dr.” in front of her name. Tipping Point A tipping point is reached when a solution to a problem does not appear to be within easy reach. Pressure and turmoil increase as unmet needs begin to outweigh support provided by the institution. Feelings of isolation and anger ensue. The very issues that caused others to flounder do not particularly disturb many participants. A tipping point occurs when the status quo alters and expectations or protocol undergoes a transformation. Policies that are changed midstream may force people into tighter deadlines or situations they are unprepared to accept. Subsequent points of frustration occur where systems of support provided by more structured environment give way to more independent projects. Lack of a strong teaching presence or poor responsiveness of the teacher causes stress that may be unbearable. Judgments passed in harshness, if not accompanied by a remedy or remediation, push online students to feel unsupported and they may flounder. Breaking Off Too much stress and harsh judgment may cause a sufferer to think about abandoning his or her efforts towards a goal. A high level of stress is associated with online students’ unmet needs. Students may feel ignored, invisible, and angry. These emotions precipitate a critical juncture (Glaser, 1998) characterized by thoughts of breaking off. Online learners assess the cost of failure (Scott, 2007) and may begin to look for help. Students who proactively search for resources (marshal) are in a better position to continue efforts to reach their goal. Marshaling resources is a skill that can be developed to avoid getting emotionally “dragged under” by perceived lack of support. Online students who have positioned for success have taken responsibility for organizing their own system of support. They may have a clearer picture of how to move forward, and do not face the lethargy that isolation may engender. Students who study online must master both program material and their emotions to move smoothly through a curriculum. Support from their peer group empowers both of these areas. Replenishing When emotional scaffolding is in place, energy is replenished by sharing and venting. A safe place to release stress reduces the chance of anxiety becoming overwhelming and unremitting. Students can be re-energized and reinvigorated even by small gestures of 21 The Grounded Theory Review (2014), Volume 13, Issue 1 consolation. Teachers have power to instill a positive attitude in students through personalized feedback. A change to a different instructor can revive a student’s interest in a class in which they struggle. Properties of replenishing are deepening faith and forging alliances. One participant discovers that she was in the same class as a new acquaintance, but with a different teacher. She shares this insight: Teachers interpret the same parameters of each class differently. They each had the same rules from the school but I discovered over the course of the program that they used a lot of flexibility in how they interpreted the rules. From this I realized that not all teachers are the same, and she had a great teacher. Although the course itself was exactly the same as mine, she was having a great experience. What was the difference? Kindness and caring are powerful motivators. Both participants in the study and students who contribute personal comments to the chat boards attest to the importance of locating caring instructors and advisors because these relationships provide the sustenance they need to continue. A property of replenishing resources, deepening faith involves a way other than peer support that online students find emotional scaffolding to resolve problems. While some students have already assembled the rudiments of a virtual social network, others receive spiritual strength from belief in a higher power. They are able to deepen their faith in response to stress. As faith gives strength, so faith is strengthened. This cyclical process describes the power of faith to heal anger and help people find a path out of difficult situations. Those who have deep faith believe their struggles will resolve itself. The cyclical nature of deepening faith involves both trust in oneself and faith in a higher power. Faith empowers the individual and provides self-perpetuating relief from aloneness and stress. Connecting with spiritual feelings also creates powerful bridges from invisibility to visibility and from from despair to hope. Forging alliance with peers provides strong support to those who require a two-way communication. Through faith and from peer support, students find a willingness to endure that persists despite the realization that concessions may be necessary. People decide that failure is not an option and push through barriers to achieve a goal. Discussion The theory of marshaling resources addresses the critical need for new theories to guide the emergent field of online learning (Kember & Leung, 2009, Saba, 2011). Saba (2011) noted the absence of theory in studies conducted using only the requirements of quasiexperimental research. The theory illuminates the various ways that online students of different temperaments respond to a common concern, which is the isolation and helplessness in the face of perceived lack of available institutional resources. It is not necessarily a linear process, as the level of neediness varies with each student, as does their ability to marshal support from capable sources. The more support students perceive is available, the fewer resources, both personal and psychological, are required to sustain the persistence effort. Imbalances between needs and supports provided by the educational institution can diminish student retention. The theory indicates development of strong systems of support is a mostly student driven phenomenon, despite the fact that human connection is an essential component of learning online. Certainly, not all online courses contain the same requirement for social 22 The Grounded Theory Review (2014), Volume 13, Issue 1 interaction. Not all students share the same propensity for learners to want to interact online. Scott (2007) makes the point that inopportune circumstances such as differing schedules or time zones increase complications for online students. People with a highly developed personal commitment styles may thus be thwarted in their attempts to fulfill all requirements of collaborative projects in a timely manner. They may also experience extreme frustration feeling the pull of wanting to have the work completed on time but not having all of the pieces in on time. On the other side of the collaboration discussion, data from this study show strong desire to build and lean on relationships with other students. The process of marshaling resources can also increase passion for learning through the process of co-creating knowledge. The concept of collaborative creativity, as Scott (2007) mentioned, aligns with marshaling resources because it illuminates how a shared learning experience can positively transform a student’s perception of online learning. Participants who were active members of an online support group credited the group with not only intellectual stimulation but also emotional support to continue to completion despite obstacles. The same positive emotional response holds true for students who develop virtual relationships with faculty or staff members. Rather than cutting off potentially rewarding relationships with teachers who could assume mentorship roles, participants want colleges to help them develop these relationships. Unfortunately, many institutions do not appear to value the student-to-staff connection and frequently change staff assignments. One participant relates this after months waiting for a helpful response from her unresponsive designated chairperson: I put in a request for a new chairperson. Then I was blessed with getting the chair I had asked for in the first place. This chair was excited to have me, not like the first chair. We were equally excited to work together. I had had her as a teacher and we had clicked. We just seemed to click through e-mails, and discovered a similar sense of humor. Replacing the student’s unresponsive chair allows her to reevaluate her belief about the responsiveness of her college to her needs and re-energizes her dissertation journey. The action of the college transforms a disgruntled student into a successful graduate. Implications for Practice Marshaling resources conceptualizes how unmet student needs might cause one student to consider dropping out and another to be empowered by the experience in order to move ahead. Probability of success is related directly to availability of institutional resources and ability to expend psychological resources to receive help. Online learners believe that the outcome of their situation depends on how flexible and supportive the institutional staff is willing to be. The fundamental message provided by online learners in this study is a deep concern that many of their needs, and the needs of their fellow students, are not met. Successful online students recognize they must act to build their own supports if they become disengaged or encounter trouble that virtual invisibility might engender. Through building relationships, they generate new resolve and this determines whether their path is 23 The Grounded Theory Review (2014), Volume 13, Issue 1 one of attrition or completion. Peer networks provide more emotional support than a teacher who does not create a strong presence. Importantly, online peer groups are able to transition from social discourse to cognitive support, and back again. It is important to understand better the role of collaboration in online classes. Increasingly, accreditation agencies require colleges to utilize these types of so-called knowledge-building activities in their online courses. Students who cannot choose their teachers or mentors bristle at enforced peer collaboration. Participants clearly want to choose with whom they are going to be working and have a good idea about with whom they do not want to collaborate. High achievers do not wish to learn from or with those who are not driven to learn. In order for collaboration to work, motivation to learn and share must come from all parties, and clear parameters for group work requirements should be enforced. Developing Ability to Marshal Resources Marshaling resources by building community can involve a transformation from being a taker of information to being a giver, and can deeply enriched the experience of those who participate in the exchange (Holton, 2007). While it is true that individuals possess finite resources, each person has the capacity to marshal resources thereby enabling him or her to maximize resources by employing a learning-support group to solve problems. Some individuals know instinctively who is a nurturing presence and whom they wish to befriend. Many individuals go out of their way to assist others and are happy to do so. Fit for other Substantive Areas To heighten appreciation of the issues underlying high attrition in online programs, the present study was conducted using a classic grounded theory design (Glaser, 1965; 1978). This grounded theory study provides more than an explanation of the experience of online students. Online students may have more at stake than other groups of people; yet, the theory applies to those who struggle to maintain forward momentum as they navigate complex systems in today’s society. The theory generated can be applied to people who find themselves in untenable situations or who face unsolvable problems alone. It explains how resiliency is found within from marshaling and accepting strength from others. Understanding the critical importance of personal networks to problem solving is a central component of this theory. Successful online students are able to discover and cultivate sources of support not readily apparent to all students. Marshaling resources can be applied (Glaser, 2002, p. 8) to help institutions in order to understand how to retain a greater number of students by ensuring their emotional needs are met. Because grounded theories are abstracted from time, place, and from specific groups of people (Glaser, 2001), the theory should have fit and grab (relevance) to other substantive areas (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). The need to secure alternative sources of support relates to people who struggle in all circumstances. Without the stability provided 24 The Grounded Theory Review (2014), Volume 13, Issue 1 by a source that is readily available to provide support, people cannot or are not able to progress forward. Ideally, people should cultivate resources and have them in place before a tipping point occurs. Marshaling resources may help individuals and institutions realize the importance of developing networks of support early in the process of obtaining a degree online or any other goal that involves extreme effort. In this networked world, connections made during the time in college or graduate school can foster the formation of learning networks that serve one well during employment (Siemens, 2008). Participants who are able to make meaningful connections while studying online find added value to their educational experience exceeding merely classroom learning. Categories such as forging alliances and deepening the faith describe the unrelenting efforts of participants who are driven to succeed. These concepts have fit and grab (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) for those who struggle and refuse to give up despite the effort and sacrifice involved. The theory marshaling resources is generalizable to the greater community (Glaser, 2001). Contribution to the Body of Knowledge Marshaling resources theory supports and extends the research conducted by Holton (2007) by providing additional insight into how a cohesive trusting group enables students to sustain interest in online learning. Holton’s (2007) grounded theory, rehumanizing knowledge work through fluctuating support networks, highlights how people motivate each other. “Individual passion for learning is stimulated and reinforced in a network. There is a strong sense of collective wisdom . . .” (p. 37). Holton describes reciprocal learning as “. . . getting past disengagement . . .” (p. 37). When online learners interact with caring members of an online cohort, the way in which they acquire knowledge and their willingness to support fellow members grows exponentially. Marshaling resources also affirms the studies of Gatin (2013) and Shea and Bidjerano (2009) whose studies both enrich understanding of the online student. Gatin (2013)’s theory keeping your distance sheds light on why some online students struggle with enforced collaboration, yet may find their own group a safe and motivating environment. As people begin to feel that their knowledge helps others, so their own cognitive progress is stimulated (Shea & Bidjerano, 2009; Vygotsky, 1978). A combination of tenacity and emotional intelligence (Goleman, 1997) work together to facilitate people’s ability to engage others’ help when supports provided by the institution do not satisfy their needs. Through marshaling resources, people seek and create support systems. It is outside the realm of this study to investigate the role of emotional intelligence in marshaling resources, but is an area that other researchers may wish to pursue. The contribution of this study should be tempered by its limitations. Although the theory seems to fit for other substantive areas, data resides within the online learning 25 The Grounded Theory Review (2014), Volume 13, Issue 1 arena. Empirical validation of concepts illustrated in this theory could be investigated in other areas where individuals experience difficulty having their needs met and may be prevented from attaining goals or receiving help they need. As Simmons (2011) aptly noted, “You are unlikely to attain your ‘what ought to be’ unless you have a clear, accurate understanding of ‘what is’’’ (p. 3) . Marshaling resources can be applied to explain not only how to prevent student problems, but also to address what institutions of higher learning can do to prevent student dropout or transfer. More research is needed to test substantive theories based on current empirical situations in online learning and thus shape the teaching practices and policies in the evolving field of online learning. Additionally, more research into the value of personal learning networks as emotional scaffolding would test the theory’s relevance and fit to other substantive areas. References Allen, E., & Seaman, J. (2010). Class differences: Online education in the United States. Needham, MA: The Sloan Consortium. Retrieved from http://www.sloanc.org/publications/survey/pdf/online_nation.pdf Allen, E., & Seaman, J. (2013). Changing Course: Ten years of tracking online education in the United States. Retrieved from http http://www.onlinelearningsurvey.com/reports/changingcourse.pdf Cull, S., Reed, D., & Kirk, K. (2012, March 22). Student motivation and engagement in online courses. Teaching Geoscience Online. Retrieved from http://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/online/motivation.html Gatin, G. V. (2013). Keeping your distance. The Grounded Theory Review, 12(1), 9-25. Gittings, B. (2010). The effect of student attributes and program characteristics on doctoral degree completion (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses. (UMI. No. 3415203) Glaser, B. G. (1965). The constant comparative method of qualitative analysis. Social Problems, 12(4), 436-445. Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. (1965). Awareness of Dying. Chicago: Aldine Publishing. Glaser, B. G. (1978). Theoretical sensitivity: Advances in the methodology of grounded theory. Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press. Glaser, B. G. (1998). Doing grounded theory: Issues and discussions. Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press. 26 The Grounded Theory Review (2014), Volume 13, Issue 1 Glaser, B. G. (2001). The grounded theory perspective: Conceptualization contrasted with description. Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press. Glaser, B. G. (2002). Conceptualization: On theory and theorizing using grounded theory. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 1(2), 1–31. doi:10.1.1.120.9345 Glaser, B. G. (2007). 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Modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy (Revised ed.). Chicago, IL: Association Press. Moore, M. G. (2007). The theory of transactional distance. In G. Moore (Ed.) Handbook of distance education (2nd ed., pp. 89-105). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Saba, F. (2011). The future of distance education: A research and development agenda. In M. Shaughnessy & S. Fulgham (Eds.), Pedagogical models: The discipline of online (pp. 213-222). Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science Publication Inc. Scott, H. (2007). The temporal integration of connected study into a structured life. The Grounded Theory Review: An International Journal, 6(2), 95-116. 27 The Grounded Theory Review (2014), Volume 13, Issue 1 Shea, P., & Bidjerano, T. (2009). Community of inquiry as a theoretical framework to foster “epistemic engagement” and “cognitive presence” in online education. Computers & Education, 52, 543–553. Siemens, G. (2008, January). Learning and knowing in networks: Changing roles for educators and designers. Paper presented at University of Georgia IT Forum, Athens, Georgia. Retrieved from http://it.coe.uga.edu/itforum/Paper105/Siemens.pdf Simmons, O. (2011). Why classic grounded theory? In V. Martin & A. Gynnild (Eds.), Grounded theory: The philosophy, method, and work of Barney Glaser (pp. 15-30). Boca Raton, FLA: Brown Walker Press. Tinto, V. (2012). Completing college: Rethinking institutional action. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes (14th ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. (Original work published in 1931). 28 Copyright of Grounded Theory Review is the property of Sociology Press and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. A PHENOMENOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION INTO THE SELF-EFFICACY BELIEFS OF TEACHERS WHO HAVE PERSISTED IN THE TEACHING PROFESSION by Shana Market Norton Liberty University A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Education Liberty University July, 2013 A PHENOMENOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION INTO THE SELF-EFFICACY BELIEFS OF TEACHERS WHO HAVE PERSISTED IN THE TEACHING PROFESSION by Shana Market Norton A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Education Liberty University, Lynchburg, VA July, 2013 APPROVED BY: DR. KENNETH TIERCE, Chair Date DR. CRISTIE MCCLENDON, Committee Date DR. KRISTY PARK, Committee Date DR. SCOTT WATSON, Chair of Graduate Studies Date 2 A PHENOMENOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION INTO THE SELF-EFFICACY BELIEFS OF TEACHERS WHO HAVE PERSISTED IN THE TEACHING PROFESSION ABSTRACT This phenomenological study investigated the lived experiences of 12 secondary school teachers from public secondary schools in northern Georgia regarding their feelings about self-efficacy and why they have persisted in the teaching profession. The research questions centered around their perceptions on how self-efficacy influences the academic achievement of their students, on what personality characteristics they feel teachers add to their positive or negative self-esteem in teaching, and on what factors they identify as influencing their professional selfefficacy in teaching. Teacher self-efficacy, the belief in oneself to succeed at completing a task, is a key factor in retaining teachers. Four data collection methods were implemented to explore teacher self-efficacy: two focus groups, interviews, a self-efficacy assessment test, and open-ended survey questions. Results revealed that teachers believed that they would not remain in the profession if they felt they were not making a difference in the students’ lives. The teachers repeatedly mentioned administrative support as a factor they believe impacts their self-efficacy. In addition, the attitude of surrounding teachers, collective self-efficacy, and students impacted their self-efficacy. Several of the teachers listed faith and exercise as two contributing factors to remaining in the profession with a continued sense of selfefficacy. The study revealed that teachers must have confidence in their specific 3 subject area to retain self-efficacy in a classroom. In summary, the 12 teachers interviewed noted self-efficacy in teaching as being influenced by surrounding factors, including physical, spiritual, and mental health. 4 DEDICATION I dedicate my dissertation to my family and friends, without whom I would not have attempted, continued, and finally achieved this challenging endeavor. I am thankful to God for always being a constant, though I might have wandered to and fro. I dedicate this to my Mother, who has taught me more than any higher institution of learning could have ever taught me by her constant love, support, and wonderful example of how to be a Godly woman. Thank you for always supporting me in every way possible. I dedicate this to my late father, Grady Daniel Market, who I know loved me with all of his heart. I know that you are at peace with the Lord and watching over us. I also dedicate this to my husband, who has been a constant support and word of encouragement throughout this program. This is dedicated to my little sister, whom I will always look up to. You are such an amazing friend, sister, mother, and daughter. This is also dedicated to Mike, who has always been a good friend, an open ear, and a constant word of encouragement. You are truly my father on earth. This is dedicated to Tori, my precious niece. I pray that you conquer all things with that strong spirit and that you love the Lord with all of your heart! I also dedicate this to David Tardif. You won your battle with cancer. You never gave up and kept a positive spirit until the end of your time here on earth. You will always be remembered. Finally, I dedicate this dissertation to the two little boys who have completely brought me to my knees. Sawyer and Elliott, you two mean more to me than words could ever say. I do everything with the hopes of showing you a good role model, a strong mother, someone who supports you emotionally and spiritually, as well as financially. Know that being your Mommy is the most important thing that I will ever be. I hope that 5 you take something from this and know that you can go for any dream that you may have. Most importantly, I pray that you truly know and love Jesus throughout your lives. That, above all, is truly the most important thing. 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I want to acknowledge the following individuals for making a profound impact in my dissertation journey: my very patient chair, Dr. Kenneth Tierce and my committee members, Dr. Kristy Park, Dr. Cristie McClendon, and Dr. Scott Watson. I want to give a special thanks to all of the teachers who were willing to spend great time and energy helping me to fulfill my data needs. Thank you for your honest answers and time away from your jobs and families. A special thanks to Markie, who has been through so much in life and constantly is encouraging to me whenever we get the rare chance to visit. Thank you to Carol Huff, who is such a model to how we are supposed to get through this earth. You are a role model to me. Thank you for your willingness to always help. Thank you to Kris, my brother-in-law, for being the brother that I’ve always wanted. Thanks to my friends who have listened to me go on and on about various topics, who have given me words of encouragement, advice, and constant support. I acknowledge my friends who listened to me and encouraged me at some point along the way: Dr. Sarah Wright, Dr. Jeff Hepinstall-Cymerman, Dr. Kathy Fowler, Dr. Alex Sager, Jill Hawkins, Hope Cymerman, Dr. Kristy Park, Amy Edgar, Jon Cotton, Emily Westphal, Lindsay Patton, Jennifer McAuley, Cory and Mike Vickery, the entire McFerrin family, Judy and Greg Adams, my Wednesday night group from Grace, and many others who listened to me, inspired me, guided me, and/or set a great example for me. Thank you to my Aunt Jackie Sue Phillips and Aunt Eucle Vickery for always asking about and praying for me. Thank you to those of you who supported me as a teenager, when my life seemed to be heading down the wrong road: my second parents, Mr. and Mrs. Gottschang, Mr. and Mrs. Beaver, Mr. and Mrs. Wilson, and Mr. and Mrs. Roberts, and all of my teachers and 7 counselors. Thank you for never giving up on me! Thank you to my coworkers and friends for their constant support. Brandy Corbett, thank you for being an inspiration to me. Watching you in times of trial, staying faithful to God and your family, has encouraged me throughout this journey. Thank you to Dr. Kevin Smith, Dr. Donna McMullan, Mr. John Jackson, Mr. Howard McGlennen, Mr. Jason Wester, and Mrs. Kristi Holloway who exemplify teamwork consistently. Thank you to Annette Beckwith and Carol Ann Knight for being such wonderful examples. I know that you have prayed our schools and community to where they need to be. I know that there are others whom I have left out. Thank you all for your continued support and patience. This journey has been a long one, and without all of you, I could not have accomplished this. 8 TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION……………………………………………………………………………5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS…………………………………………………………........7 LIST OF TABLES..……………………………………………………………………...12 LIST OF FIGURES..…………………………………………………………………….13 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................... 14 Background ........................................................................................................... 15 Problem Statement ................................................................................................ 17 Purpose Statement ................................................................................................. 19 Research Questions………………………………………………………………20 Justification for the Study………………………………………………………..20 Significance of the Study……………………………………………………...…21 Research Plan…………………………………………………………………….23 Organization of the Study ..................................................................................... 25 Definitions............................................................................................................. 27 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................... 30 Conceptual Framework ......................................................................................... 30 Literature Review………………………………………………………………...39 Summary of Research ........................................................................................... 56 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY .................................................................................... 58 Research Questions ............................................................................................... 59 9 Research Design.................................................................................................... 60 Participants ............................................................................................................ 63 Setting ................................................................................................................... 70 Researcher’s Perspective ...................................................................................... 72 Reflections on the Topic ...................................................................................... 74 Data Collection ..................................................................................................... 75 Data Analysis ........................................................................................................ 86 Trustworthiness ..................................................................................................... 88 Ethical Issues ........................................................................................................ 93 CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS…………………………………………………………….95 Introduction of the Participants………...………………………………………..97 Survey Summary………………………………………………………………..104 Major Emerging Themes……………………………………………………….108 Summary of the Findings……………………………………………………….137 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS……………………………………………………..140 Limitations of This Study………………..……………………………………..148 Recommendations for Future Study….………………………….……….…….150 Implications of the Study……………………………………………………….152 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………...154 REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………157 10 APPENDICES A IRB APPROVAL LETTER .......................................................................... 169 B INFORMED CONSENT………….………………………………………..170 C TEACHER SELF-EFFICACY SCALE ....................................................... 173 D INTERVIEW QUESTIONS ......................................................................... 174 E SAMPLE INTERVIEW...…………………………………….…………….176 F OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS………………………………………...……185 G SAMPLE OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS……...…………………………...186 H FOCUS GROUP OUTLINE QUESTIONS………………………………..188 I SAMPLE FOCUS GROUP…………………………………………………189 J SAMPLE INITIAL CODING AND MEMOING…………………………..206 K EMERGING THEMES……………………………………………………..210 L SURVEY RESULTS…………………………………………………….…212 M PERMISSION TO USE FIGURES………………………………………...213 11 LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Participant Characteristics……………………………………………………...64 Table 2: Demographics of the School System…………………………………………..70 Table 3: Self-Efficacy Scale Answers……………………………………………….....107 12 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Bandura’s Triadic Reciprocal Determinism Model…………………………...36 Figure 2: The Cycle of Teacher’s Efficacy Judgments…………………………………..38 13 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION Currently more than half of all teachers in the United States change careers in their first 5 years of teaching (Ingersoll & Smith, 2004). Reasons given by teachers for prematurely leaving the teaching field include overcrowded classrooms, unsupportive administration, and poor student classroom behavior (Ingersoll & Smith, 2004). Swift (1984) stated, “There is discontinuity between idyllic expectations and harsh realities” (p. 3), indicating that teachers are not psychologically prepared for the demands and limitations of the school setting. While there are many studies on teaching and learning, there are few studies on the emotional aspect of teachers’ lives, including self-efficacy and how it impacts persistence in the teaching profession (Brackett, Palomera, MojsaKaja, & Reyes, 2010). According to Erdem (2007), self-efficacy postulates that human achievement “depends on interaction between one’s behavior, personal factors (e.g., thoughts, beliefs), and environmental conditions” (p. 574). Bandura (1978) studied how teachers feel about remaining in their profession and found that when students succeed through grades, graduation, and low discipline referrals, teachers take pride because they feel as if they contributed to the success of the students. Conversely, when teachers believe that their students’ successes are dependent only on external stimuli, they do not feel self-satisfaction. This lack of student success can undermine a teacher’s sense of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1978). Teachers with a strong sense of self-efficacy experience less teacher stress than those with lower levels of selfefficacy (Bandura, 1977). Bandura attributed this behavior to reciprocal causation, or a play between the personal factors, environment, and behavior. When either of these 14 factors is changed, the other is impacted. Bandura (1977) noted that one’s perception about a situation can override actual occurrences. In other words, the teacher’s thoughts can make things seem better or worse than they really are (Bandura, 1977). Background Numerous researchers have studied the variety of factors that impact teachers’ positive sense of self-efficacy (Appleton, 1995; Burns & Gunderman, 2008; Covell, McNeil, & Howe, 2009; Swackhamer, Koellner, Basile, & Kimbrough, 2009). For example, Cenkseven- Onder and Sari (2009) found that teachers spend a majority of their time at school and, therefore, desire a higher sense of stature and want to feel as if they are important. Cenkseven-Onder and Sari (2009) also found that teachers desire a “magnificent place in their school where they spend a part of their time and want to feel themselves worthy by their colleagues, administrators, and students” (p. 1299). Other teachers noted that they desire to feel appreciated by their administrators, colleagues, and their students (Cenkseven-Onder & Sari, 2009). A higher sense of self-efficacy can cause teachers to be highly motivated, and it also causes them to believe in themselves more than someone with a lower sense of self-esteem (Erdem & Demirel, 2007). Some of the factors related to teacher self-efficacy are described in further detail. For one, having a strong sense of community not only helps to improve students’ performance in school, but it also increases the teacher’s sense of self-efficacy. In addition, teachers’ beliefs that a sense of community reduces teacher burnout and stress are noted by scholars to be contributing factors to lower self-efficacy (Covell et al., 2009). 15 Another study suggested student engagement was a contributing factor to teacher self-efficacy (Covell et al., 2009). Student engagement can be increased by giving the students increased rights and responsibilities, such as meaningful roles in school rules, policies, and hiring expenditures. When student engagement is increased, teacher selfefficacy is increased (Covell et al., 2009). On the return, teachers with higher levels of self-efficacy put forth the extra effort and have higher beliefs in the students than teachers with a low sense of self-efficacy (Palmer, 2006). Judge, Heller, and Mount (2002) examined the relationship of personality traits to job satisfaction in teaching. They found that extroverted teachers displayed more job satisfaction than introverted teachers. In addition, teachers who were neurotic showed less job satisfaction and expressed a lower sense of self-efficacy (Judge, Heller, & Mount, 2002). Neuroticism is defined as someone who experiences more negative life events than other individuals, partially because they put themselves in positions that have negative effects. When those events happen during a job, then the person’s job satisfaction diminishes (Judge et al., 2012). Conversely, teachers who have high levels of emotional intelligence (the capacity to monitor one’s feelings regardless of the extraneous circumstances) showed high levels of self-efficacy in teaching (Di Fabio & Palazzeschi, 2008). In contrast, teachers who have high levels of anxiety, stress, and fatigue have lower levels of self-efficacy (Pajares, 1996). Teachers who are strongly emotional have greater anticipation about the outcome of a situation, which can predispose teachers to viewing life events in a negative way, thus lowering self-efficacy. In other words, seeing events in a negative light may lower a teacher’s sense of worth, subsequently impacting the levels of self-efficacy (Kokkinos, 2007). 16 Finally, a teacher’s behavior is often influenced and impacted by the surroundings. Many teachers report being under high stress in their jobs due to classroom size, long work days, and stress related to high stakes testing and the pressure of performance-based salary (Whitehead, Ryba, & O’Driscoll, 2000). However, those surroundings also include an environment that is partially produced in the teacher’s mind (Bandura, 1978). Cenkseven-Onder and Sari (2009) also found that teachers who have a negative outlook on life also tend to have a negative job outlook, report more stress, and experience feelings of negative self-efficacy. These teachers with a higher sense of selfefficacy also remain longer in the profession (Wentzel & Wigfield, 2009). Bandura (1978) observed a continuous and reciprocal movement between the behavioral, cognitive, and environmental influences, meaning that one influence cannot change without affecting the others (Bandura, 1978). The research in this study will examine factors such as community, student engagement, personality types, teacher behavior, stress, and participation in family and friend support groups, both in and out of the classroom, and other factors or thoughts that the teachers have about self-efficacy to reveal their perceptions. The research in this study will lead to ideas pertaining to helping the teachers to have a higher sense of selfefficacy, thus maintaining more teachers in the profession. Problem Statement According to Ingersoll and Smith (2004), many new teachers are not mentally or emotionally prepared for the profession and, therefore, experience more stress than those who have surpassed the 5-year mark in teaching. Over 50% of teachers leave the teaching profession within their first 5 years of teaching (Brown, 2006; Grant, 2006; 17 Ingersoll & Smith), and many teachers who leave the profession do so because of a lack of fulfillment in their teaching career due to a low sense of self-efficacy (Ingersoll & Smith). For example, in a study by Timms, Graham, and Caltabiano (2006), teachers reported leaving their teaching career after their first year because they found teaching did not fulfill their expectations. Due in part to large classroom size and lack of funding, teachers often feel helpless and burned out. These feelings of inadequacy can negatively impact students’ self-esteem, grades, and graduation rates (Ingersoll & Smith). When teachers who report being stressed and burned out stay in the classroom, student achievement diminishes (Covell et al., 2009). In addition to the negative impact on students, teacher turnover has a negative impact fiscally on educational settings (Watlington, Shockley, Guglielmino, & Rivka, 2010). Higher self-efficacy in teachers helps to retain teachers and lessen teacher turnover, lessening the money that schools lose on separation, recruitment, hiring, incentives, and new employee induction and professional development (Watlington et al., 2010). Through examining factors such as community, student engagement, personality types, teacher behavior, stress, and participation in family and friend support groups, both in and out of the classrooms, the study may reveal perceptions that teachers have about self-efficacy and the factors that they see contributing to their own self-efficacy. This study explores whether or not teachers perceive that positive self-efficacy impacts their decision to remain in the teaching profession. By interviewing through individual interviews and focus group interviews, as well as through having the teachers complete a self-efficacy survey and also complete essay questions, this study will investigate the thoughts of those who have remained in the teaching profession for more than 5 years. 18 The reason for studying teachers who have remained for more than 5 years is that 50% of teachers leave within the first 5 years (Brown, 2006; Grant, 2006). A majority of studies on teacher retention focus on the first 5 years of teaching (Brown, 2006; Grant, 2006; Ingersoll, 2001). Therefore, the problem of this study is persistence in the teaching profession and the role teachers feel that self-efficacy plays in their persistence in the profession. This study will investigate the points of view from 12 teachers who have persisted for more than 5 years in the profession, focusing on their overall beliefs about self-efficacy and their persistence in the profession. This research does not focus only on the first 5 years, but that 5-year mark is used as a factor that describes teachers who have persisted. This study adds to the literature on self-efficacy in that it explores and explains what teachers themselves feel and have experienced from their point of view, of positive or negative self-efficacy towards teaching and whether or not they believe that a positive sense of self-efficacy will keep them in the profession. Purpose Statement The purpose of this phenomenological, qualitative study is to examine the perceptions and characteristics of 12 teachers who have remained in the teaching profession for more than 5 years in order to explain the phenomenon of teacher selfefficacy as perceived by the teachers themselves. This study investigates perceptions teachers have about self-efficacy and the factors they believe contribute to their own selfefficacy. The study also investigates the factors that keep certain teachers in the classroom and pleased with their career choices, while others are dissatisfied and quick to leave the classroom. The desired outcome of this study is that it may prevent teachers from being dissatisfied and quickly leaving the teaching profession. 19 Research Questions The following questions guided this study: 1. What are the perceptions of secondary school teachers regarding how their self-efficacy influences the academic achievement of their students? 2. What personality characteristics do teachers feel add to their positive or negative self-efficacy in teaching? 3. What factors do teachers identify as influencing their professional selfefficacy in teaching (personality traits, outside circumstances, number of students, pre-service teaching experiences, etc.)? Through this research, the beliefs and actions that impact teachers’ self-efficacy were discovered. Justification for the Study This study evolved over 10 years while I was an educator. During that time, I observed teachers leave the teaching profession; I also observed teachers decide to remain in the teaching profession despite feelings of burnout. Both categories of teachers appeared to me to have a limited sense of self-efficacy. In essence, they did not believe in their own ability to impact students in a positive manner, and subsequently were unfulfilled in their teaching careers. This study seeks to provide descriptions and information about self-efficacy directly from teachers who have remained in the teaching field for more than 5 years. Understanding how these teachers experience and view selfefficacy in teaching provides insight into changes that can be made to improve experiences for other teachers. This study’s findings can be used to aid administrators, teachers, and college professors in building a staff of teachers who enjoy teaching, 20 thereby remaining in the teaching profession. Ultimately, this research discovers the qualities and characteristics that contribute to teacher persistence in the profession. In addition, teacher self-efficacy is positively correlated to instruction, adapting education to individual students’ needs, motivating students, keeping discipline, cooperating with parents and colleagues, and coping with changes and challenges (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2007). If educators and administrative staff can assist teachers in fostering a nurturing and safe environment that promotes a higher sense of teacher self-efficacy, students will benefit (Chong, Klassen, Huan, Wong, & Kates, 2010; Erdem & Demirel, 2007; Evers & Tomic, 2003; Jennett, Harris, & Mesibov, 2003). Significance of the Study According to one study, 39% of teachers in the United States leave the profession within the first 5 years of teaching (Ondrich, Pas, & Yinger, 2008), and other studies show that 50% of teachers leave within the first 5 years (Brown, 2006; Grant, 2006; Ingersoll & Smith, 2004). Additionally, 11% of teachers leave within, or soon after, the first year in the profession (Ondrich et al., 2008). Many teachers consider leaving within the first year, though they do not (Cooper & Davey, 2011). Some teachers stay in teaching because they feel “trapped and powerless to leave a demanding profession” (Cooper & Davey, 2011, p. 98). Sixty-five percent of teachers who leave teaching report they are overall more satisfied in life after leaving the profession (Palmer, 2007). Many teachers complete a teaching certification program and start teaching only to realize they are in the wrong occupation. Chang (2009) noted that the resulting shortage of teachers has not only created a staffing problem in schools, but also “degrades the quality of instruction in the classroom due to high turnover” (p. 194). 21 Henry, Bastian, and Fortner (2011) found that teachers who leave after 3 or 4 years of teaching are less effective in their last year of teaching than teachers who are in their 3rd or 4th year of teaching and who stayed past the 5-year mark. Those teachers who end up leaving the profession are not as effective at administering instruction and at motivating students as those who remain past 5 years (Henry, Bastian, and Fortner, 2011). Subsequently, teachers with higher levels of selfefficacy work longer with struggling students, recognize and help correct more student errors, and enthusiastically attempt new teaching methods in the classroom than those teachers with lower levels of self efficacy (Milner, 2002; Swackhamer et al., 2009). Those teachers also make better use of their time, criticize wrong answers less, and are able to guide students to the right answers more often (Yilmaz, 2011). Teachers and administrators need to find the reasons and resources to remain confident in their ability to teach students in a productive and efficient manner. This study explored in depth the perceptions that teachers have about self-efficacy in teaching as well as what personality traits and key factors contributed to having a positive sense of self-efficacy in teaching. This study investigated the teachers’ self-concepts that have an impact on their self-efficacy. Many other studies that focus on self-efficacy of teachers include or explain external sources of problems, such as lack of support from administration, large classroom sizes, inadequate salary, perceived low status of the profession, lack of motivation from the students, work overload, and other external factors (Brackett et al., 2010; Covell et al., 2009; Santavirta, Soloviena, & Theorell, 2007). 22 The purpose of this phenomenological study was to examine the perceptions and characteristics of 12 teachers who have remained in the teaching profession for more than 5 years in order to explain the effects of teacher self-efficacy on teacher persistence in the profession as perceived by the teachers themselves. The study’s findings will provide educators tools to improve their self-efficacy in teaching to create a richer learning experience for students. Additionally, the study is important to teachers and students because the strong self-efficacy beliefs of teachers impact persistence in the profession. Sustaining teachers in the profession is important because of the commitment of resources and of energy to teachers who leave the profession due to unhappiness or a low sense of self-efficacy in teaching (Watlington et al., 2010). This study sought to expand the body of knowledge related to teacher selfefficacy and contribute to improvement of self-efficacy in teachers, thereby improving the persistence of teachers. The information can be used to assist administrators and teachers in improving both teacher self-efficacy and student learning. Research Plan This was a qualitative phenomenological study conducted in a series of interviews, open-ended survey questions, a self-efficacy self assessment scale, and focus groups. Phenomenological research “emphasizes… the subjective aspects of people’s behavior” (Bogdan & Biklen, 2003, p. 23) from the participants’ perspective. The participants were chosen based on their having taught for more than 5 years and also their willingness to participate. Effort was spent finding a variety of participants from various backgrounds, of various marital statuses, of varying subjects and disciplines, and of both 23 genders. There were many participants originally chosen who decided not to participate due to the time required for the study. Initially, interviews were conducted individually with participants, with follow-up questions asked as necessary. The interviews were audio-taped, and they each lasted from 20 minutes to 2 hours. After the interview, the teachers were provided open-ended questions to complete independently and on their own schedule. After the interview and open-ended questions were collected, two focus groups were formed to gain perspective from individuals about the phenomenon of self-efficacy in teaching. These took place in a casual and non-threatening environment in the school’s data room (conference room). The interview questions and the focus group questions were similar, but the interview questions pertained to their personal experiences, how they felt, how it was at their last schools, and what would help with self-efficacy; and the focus group questions were directed more towards starting group conversations, allowing the teachers to feed off of one another’s answers. The focus group questions involved topics such as what helps their teacher self-efficacy and whether or not they feel that they make a difference in the students’ lives. Two focus groups instead of one were executed for the purposes of allowing all individuals to have a chance to speak their own voices, versus a larger group setting where certain participants would not have a chance to speak up regarding their opinions. Creswell (2007) stated that focus groups are advantageous when “the interactions among interviewees will likely yield the best information, when interviewees are similar and cooperative with each other, when time to collect information is limited, and when individuals interviewed one-on-one may be hesitant to provide this information” (p. 133). 24 Triangulation of the data occurred through various data collection methods. Triangulation in qualitative research means that many sources of data are better in a study than a single source because “multiple sources lead to fuller understanding of the phenomena that you are studying” (Bogdan & Biklen, 2003, p. 107). The data were collected through memoing, interviews, self-efficacy self assessments, open-ended surveys, and two focus groups. The data were re-checked with the participants (Gutcliffe & McKenna, 1999) for credibility of data, ensuring that what was being reported was what was said or meant. The participants had the opportunity to withdraw any information that they desired. To ensure dependability to the fullest extent in this study, triangulation of data occurred to ensure that the different forms were consistent through collecting data from interviews, open-ended questions, self-efficacy self assessments, and two focus groups. Organization of the Study This dissertation is comprised of five chapters. The following is a brief overview of each chapter’s contents. Chapter One introduces the problem of teacher persistence in education based on self-efficacy and personality characteristics. The purpose of the study and the research questions are addressed in Chapter One. Chapter One also includes a justification for the study as well as the significance of the study. A research plan is also introduced. The organization of the study precedes the definition of terms. Chapter Two introduces the theory of teacher persistence when examining selfefficacy and personality traits. Chapter Two contains a review of current literature relating to self-efficacy in education, including Rotter’s locus of control theory, 25 Bandura’s social cognitive theory, and Bandura’s reciprocal determinism; and it describes Tschannen-Moran’s studies on cyclical self-efficacy thoughts. This chapter addresses current theories behind teacher persistence in education. Major self-efficacy surveys are also introduced. This chapter delineates the current research in the area of teacher self-efficacy and its correlation to student achievement, teacher happiness, and teacher persistence in education. Chapter Two introduces the theory of teacher persistence when examining self-efficacy and personality traits, including the Big Five (Judge et al., 2002). The chapter concludes with a summary of the research. Chapter Three outlines this qualitative study from a phenomenological research design approach. This chapter includes a description of the population in the participating school, as well as an in-depth description of each of the seven participants in the study. For the purposes of this study, each teacher who consented to participate (Appendix B) participated in a face-to-face interview (Appendix D), completed a written survey (Appendix F), participated in a focus group (Appendix H), completed the Teacher SelfEfficacy Assessment (Appendix C), and participated in additional interviews where clarification or further explanation was needed. The teachers expressed their perceptions of teacher self-efficacy. The teachers interviewed were prompted to give their opinions and thoughts on current theories impacting contentedness in education as a career. Chapter Three begins with the methodology for data collection followed by the procedures for data organization and analyses. Chapter Three also details the steps that were involved in gathering, collecting, analyzing, and interpreting the data. Chapter Four begins with an introduction, reiterating the research questions. Chapter Four then reintroduces the participants, allowing the reader to further understand 26 their points of view. Chapter Four then includes the summary of data from the surveys given, including a table summarizing and averaging the answers to the survey. This chapter also contains analyses and findings from the research and a reiteration of the research questions along with the corresponding findings. The three research questions provided insight into the subject of teacher self-efficacy from the perspective of the educators. The teachers reported their knowledge of teacher persistence rates and theories of self-efficacy in the classroom, along with their perceptions of the association between teacher persistence and self-efficacy. They also were asked about additional factors such as teacher personality, ways to deal with stress, their feelings about teaching, their knowledge of their subject level, and many other factors that were revealed through the data. It concludes with a summary of the findings. Addressed in Chapter Five are summarizing conclusions with the extant literature framework from each of the three research questions. Limitations of the study are presented as well as recommendations for research, practice, and policy, plus implications of the study. Finally, a conclusion is presented. Definitions Emotion-Regulation Ability (ERA) Emotion-regulation ability (Brackett et al., 2010) is the ability to enhance or control one’s emotions as needed or the ability to act efficaciously in emotional situations. Emotion-regulation ability refers to people’s ability to recognize that they are feeling an emotion, but they do not let the emotion overwhelm their actions. According to the ERA theory, ERA should influence how teachers express emotions and handle stress (Brackett et al., 2010). 27 Locus of Control Individuals with a low locus of control feel that what they do will not have an impact on the world around them. In teaching, this pertains to whether or not teachers feels as if they can make a difference in the lives of their students. The locus of control theory explains that people can either feel an internal (persons feel that they can control their lives) or an external locus of control (persons feel that outside circumstances influence and control their lives) (Rotter, 1996). Self-Efficacy Self-efficacy is individuals’belief and ability in their performance for a certain situation, or how effective that they feel in being able to accomplish a certain situation. Bandura (1977) noted that “people’s perceptions of their efficacy influence the types of anticipatory scenarios that they construct and reiterate” (p. 729). In teaching, highly selfefficacious teachers feel that they can teach the students and that they can succeed in teaching. Those who have a high level of self-efficacy will approach a challenge with their strength and resources, knowing that they will make a difference and can conquer that challenge. Those with a low level of self-efficacy feel as if no matter how hard they attempt something, they cannot make a difference. Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Self-fulfilling prophecy describes any positive or negative expectation about a circumstance that may affect a person’s behavior and cause that belief to be fulfilled. This can also be described as someone’s performance being impacted by the expectations of others around them (Bogdan & Biklen, 2003). 28 Stress Stress is the interaction between a force and the resistance to it (Taché & Brunnhuber, 2008). Stress in teaching is the resistance to negative forces that occur in the world of the teacher. Teacher Self-Efficacy Teacher self-efficacy is the perception that teachers have of their own capabilities as teachers to bring out desired outcomes of student motivation and learning. It can also be described as teachers’ self-beliefs being determinants of their own teaching behavior. According to Bandura (1986), teachers regulate their own behaviors and effort in accordance with “the effects they expect their actions to have” (p. 129). 29 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter reviews the history and theories of teacher self-efficacy through presenting a conceptual framework and also a literature review, including the causes of, impacts from, and factors surrounding self-efficacy. In this chapter, the underlying principles of self-efficacy in teaching as well as the definitions and theories are addressed. The review expands upon Bandura’s social cognitive theory (1977) and Rotter’s locus of control theory (1996). This section also contains background information on reciprocal determinism, including Bandura’s Triadic Reciprocal Determinism Model (Miller, 2010). The literature review includes information regarding cyclical self-efficacy thoughts, stress, teacher self-efficacy and student achievement, and sources of self-efficacy beliefs. The literature review section also includes self-efficacy influence in pre-service teaching, collective self-efficacy, changing self-efficacy, content knowledge and self-efficacy, and faith and self-efficacy. A section presenting four teacher self-efficacy scales will be included as well as sections about external and internal locus of control, teacher burnout, personality traits, emotional regulation ability, and finally a summary of the research. Conceptual Framework Rooted in Bandura’s social cognitive theory (1977), self-efficacy can be described as how effective people perceive themselves to be and how they react to their surroundings. Albert Bandura, a well-known psychologist from Stanford University, defined self-efficacy as “our perceived abilities of learning or doing things at certain levels” (Wentzel & Wigfield, 2009). Self-efficacy can also be defined as teachers’ 30 beliefs or convictions that they can influence how well students learn, even the most difficult students (Jennett et al., 2003). Even further, Ignat and Clipa (2010) defined selfefficacy as what people think they can do with their abilities in certain conditions. They also described self-efficacy as the ability to coordinate “skills and abilities in order to reach desirable objectives within particular domains and circumstances” (Ignat & Clipa, 2010, p. 181). Bandura (1977) explained that teachers with a tenacious sense of self-efficacy have more creative and endearing classroom environments. They convey positive expectations and expend more time on the class materials and instructions (Bandura, 1977). However, when teachers start to feel exhausted, depersonalized, and unaccomplished, they tend to minimize their effort at work, become cold and distant, and feel inadequate (Friedman, 2000). Subsequently, teachers may have a low sense of selfefficacy, making them less confident in their ability to make a difference professionally (Friedman, 2000). Self-Efficacy Self-efficacy is the teachers’ belief that the students can be taught despite factors such as the environment or their families (Jennett et al., 2003). Self-efficacy can also be described as the belief in the ability to “plan, organize, and carry out activities required to attain given educational goals” (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2007, p. 612).The expectations of personal self-efficacy in teachers “will determine whether or not coping behavior will be initiated, how much effort will be expanded, and how long it will be sustained in the face of obstacles and adverse circumstances” (Bandura, 1977, p. 191). Teachers who have a 31 higher sense of self-efficacy perceive issues such as student misbehavior in a more manageable manner than those with a lower sense of self-efficacy (Kaplan, 1996). A group of researchers at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia, led by Frank Pajares, researched Bandura’s theory and how it relates to self-efficacy in teaching (Pajares, 1996). Teachers who do not feel confident in their ability to teach and who expect that they are not creating positive outcomes with the students in terms of grades, behavior, and motivation will usually produce students who do not meet the standards (Pajares, 2002). When teachers feel that they cannot make an impact on the students, “an individual may be capable to do nothing because he feels impeded by these real or imaginary constraints” (Pajares, p. 6, 2002). Covell, McNeil, and Howe (2009) completed a study in 15 different schools, with 127 teachers. Half of the schools implemented a program called “Rights, Respect, and Responsibility,” while other schools did not. The “Rights, Respect, and Responsibility” program taught children to feel good about themselves, their schools, their teachers, and their surroundings. When the students put into practice what they had learned through the “Rights, Respect, and Responsibility” program, the teachers felt more supported and more appreciated (Covell et al., 2009). They also showed a significant increase in teacher morale, which continued for 3 years after the program’s completion (Covell et al., 2009). Student and teacher morale improve when the teachers feel that they can make a difference (Covell et al., 2009; Pajares, 2002). When the students were more respectful, the teachers had a higher sense of selfefficacy (Covell et al., 2009). On the contrary, when the students were disrespectful, the teachers felt less efficacious (Covell et al., 2009). There is a relationship between teachers’ sense of self-efficacy and their school-related accomplishments (Dorman, 32 2003). Success or failure of specific tasks greatly impacts teacher self-efficacy. Students, parents, and colleagues’ verbal feedback impacts self-efficacy (Milner, 2002). Self-efficacy is one of the most important factors contributing to successful performance in nearly every area of life, including leadership and relationships (Moen & Algood, 2009; Erdem & Demirel, 2007)). This research aims to investigate and to further report about the phenomenon of teachers’ self-efficacy from their points of view. Watson (1991) performed a study on 244 teachers and 5,361 3rd-grade students in which he studied the self-efficacy of the teachers in various South Carolina 3rd-grade classrooms to see if it varied amongst different types of schools. The data were collected at schools containing varying external factors, such as race and location, where teachers of varying self-efficacy levels were studied. The data were collected using the Teacher Efficacy Scale developed by Gibson (1983). The t test, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), and the Pearson Product Moment Correlation Procedures were used to obtain the comparative analysis. Regardless of external factors such as majority race or location of schools, greater achievement was shown with teachers who had a higher sense of selfefficacy (Watson, 1991). Rotter’s Locus of Control Theory Rotter (1996) has a theory that is essential to self-efficacy called the “locus of control” theory. The locus of control theory explains that people can either feel an internal (persons feel that they can control their lives) or an external locus of control (persons feel that outside circumstances influence and control their lives). This information is crucial when trying to understand the self-efficacy of teachers in their particular classrooms, especially in seeing if persistence in the profession is impacted by 33 self-efficacy. Rotter developed a two-question test as one of the earliest predictors of self-efficacy in teachers. After Rotter’s studies, Rose and Medway (1981) formed a test called the teacher locus of control (TLC) in which teachers could answer what they attributed student success to. This test is rarely used anymore (Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2001). Instead of a survey regarding locus of control, the present study will involve having the teachers take a survey about self-efficacy and how they believe it affects persistence in the profession. Social-Cognitive Theory The philosophical assumption that led to this body of research regarding teacher self-efficacy is the social-cognitive theory. In the social-cognitive theory, the environment, self, and both cognitive and personal factors affect one another (Bandura, 1986; Pajares, 1996). In the social-cognitive theory, people exhibit some influence over what they do because they are proactive and self-regulating (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2010). According to the social-cognitive theory, humans can self-regulate and can plan alternative strategies and have forethought in various situations (Pajares, 1995). They can self-reflect, thinking about and learning from their pasts (Pajares, 1995). They can “alter their thinking and behavior accordingly” (Pajares, 1995, p. 4). This is a variance from the behaviorist point of view where people react to the world around them. In 1977, Bandura wrote a book in which he identified an important aspect to the equation, the person’s thoughts and self-beliefs. In his book, Self-Efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change, Bandura (1977) used his social-cognitive theory to add cognitive and personal factors into the equation. In the social-cognitive theory, the thoughts and ideas that people bring with them as well as their environment contribute to their 34 outcome. Prior to this theory, the behaviorist theory noted that people simply reacted to the environment surrounding them, not taking into account the personality types and behaviors. The social-cognitive theory relates to this study in that teachers take into account their thoughts, their surroundings, and their behaviors and actions in determining or creating their level of self-efficacy. This can also be used with the students, which in turn affects the teacher, where the behavior of the teacher, the behavior of the students, the environment, and the students’ and teacher’s thoughts all are interconnected. Reciprocal Determinism Reciprocal determinism is a model of behavior wherein behavior, environment, and person affect one another and are interconnected. Reciprocal determinism can also be called triadic reciprocity (Bandura, 1986). Reciprocal determinism describes how teachers’ personal beliefs can greatly impact their environment, their behavior, and the behavior of those around them (Bandura, 1978). When teachers are burned out, they can exude an attitude that students or other employees around them deserve what they get (Maslach & Jackson, 1981). Cognitive processes determine how external events and stimuli will be taken in and perceived (Bandura, 1978). Humans can engage in reflective thought and do not have to fall prey to the consequences of thoughtless actions brought on by external events and occurrences (Bandura, 1978). In the triangular model, behavior and environment are reciprocal and depend on one another (Figure 1). 35 Figure 1. Bandura’s Triadic Reciprocal Determinism Model (Miller, 2010). From “Overcoming Obstacles to Avoid,” by B. Miller, 2010, Learning Solutions Magazine, 14, 1-7. Retrieved from http://www.learningsolutionsmag.com/articles/474/overcomingobstacles-to-avoid-/print. Reprinted with permission. Figure 1 represents how behavior is contingent on the environment and the person’s internal competencies. If a teacher has a higher sense of self-efficacy and feels in control of the setting, then the students respond in a much calmer and more orderly fashion. Teaching efficacy is the “teachers’ beliefs that students can be taught despite external factors, such as their family environment” (Jennett et al., 2003, p. 584). According to Bandura (as cited in Wentzel & Wigfield, 2009), self-efficacy is a stronger indicator of behavior than self-esteem or self-concept. The concept of reciprocal determinism can also be used by teachers with students, in that the teachers can challenge and work towards improving the students’ cognitive abilities, manage and control the classroom and school (environment), and also work to improve their own behaviors toward the students as well as the students’ attitudes and beliefs (Pajares, 1995). 36 Cyclical Self-Efficacy Thoughts Tschannen-Moran and colleagues have performed numerous studies (TshannenMoran, Woolfolk Hoy, & Hoy, 1998) on self-efficacy including creating the Teachers' Sense of Efficacy Scale (TSES) (Tshannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2001). They expanded the social-cognitive theory in that they added that teachers’ senses of selfefficacy reflect their judgments on their capabilities within a specific parameter, being their discipline or the student population (Silverman & Davis, 2006). Tschannen-Moran et al. (1998) believe that a teacher’s self-efficacy beliefs will “transfer to the extent that he or she perceives similarity in the task resources and constraints from one teaching situation to another” (p. 800). Tschannen-Moran et al. developed a model of teacher self-efficacy identifying the ways in which a teacher uses the perceived sense of selfefficacy and the consequences of that, such as higher goals, learning goals, effort and persistence, and resilience, and turns that into student outcomes such as student achievement and a student’s sense of self-efficacy as well as teacher outcomes such as teacher commitment, risk taking, and innovation. See Figure 2 below. 37 Figure 2. The Cycle of Teacher’s Efficacy Judgments (Tshcannen-Moran, Woolfolk Hoy, & Hoy, 1998; and Silverman & Davis, 2008). From “Teacher efficacy: Its meaning and measure,” by M. Tshcannen-Moran, A. Woolfolk Hoy, & W.K. Hoy, 1998, Review of Educational Research, 68, 202–248. Reprinted with permission. Stress Goddard, O’Brien, and Goddard (2006) noted that while there are a large number of studies on work climate, social factors, work resources, and role conflict, there are few studies on the factors that could alleviate burnout and stress. According to the existentialist view of Rogers (Goddard et al., 2006), stress arises from a mismatch between actual and self-image. In education, stress comes from a mismatch between teachers’ misconceptions of what they thought teaching was going to be like and the harsh reality of teaching (Goddard et al., 2006). Research suggests that higher expectations aimed toward teaching careers lead to higher burnout levels (Friedman, 38 2000; Goddard et al., 2006). Friedman (2000) described “the sharp realities between the ‘observed’ and the ‘expected’ in teaching as the result of a rude awakening from an idealistic dream and the shattering of anticipations of an enjoyable and satisfying professional career of service” (p. 598). Finding ways to alleviate burnout and stress could improve teachers’ levels of self-efficacy, resulting in higher teacher persistence in the profession. Literature Review A review of literature in the field of self-efficacy in teaching uncovers different descriptions and interpretations of the concept. The following literature review includes the background of the research leading up to and surrounding self-efficacy in teaching, as well as the conceptual theories surrounding self-efficacy in teaching. The literature review represents current, relevant research as it relates to teacher self-efficacy and persistence in the field of education. The literature review is organized by first explaining how the social cognitive theory describes teacher self-efficacy and those factors that teachers believe affect self-efficacy. The chapter goes on to explain more of the background in self-efficacy with teachers, including studies by Bandura as well as Pajares, a more current researcher at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia. Next comes information about sources of self-efficacy beliefs according to current studies (Corkett Hatt, & Benevides, 2011; Jennett et al., 2003) and following that comes information about how self-efficacy’s foundation for teachers starts with pre-service teaching (Garvis, Twigg, and Pendergast, 2011). Theories on collective self-efficacy (Swackhamer et al., 2009) will be revealed as well as sources of information regarding changing self-efficacy (Skaalvik and Skaalvik, 2007) and whether or not what starts with teachers in terms of 39 their self-efficacy can be changed. Content knowledge of teachers and theories on whether or not that impacts the self-efficacy of teachers (Bandura, 2007; Swackhamer et al., 2009) are discussed as well as various self-efficacy scales that have been used in past research. External and internal locus of control (Rotter, 1990) as well as teacher burnout (Jennett et al., 2003) will be explained so as to provide background knowledge and how this study might be affected by those factors. Personality traits (Howard & Howard, 2000; Judge et al., 2002; Pajares, 1996) are explained further in this chapter as well as the emotional-regulation ability (Bracket et al., 2010; Corkett et al., 2011), which is when teachers have the ability to control their emotions. Lastly, the topics will be summarized and regrouped in the final section summarizing the research. Teacher Self-Efficacy and Student Achievement Self-efficacy not only impacts teachers, but students are also affected in tremendous ways (Schwackhamer et al., 2009). Whether or not they feel a strong sense of self-efficacy, all teachers do have a measurable impact on student learning and student placement (Corkett et al., 2011; Grant, Stronge, & Ward, 2011). The teachers that a student has in grades K-12 have a significant impact on the student’s learning path (Grant et al., 2011). Teachers with a lower sense of self-efficacy are more “critical of students who make errors, work less with students who struggle, and are more likely to refer a difficult student for special education services than teachers with high self-efficacy” (Corkett et al., 2011, p. 72; Egyed & Short, 2006). Teachers who have a higher sense of self-efficacy may work harder in the classroom and exhibit a greater interest in the students, persisting at working with difficult students (Corkett et al., 2011, Wentzel & Wigfield, 2009). 40 Teachers who do not have the personal belief that they will be successful with certain students do not put forth the effort that people who believe they can make a difference would put forth towards instruction (Garvis, 2009). Teachers’ self-efficacy for teaching in reading and literacy influences a student’s self-efficacy, which impacts the student’s literacy development (Corkett et al., 2011). Di Fabio and Palazzeschi (2008) found that teachers who have high feelings of self-efficacy “emphasize the value of individual differences, enhance group work and problem-solving ability, and channel students to develop adequate social competencies” (p. 315). When teachers implement good practices, such as spending time on classroom activities, putting forth more effort, and being more motivated due to higher self-efficacy, students have more respect for the school property, which creates a higher sense of self-achievement for teachers (Egyed & Short, 2006). Self-efficacious teachers also implement more inquiry-based and studentcentered approaches than teachers who have a low sense of self-efficacy, who typically use more textbooks and lecture methods of teaching (Swackhamer et al., 2009; Di Fabio & Palazzeschi, 2008). Sources of Self-Efficacy Beliefs There are four basic sources of self-efficacy beliefs according to Bandura (1986) and Pajares (1996). In these four sources of self-efficacy beliefs, a cycle is formed between the teacher’s self-efficacy beliefs and the actions of the teacher. The first part of the proposed source of self-efficacy is when teachers gauge the outcome of their actions to determine their self-worth. This first source of self-efficacy beliefs is sometimes called “mastery experiences” or “experiences of mastery” (Bandura, 1986). 41 The second source of self-efficacy beliefs comes from the actions of the people surrounding the teacher and how that impacts the teacher (Bandura, 1986). When people are not sure about themselves and have a lower sense of self-esteem, they tend to be sensitive to what others are doing around them. This could imply the importance of having a model or mentor for a teacher to learn from and to develop a strong sense of self-efficacy. The third source of self-efficacy beliefs is the influence from other people’s verbal persuasions (Bandura, 1986). Negative verbal persuasions from other teachers and staff can damage the ego of both teachers and children alike. Verbal persuasions are also called “social persuasions.” Individuals who receive social support from those surrounding them feel cared for and secure (Bracket et al., 2010). These teachers know that they have someone to communicate ...
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