Chapter 5 Theories of Work Motivation Week 11 March 18-24 What motivates you? What is Motivation? • The extent to which persistent effort is directed toward a goal • • • • Effort: the strength of a person’s work-related behaviour that a person exhibits on the job Persistence: The continued application of effort over time Direction: Does the persistent effort benefit the organization? Goals: usually all motivated behaviour has some goal or objective Types of Motivation • • Intrinsic Motivation: Motivation that stems from the direct relationship between the worker and the task; it is usually self-applied Extrinsic Motivation: Motivation that stems from the work environment external to the task; it is usually applied by others Motivation & Performance • Some people are highly motivated, but don’t seem to perform well… • Performance: the extent to which an organizational member contributes to achieving the objectives of the organization • Intelligence also influences performance • General Cognitive Ability • Emotional Intelligence Motivation Equation A = L + E? Motivation Equation A = L + E? Motivation Equation A = L + E? AxE=M Successful Job Perfomance • You need both: • A – ability • E – effort • To equal: • M – motivation • • You may have A, but don’t make E = able but not motivated You may have E but not A = willing/ motivated but not able Need/Content Theories of Motivation • Need theories of motivation • Motivation theories that specify the kinds of needs people have and the conditions under which they will be motivated to satisfy these needs in a way that contributes to performance • Explain WHAT motivates people and answers the question: what do people need to be motivated? Process Theories of Motivation Process Theories • Motivation theories that specify the details of how motivation actually occurs • Explain HOW motivation work; answers the questions: what is the process of motivation and how is it sustained? Needs Theories • • • • • Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Alderfer’s ERG Theory McGregor’s Theory X/Theory Y Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory McLelland’s Learned Needs Process Theories of Motivation • Expectancy Theory • Equity Theory • Goal Setting Theory NEEDS/CONTENT THEORIES Needs/Content Theories • There are needs within the individual that are responsible for directing motivation • Frustration hypothesis: • All individuals have certain needs, and if those needs are not met, then the individual experiences frustration. Frustration motivates the individual to work hard to alleviate their frustration Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs • Human needs exist in a hierarchically structured form • • • Intrinsic = growth needs Extrinsic = basic needs As lower levels are satisfied, they no longer primarily drive behaviour and higher needs become motivating • Known as the satisfaction progression progress Issues with Maslow • Rigid & hierarchical • Gratification at one level doesn’t necessarily lead to the next level of motivation • Difficult to test • Doesn’t explain HOW to motivate • Cultural differences not accounted for Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs • Human needs exist in a hierarchically structured form • • • Intrinsic = growth needs Extrinsic = basic needs As lower levels are satisfied, they no longer primarily drive behaviour and higher needs become motivating • Known as the satisfaction progression progress Alderfer’s ERG Theory • • • • • E = existence (physiological & safety) R = relatedness (social) G = growth (self esteem & self-actualization) A streamlined version of Maslow’s hierarchy All three sets of needs can operate at once because there is “no hierarchy” but lower level needs tend to dominate • Individuals can move from one set of needs to another Alderfer’s ERG Theory • • • • • E = existence (physiological & safety) R = relatedness (social) G = growth (self esteem & self-actualization) A streamlined version of Maslow’s hierarchy All three sets of needs can operate at once because there is “no hierarchy” but lower level needs tend to dominate • Individuals can move from one set of needs to another McGregor’s Theory X/Theory Y • Theory X: Management views employees as lazy, resistant to change, needing supervision (the enemy!) • Theory Y: Management views employees as hard working, wanting success, deserving of autonomy (the ally!) • • Derived from Maslow, but focused on treating employees like humans (Theory X – lower levels, Theory Y – higher levels) Encouraged a more participatory style of management McGregor’s Theory X/Theory Y • Theory X: Management views employees as lazy, resistant to change, needing supervision (the enemy!) • Theory Y: Management views employees as hard working, wanting success, deserving of autonomy (the ally!) • • Derived from Maslow, but focused on treating employees like humans (Theory X – lower levels, Theory Y – higher levels) Encouraged a more participatory style of management Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Model • Recognizes the importance of job characteristics as motivators • Distinction between factors that motivate employees (intrinsic motivators) and those that cause dissatisfaction if not present (hygiene factors) • Early attempt at something like a job characteristics model Motivator-Hygiene Theory Hygiene Factors – Must be in place or else dissatisfaction; related to extrinsic motivation • Job security • Supervision • Salary • Working conditions • Policies • Flexible benefits Motivator-Hygiene Theory Intrinsic Motivators – must be in place to motivate • • • • • • • • Achievement Recognition Meaningful work Autonomy Responsibility Growth Promotion Recognition Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Model • Recognizes the importance of job characteristics as motivators • Distinction between factors that motivate employees (intrinsic motivators) and those that cause dissatisfaction if not present (hygiene factors) • Early attempt at something like a job characteristics model McLelland’s Learned Needs • Previous theories assumed that needs were instinctive • McLelland suggests that needs are learned from society • Need for power • Need for achievement • Need for affiliation • Motivation can occur through understanding that individuals are driven to satisfy these needs McLelland’s Learned Needs • Previous theories assumed that needs were instinctive • McLelland suggests that needs are learned from society • Need for power • Need for achievement • Need for affiliation • Motivation can occur through understanding that individuals are driven to satisfy these needs Who’s who of mid-century motivation theories! Hackman & Oldham’s Job Characteristics Model Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Herzberg’s MotivatorHygiene Model Alderfer’s ERG Theory McLelland’s Learned Needs McGregor’s Theory X/Y 1953 1964 1943 1975 1969 1960 Who’s who of mid-century motivation theories! Hackman & Oldham’s Job Characteristics Model Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Herzberg’s MotivatorHygiene Model Alderfer’s ERG Theory McLelland’s Learned Needs McGregor’s Theory X/Y 1953 1964 1943 1975 1969 1960 Process Theories of Motivation Process Theories of Motivation • Expectancy theory • Equity theory • Goal setting theory Expectancy Theory • Developed by Vroom (1964) • • • • Helps explain why employees demonstrate different levels of work effort, based on what they think they can do and what it is worth to them E-P (do I have the skills to accomplish the task/performance) P-O (will the performance lead to a certain outcome) Valence (is the outcome worth the effort) EFFORT PERFORMANCE OUTCOME Step 1 – E-P The effort to performance part of expectancy theory asks: • • • • Can you do it? Must increase the belief that employees can do a job successfully Employees will base expectancy on their selfefficacy and prior experiences Focus in the workplace on: • • • • • Selection Training Resources Clarifying roles Providing coaching & feedback Step 2 – P-O The performance to outcome part of expectancy theory asks: • What will you get for doing it? • Must increase the belief that good performance will result in valued rewards • Focus in the workplace on: • • Measuring performance Explaining the link between rewards and past performance • Linking performance to outcomes Step 3 – O Valence The outcome valence part of expectancy theory asks: • Is the outcome valuable? Is it worth it? • Must increase belief that outcomes will be worth it • Focus in the workplace on: • Using valued rewards • Individualizing rewards Limitations of Expectancy Theory • Expectancy Theory does not account for: • Spontaneous counterintuitive behaviour! (i.e. human irrationality) • Counter-valent rewards (norms that prevent employees from working to their full potential) • Based on extrinsic reward system, so rewards may become devalued over time Equity Theory • Developed by Adams (1965) • Explains how people perceive fairness in comparison to one another • Focuses on individuals’ perceptions of others and explains behaviour when we feel inequitably treated • How that inequity connects to motivation Equity Theory • Outcome/Input Rations • • Inputs: what an employee contributes (ex. Skill, time, effort) Outcomes: what an employee receives (ex. Esteem, pay, recognition) • Comparison Other • • Person/people we compare “ratio” with Usually someone close to you at work • Equity Evaluation • The comparison of the “ratio” with the comparison other Equity Evaluation • Motivation is dependent on how we view our comparison • Types of inequity: • Over reward inequity (you get more outcomes for the same input) ☺ • Under reward inequity (you get less outcomes for the same input)  • May try to change our inputs/outcomes/ comparison other/leave the job Issues of Equity Theory • Doesn’t indicate how inputs/outcomes are valued/distinguish between them • Assumes individuals are rational • Doesn’t account for other cultures • Does help explain why pay alone is not a motivator • Does help explain employee turnover/workplace hostility Goal Setting Theory • Suggests that individuals can be motivated by the clarification of roles and the establishment of goals • SMART GOALS • • • • • Specific Measurable Attainable Relevant/Meaningful Timely/require committment Issues of Goal Setting Theory • Can be individualized, but may require a lot of resources • Attainable goals for some may not be for others • Examples in media lately? Issues of Goal Setting Theory • Can be individualized, but may require a lot of resources • Attainable goals for some may not be for others • Examples in media lately? • Banks and sales goals • Can lead to unethical behaviour/adverse effects when rewards are goal-based, but goals are not reasonable (ex. Enron; quality control issues) Conclusions • These theories set the stage for what we understand about motivation today • But how do we apply them at work? And what do they look like in practice? … That’s next week!
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