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C H A P T E R
4
Leadership
A
S
U
N
D
Team leadership is the practice of enlisting
E and overseeing others in the pursuit of shared
goals. In contrast to management, leadership seeks to inspire others to the highest levels of
R
individual, team, and organizational performance.
Whereas managers focus on planning,
organizing, and controlling, leadership
S involves vision, networking, and consensusbuilding (Kotter, 1998). While good leaders will possess good management skills, the converse is not always true. Leaders must be able to foster communication, cohesion, and
commitment within their teams. After S
looking at a brief overview of management trends
in organizations, we will survey the major theories of leadership, discuss the five practices
R
of exemplary leaders, and describe how leaders can influence and persuade others. We
.
conclude with specific strategies for conducting
effective meetings.
,
CASE 4.1: COGENT HEALTHCARE
G
Brentwood, Tennessee, is home to a health care company that specializes in hospital medicine, an emerging speA
cialty with an impressive year-over-year increase in demand. This company has experienced 24% compounded
Rheadcount. With over 1,100 physicians employed in over
annual growth and has recently doubled in revenue and
130 hospitals and clinics across the United States and
Rfewer than 200 employees running the corporate headquarters, this business relies on a distributive leadership model to make sure that the clinical services and business
Y
operations run smoothly, efficiently, and up to the highest standards.
From the executive suite down to the hospital or “program” level, the company is broken down into leadership
“dyads” of a clinical leader and an operations leader. 2
The chief operating officer and chief clinical officer distribute leadership responsibility over regional chief operating officers and regional chief medical officers, who in turn
0
divide responsibility for program managers and program medical directors. This “role-player” model has proven
9
successful with world champion sports teams, on paramedical
teams, and within military Special Forces teams. A
vital component of this model, however, is training, team-building,
and the establishment of trust.
0
One of the key differentiators for this rapidly growing company is the investment it makes in the ongoing
T
development of its human capital. It is one of the few health care companies of any size with a dedicated Organizational Development (OD) department, which has S
developed an academy model that is designed to meet the
advancing needs of the corporate staff, the field support staff, the clinicians, and the hospital program and
67
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68
Working in Teams
regional leadership teams. The academy model is self-buttressing, meaning that it supports itself by crossreferencing courses and training different program-level role players in unison. For example, in the initial “level 1”
training program, the operations leadership and the clinical leadership team members learn the same fundamentals, laying a foundation for understanding, trust, and interdependence across the footprint of the company. This
uniformity helps everyone who has attended the level 1 academy speak the same language, share the same
expectations, and understand the baseline knowledge.
S
As they advance, the leaders participate in more specialized skills training that complements the work they do.
A physician performance, these team leaders are
Whether that training focuses on managing finances or managing
trained to be fully competent and on the cutting edge of their
Uown specialization, and to understand the language
of their counterpart. This ensures ongoing communication and transparency between co-leaders of very highN
pressure, high-stress program sites, which prepares these leadership
teams for the daily demands of the volatile
hospital environment.
D
The advanced leadership training, the third level of the academy
model, is designed around a “live case” strucE
ture, which requires the leadership “dyad” to bring an actual problem that is facing its hospital team—such as
R with the hospital administration—to the training
floundering patient satisfaction scores or a strained relationship
event. Each team’s “live case” is used in every module or session
S in the training in order to lend context to the
material and to create a bridge between theory and practice. The academy takes each team through a series of
sessions about managing culture, relationships, conflict, and performance (to name a few), and each session
S a change initiative to resolve the problem. By the
involves table exercises designed to force the teams to develop
end of the seminar, each leadership team weaves together an
Rintegrated and multifaceted change plan, complete
with milestones. These detailed plans are shared with the regional leaders for the sake of accountability and fol.
low-through, improving the execution and implementation of those initiatives.
, per year on the development of each of its top leadIt is estimated that the company invests almost $10,000
ers, not including the money allocated for “continuing medical education” (known as “CME”) credits. The figure
decreases for employees who bear less responsibility, and while it is a significant amount of money that surprises
G
many business leaders across industries, it has proven valuable in driving business performance and retention of
A have been instituted, average length of physician
the company’s “top talent.” In the time that these academies
tenure has doubled, the company-wide turnover rate is theRbest it has been in the company’s history, and the
quality-based incentive bonuses that programs earn have increased across the company. Given the annual revenue
R
of the company, the decreased costs associated with turnover, and the training of new employees—not to mention
Y reputation—the investment in leadership developthe intangible value of improved client satisfaction and industry
ment has more than justified itself.
2
0
What common needs exist on teams in health care, sports, business, education, and the military? How do
9
you think leadership addresses those needs?
0
How does Cogent Healthcare justify its investment in leadership development? What are the tangible shortT
and long-term benefits?
S Healthcare leadership development model.
What is the best way to train leaders? Describe the Cogent
Case Study Discussion Questions
1.
2.
3.
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CHAPTER 4 Leadership
69
For generations, leaders and supervisors have used their positional power to issue commands and control subordinates’ behavior. They relied largely on the promise of reward and
the threat of punishment to manage and motivate employees. This business model was
designed by powerful men such as J. P. Morgan, Andrew Carnegie, and John D. Rockefeller Sr.
in the early 1900s to run their growing companies (Kayser, 1994). As the United States transitioned from an agrarian to an industrialized economy, factories and organizations sought
raw material and human labor to an unprecedented
extent. To meet their needs, companies
S
hired thousands of employees who, subsequently, needed to be managed and organized.
Apower to hire, fire, reward, and punish those who
Supervisors and foremen had almost total
worked for them. Workers were given direction,
evaluated, and then either rewarded or punU
ished based upon their performance (Edwards, 1979). But today’s competitive and fast-paced
N
global economy requires a new organizational model that shares power and capitalizes on
the collective wisdom of groups and teams
D (Guillen, 1994; Senge, 1990).
SELF-MANAGED WORK TEAMS
E
R
S
The most successful organizations are flexible, innovative, and collaborative in order to
maximize the strengths of an increasingly educated and diverse workforce. Hierarchical
command and control systems that emphasize
authority and compliance are out of fashion
S
and, ultimately, ineffective in the long term (Pfeffer, 1992). Some authors have coined this
R
new autonomy-granting phenomenon as the second industrial revolution, postulating that
it may represent as profound a change.as the first industrial revolution of the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries (Fisher, 2000).
,
Self-managed work teams (SMWTs) are more than groups of people working together
to accomplish tasks defined by their managers. SMWTs are, as their name implies, truly
self-managed. These teams hold responsibility
for the entire process: goal-setting, creating
G
a project plan, dividing up the tasks, assigning responsibilities, and allocating compensaA the company that produces GORE-TEX, makes
tion. For example, W. L. Gore and associates,
significant use of self-directed work teams.
R Job titles do not exist at Gore. Rather, every
employee is known as an “associate,” and when it comes to compensation, the associates
R
are evaluated by their entire team.
SMWTs share power by allowing members
Y to participate in important decisions and to
volunteer for leadership opportunities (Oh, 2012). When individuals are empowered and
motivated, they are more committed to the team’s success and feel a greater sense of
involvement in the process (McIntyre &
2 Foti, 2013). In these types of teams, discussions
tend to be more dynamic and innovative as members share different perspectives and work
0
collaboratively to find the best answers and solutions (Bergman, Rentsch, Small, Davenport,
& Bergman, 2012). Members realize they
9 can use their personal power to influence group
behavior and improve team performance. Shared power, then, allows individual members
0
to exert their opinions and positively influence group decisions and actions. As Johnson
T
and Johnson (2006) suggest, “The effectiveness
of any group is improved when power is
relatively mutual among its members and
power
is based on competence, expertise, and
S
information” (p. 240). Shared power based upon competence as opposed to position grants
all members the opportunity to contribute to team success.
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70
Working in Teams
LEADERSHIP AND GENDER
For most of human history, men have occupied positions of power and have enjoyed
privilege in nearly all its forms. Indeed, most of the storied leaders around the world are
men, and most of today’s revered CEOs and titans of industry are men. However, in a 2010
article from The Atlantic magazine entitled “The End of Men,” author Hanna Rosin wonders
S to an end.
if the golden age of male leadership is coming
Rosin’s exposition on the advancement of
Awomen leaders is based in the argument that
“the postindustrial economy is indifferent to men’s size and strength. The attributes that
U open communication, the ability to sit still
are most valuable today—social intelligence,
and focus—are, at a minimum, not predominantly
N male. In fact, the opposite may be true.”
Rosin argues that the historical or traditional roles and strengths of men and women are
D ones. Her conclusion, therefore, is that the
social constructs more than they are biological
dominance of males—even in leadership positions—is
on the decline. She states, “As thinkE
ing and communicating have come to eclipse physical strength and stamina as the keys to
economic success, those societies that take R
advantage of the talents of all their adults, not
just half of them, have pulled away from the
Srest.” If physical strength and size no longer
command attention and respect, it follows that people with the greatest skill in the most
valuable areas (in Rosin’s argument, these areas are thinking, communicating, perspectivetaking, and social intelligence) are the ones S
who will ascend to leadership positions.
Leaders are only effective to the extent to which they can influence their environment
R
and their team. These factors may, indeed, have been influenced by certain social con. is in transition. The knowledge, skills, and
structs or constraints in the past, but the world
abilities that lead to success are based upon communication, cooperation, and collabora,
tion. And these can be developed, refined, and acquired by men and women alike.
G
A
Leadership is a hotly contested subject in academic
and organizational settings. Not everyR
one agrees on what constitutes effective leadership. Kotter (1985) makes a strong argument
R
that as the workplace continues to become more competitive and complex, issues of leadY
ership, power, and influence will become increasingly
important. Work teams today are
THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP
also contending with the ever-increasing pressure to solve complex, multidimensional
problems at lightning speed. The typical team leader today must manage “thousands of
2
interdependent relationships—linkages to people,
groups, or organizations” (Kotter, 1985,
p. 23). Though relatively straight-forward tasks
and
goals can usually be accomplished
0
through simple structures and concrete role assignments, solving more complex problems
9 out how to generate, evaluate, and impleis a more difficult process. Teams have to figure
ment innovative solutions to new and unforeseen
problems. Leadership models that can
0
catalyze and monitor this process while empowering and developing team members are at
T 1992).
the very heart of effective leadership (Pfeffer,
Blake and Mouton (1961) created the Managerial
Grid to graphically represent the balS
ance between task and relationship. Their model suggests that the best leaders have a high
concern for both people and production or results.
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CHAPTER 4 Leadership
Table 4.1
Managerial Grid
High
Concern
for People
71
Country club management
Team management
Middle of the road
management
Medium
S
Authority-compliance
Low
A
U
Low
Medium
High
N
Concern for Production (task)
D
SOURCE: Adapted from tBlake and Mouton (1961).
E
R
When leaders are more concerned with people than production, their style is friendly and
nonconfrontational. When production isSgiven priority over the value of people, the use of
Impoverished
management
authority to enforce compliance is the norm. When leaders are passive and detached from
both the people and tasks of their team, the management style is impoverished. The ideal
leadership style in this model is to valueS
and invest in people while simultaneously creating
accountability and the expectation of taskR
achievement (Arana, Chambel, Curral, & Tabernero,
2009). The following section describes some of the most common models of leadership.
Trait Theories
.
,
In the early 1900s, leadership researchers assumed that great leaders had a consistent set
of innate traits that set them apart fromGfollowers. Researchers believed that once people
knew which personality traits were associated with success, they could identify potential
A
leaders and put them into positions that would maximize those traits. According to this
R the personality traits associated with effective
reasoning, identification was crucial because
leadership were only present in extraordinary people and could not be developed in people
R
lacking such traits. Although this was a reasonable and systematic approach at the time,
Y were not able to identify a common set of traits
researchers were disappointed when they
present in successful leaders. Research by Mann (1959) and Stogdill (1948) shattered the
illusion that great leaders are born with certain characteristics; the data simply did not sup2
port that position.
More recent research has used characteristics
of the five factor model of personality
0
(openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism) to examine
leadership qualities. Traits within the five9factor model tend to be relatively stable throughout
life and are thus categorized as personality
0 traits rather than learned behavior or transitional
states. Using this model, leadership researchers found significant differences between leaders
T on average, exhibit higher levels of extraversion
and followers. The most effective leaders,
(outgoingness and assertiveness), conscientiousness
(diligence and work ethic), and openS
ness (flexibility and creativity) (McCrae & Costa, 1987). Not surprisingly, the most effective
leaders work well with others, get things done, and find innovative ways to solve problems.
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72
Working in Teams
Contingency Theories
As behavioral researchers were observing leaders in various settings, they found that a
consistent style of leadership did not always work for every situation. In other words, certain styles of leadership work better depending on the specific task, composition, and
context of the group. Out of these observations emerged a theory of leadership that posits
the importance of matching leader behaviors with the context. Contingency theories rest
S
upon the assumption that leadership styles must adapt to changing team conditions in
A
order to be most effective.
Situational leadership is a well-known contingency theory of leadership developed by
U
Blanchard and Hersey (Blanchard, Zigarmi, & Zigarmi, 1999; Hersey, 1985). This theory sugN the amount of direction they give and the
gests that leaders are defined by two things:
amount of support they give. A team leader who
D is highly directive gives detailed information
to members about what needs to be done and how they should do it. Leaders who are supportive give a lot of encouragement to othersEand empower them to figure out the best way
to get their job done. There are four possibleR
leadership styles, depending on the amount of
direction and support a team leader gives: directing, coaching, supporting, and delegating.
S
High
Supportive
Behavior
Low
S
R
.
Supporting
,
G
A
R
Delegating
R
Y
Coaching
Directing
High
2
0 Directive Behavior
9
0
While individual leaders might have a T
preferred style of leadership, Blanchard and
Hersey believe the most effective leadershipSstyle depends on the team.
Low
Situational leadership theory asserts that leadership style must be fluid and dependent
on the developmental level of team members (DeRue, Barnes, & Morgeson, 2010). When
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CHAPTER 4 Leadership
73
teams are in the forming stage of development, members are not exactly sure how they will
contribute or how the team will function together. The team is in an early developmental
stage exhibiting characteristics of low competence as a team but high commitment. At this
stage, members respond best to a leader who provides a lot of structure and uses a directing style of leadership. As the team develops, members increase their level of competence
but lose some of their initial motivation for the task. Thus, the leader must maintain a high
level of directiveness while also providing
S high levels of support and encouragement. This
style of leadership is called coaching. As members become competent in their abilities,
they require less direction but still needA
support. Thus, the supporting style helps maintain
high levels of commitment to the task. Finally,
U as members develop competence and internal motivation, the ideal leadership style is delegating. At this stage, members are able to
N
accomplish the tasks they are assigned with little support or direction. This variable style
of leadership is well suited to the changing
D needs of developing groups. Situational leaders
start with a directing style and end up with a delegating style.
E
R
Transformational Leadership
Transformational leadership is a theoryS
of leadership that describes the process by which
leaders transform a group of individuals into a cohesive team that is committed to the highest levels of success (Bass, 1998). It relies upon the ability of leaders to inspire others to go
S them to take ownership of a task or project and
beyond mere compliance by encouraging
to identify with the results. Transformational
R leaders are visionaries who empower others
to accomplish great feats. They lead by example and are able to enlist others to take on
.
great challenges. Transactional leadership, in contrast, focuses on the management of tasks
and is defined as the transaction between
, a manager and an employee. It relies upon structure, accountability, and a reward system to ensure that work is getting done.
Transformational leaders use influence strategies such as inspirational appeal, consultation, and personal appeal to garner theG
highest levels of commitment. Similarly, they use
referent or expert bases of power to motivate
A others, as opposed to coercive or legitimate
power, which may foster resentment. These leaders would rather have members volunteer
R transformational leadership tends to generate a
for tasks than force them to comply. Thus,
deep sense of loyalty to the team and commitment
to the task.
R
Steve Jobs is an example of an inspiring, transformational leader. There are certainly
Y and slavish dedication to a singular vision, but
tales of his occasional heavy-handedness
shortly after his death in 2011, many of his former colleagues and direct reports shared
detailed stories of how he brought out the best in his employees. He had an appealing
2 he was uncompromising in his pursuit of innogenius about him, according to many, and
vative solutions, user-friendly designs, and
0 exceptional results. The teams that survived the
intensity of his style were fiercely loyal to Apple, its mission, and to Jobs himself. The result,
9
obviously, has been a series of historic and influential products including the iPod, iPad,
and iPhone that have revolutionized technology
and communication.
0
Primal Leadership
T
S
Primal leadership is a theory of leadership that emphasizes the emotional and social maturity of the leader (Goleman, Boyatzis, & McKee, 2004). Emotional intelligence, as we have
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74
Working in Teams
discussed in Chapter 3, on interpersonal dynamics, begins with the ability to recognize and
manage one’s own emotions. Being aware of feelings such as anger or irritation and being
able to manage those feelings is the foundation of emotional intelligence. If leaders are not
aware of their own feelings and do not have an accurate understanding of their own
strengths and weaknesses, they will not be able to manage their teams effectively. In this
regard, healthy self-esteem is not thinking too highly of oneself, and it’s not thinking too
poorly of oneself; it’s thinking accurately about
S oneself.
The second half of emotional intelligence is the ability to understand and manage relaA and the ability to accurately read others.
tionships. Leaders must have social awareness
More specifically, they need to recognize how
U they are personally affecting their team
members. This allows leaders to evaluate their effectiveness and make changes, if necesN
sary. One of the reasons why the fictitious character Michael Scott, from the award-winning
TV show The Office, is so funny is that he has
Dabsolutely no idea how foolish he appears to
others. He has neither self-awareness nor social awareness, which can be quite humorous
E
as he tries to lead his team. Ultimately, effective leaders need emotional intelligence in
R Furthermore, when interpersonal tensions
order to know themselves and to inspire others.
build, leaders need social maturity to accurately
S diagnose the situation and to intervene
with a level head.
S
R
Where am I now?
.
Where do I want to be in the future?
,
Leadership Development Plan
1.
2.
3. What do I need to do to get there?
G
Most of us have had irritable, moody managers
or supervisors who made our working
A
lives miserable. Bosses can have a significant impact on the atmosphere of a team. Not only
are emotions subconsciously perceived on R
a neurological level, they tend to be mirrored
by others (Goleman, Boyatzis, & McKee, 2001).
R The mood or emotions of a team leader
often generate similar emotions, either positive or negative, in the rest of the team. For this
reason, Goleman and his colleagues suggest Y
that leaders need to be aware of their emotions
and how their moods impact their teams. They assert that if team leaders are to be consistently successful over a long period of time, they need to regulate their moods while still
2 stressed, or upset but try to act superficially
being authentic and genuine. If they are angry,
playful or artificially positive, the team will 0
know. It is better for them to be aware of their
emotions and deal with them in an appropriate setting than to cover them up and pretend
9
that nothing is wrong.
Another distinguishing characteristic of primal
0 leadership is its emphasis on intentional
leadership development. Goldman and his associates believe that leaders can be developed
T
by following a specific process. First, individuals need to know their strengths and
S
weaknesses. They can either gather data informally
or they can participate in a more structured 360 degree assessment in which feedback from multiple perspectives such as peers,
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CHAPTER 4 Leadership
75
supervisors, and direct reports is solicited. Once leaders have an accurate understanding of
their strengths and weaknesses, they can create specific goals about the kind of leader they
would like to become. The final step in the leadership development process is to create a
concrete action plan to achieve those goals. Starting with where they are now and moving
to where they would like be, emerging leaders create a detailed, written action plan to get
there. Once a plan is constructed, discipline and diligence are needed to carry it out. One
of the best ways to stay committed to the
S process of personal development is to enlist a
coach, which is one of the primary characteristics of our next leadership theory.
A
U
Resonant Leadership
N
The theory of resonant leadership is closely related to primal leadership, but with some
distinguishing differences. Boyatzis and
D McKee (2005) argue that it is the relationship
between the leader and his or her direct reports that is the key determinant of team sucE
cess. Relationships that are positive and empowering lead to feelings of trust and growth.
R leaders leave members feeling excited about
Conversations and meetings with resonant
being a part of the team and encouraged
S about their role (Baran, Shanock, Rogelberg, &
Scott, 2012). This is what Boyatzis calls interpersonal resonance. Conversely, when the
relationship with supervisors generates feelings of fear, anxiety, or distrust, the result is
dissonance. Dissonant leaders may be smart,
S competent, and hard-working, but they are
not able to build meaningful connections with their team; thus, they will not be able to
R
maintain sustainable success.
Leaders are often under a tremendous
. amount of pressure. They carry an emotional
burden that can wear them down over time. If leaders are not managing stress effectively,
they lose the ability to relate to others in, a positive way and become disconnected from or
dissonant with their team. The solution is to practice regular habits of rest and renewal. In
particular, Boyatzis recommends mindfulness to slow the body down and to focus the
G
mind. With mindfulness, leaders regularly set aside time for quiet reflection and peaceful
relaxation. It is often during times of this
Amindfulness or increased self-awareness that the
full creative capacities of our brains are utilized. It also creates feelings of hope and goodR
will toward others, which can lead to resonance with team members.
Another way leaders can experienceR
renewal is to mentor and coach their team members with compassion (Boyatzis, Smith, & Blaize, 2006). This coaching experience not only
Y
has the potential to impact the development of team members, it can also be an extremely
meaningful endeavor for the leader. The practice of compassionate coaching occurs when
the leader is truly interested in the well-being
2 of others and not just interested in what they
can contribute to the organization. Thus, resonant leaders see one of their primary roles as
0
developing the potential of their team members.
Simply put, they are invested in helping
team members achieve their own goals.9Coaching appointments can foster resonance by
asking team members the following questions:
1.
2.
0
What do you want to achieve personally
and professionally?
T
How can I help you achieve those
Sgoals?
3. Are you open to me giving you specific feedback and suggestions for growth?
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76
Working in Teams
The answers to these questions can be used as the groundwork for future meetings
where goals and plans are discussed more specifically. Again, this type of coaching is beneficial to both the leader and the team member and is one of the key characteristics of
resonant leadership.
S
FIVE PRACTICES OF EXEMPLARY LEADERS
A
Trait theories, contingency theories, and transformational theories of leadership all
U
have something to contribute to the discussion
about leadership. Each perspective
emphasizes certain criteria or conditionsNthat lead to effective leadership. Another
model of leadership that incorporates many of the salient components of these models
D Kouzes and Posner (2007). Used in many
is described in The Leadership Challenge, by
corporate leadership training programs, this
E popular leadership model is grounded in
30 years of research and includes data from over 3 million leaders. The authors have
Rleaders. These include the ability to do the
identified five characteristics of exemplary
following:
S
• Model the way
• Inspire a shared vision
• Challenge the process
• Enable others to act
• Encourage the heart
S
R
.
,
The theory suggests that if individuals learn
G to use these five practices on a regular basis,
they would be more effective as leaders. The five practices are easy to understand and, with
practice, can be mastered by almost anyone.AThe rest of this chapter will describe each of
the five practices in detail.
R
Model the Way
R
Y
Kouzes and Posner assert that exemplary leadership begins with character. After surveying
people on six continents, a clear consensus of admired characteristics emerged. The most
admired leaders are honest, forward-looking,
2 inspiring, and competent. The following
chart highlights the percentage of people from their 2007 survey that identified each of
0
these top four characteristics.
First and foremost, people want to follow 9
leaders who are honest and authentic (Hannah,
Walumbwa, & Fry, 2011). The most effective leaders establish credibility through high
0
ethical character. Honesty, authenticity, and integrity foster trust and provide the foundaT
tion upon which effective leadership is established.
Leaders who speak the truth and do
what they say they are going to do engenderS
loyalty in their followers. With that foundation
in place, a leader can become a role model and example to others.
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CHAPTER 4 Leadership
Table 4.2
77
What People Want to See in Their Leaders
Admired Characteristic
Percentage of Respondents
Honest
89
Forward-looking
71
S
Inspiring
69
A
Competent
68
U
SOURCE: Adapted from Kouzes and Posner (2007) N
D
From the first contact, team members are observing leaders to assess their character and
E matches their words. When a leader is modeling
to determine whether or not their behavior
the way, they not only verbalize their core
R values, they demonstrate them as well. The first
step in becoming an effective leader is to identify, develop, and live consistently with one’s
S
core values. The following questions can help clarify one’s personal and professional values:
• What are my core values?
S
R
What are the most important things to me?
.
What do I want for my life?
,
• When am I at my best and my worst?
•
•
• What do I think about my team?
• What do I believe about our task?G
• What do I believe about the largerAorganization?
• What do I think is the best way toRwork with others?
R by aligning actions with words. That being so,
Values are most effectively demonstrated
if a leader wants the team to be passionate
Y about a certain task, she or he must be visibly
passionate about it. If a leader wants to create an open environment that questions the
status quo, he or she must be open to critique and refrain from defensiveness when challenged. Obviously, leaders are expected
2 to be able to articulate their core values when
asked, but they must also live them out consistently in order to establish credibility.
0
9
Inspire a Shared Vision
0
In order to inspire a shared vision, one must have a compelling goal for the future. As menT are visionary, forward-looking individuals; they
tioned above, the most respected leaders
know where they are going. Visionaries S
live in the present but are looking to a better future.
The more detailed and comprehensive the vision, the better.
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78
Working in Teams
In addition to having a goal or vision for the
future, effective leaders are able to enlist others to
join him or her in the pursuit of that goal. In
order to inspire others, one must be able to communicate a compelling picture that motivates
people to action. For example, Martin Luther King
Jr. was
S a master communicator who not only had
a dream for a better future, but was also able to
A
communicate
that vision and motivate others to
adopt
U it as well. His famous “I Have a Dream”
speech not only engaged an entire generation but
N
continues to inspire us today.
Inspiring others often means communicating
D
the vision in a way that excites the passions of
E
others. To do this, effective leaders tend to be
R storytellers. They use anecdotes, illusexcellent
trations,
S and colorful language to paint a vivid
picture of what the team can accomplish if everyone gets on board. Furthermore, the best stories are able to align the shared goals of the
team with the personal goals of its members.
SThat way, when the team is successful, each
member personally benefits as well.
R
.
Challenge the Process
, assessment of what is not working within a
Challenging the process begins with a critical
team or organization. It requires tenacious honesty to evaluate current practices and make
changes, where necessary. Change can be a threatening process for many. Identifying areas
G
for improvement and making changes to short-term strategies or long-term goals is often
met with resistance. Regardless, the best leaders
regularly evaluate team structure and
A
operating procedures to identify weaknesses and possible blind spots. They challenge their
R
teams to settle for nothing less than the highest levels of excellence.
R with the status quo and constantly look for
The most effective leaders are not satisfied
innovative ways to improve performance. When something has not worked as planned,
Y
they challenge team members to learn from the experience and make improvements. This
model of continuous improvement helps teams find the most effective strategies to achieve
their goals. As leaders model an attitude 2
of accountability and challenge, norms will
develop within the team, and members will adopt these characteristics as well. Instead of
relying solely on the leader, effective teams0
are those in which all team members look for
ways to improve individual and team performance.
9
0
T
Enabling others to act includes the ability to foster collaboration and strengthen others. It
first begins by establishing a collaborativeSenvironment that fosters trust and an open
Enable Others to Act
exchange of information. In order to be effective in this practice, leaders must embrace a
humble and relational posture. They must be willing to admit mistakes, ask for feedback,
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CHAPTER 4 Leadership
79
and defer to the wisdom of the group. In addition, they need to take a genuine interest in
others and attempt to get to know each member of the team on some level. Building rapport can often be established by making simple statements such as “How was your weekend?” or, “Is there anything I can do to help you on this task?” Team members can sense if
a leader is genuinely interested in them and their success, so the attempts to connect
interpersonally must be sincere. When there is an atmosphere of trust and mutual respect,
members will be more interested in making
S a meaningful contribution to the team.
Enabling others to act also includes the ability to coach members and help them develop
Aplay the role of player-coach on a team. They are a
competence and confidence. Leaders often
contributing member of the team but also
U have responsibilities to help others develop their
skills and abilities. Since they often have more experience and expertise than others on the
N
team, they are a great source of wisdom. Coaching includes giving real-time feedback, instruction, and informal training on various tasks
D or skills. In addition, coaches hold team members
accountable for their particular role on the team, which communicates the belief that the team
E
member can successfully complete the task. When members show progress or demonstrate
competence, exemplary leaders will thenR
encourage the heart, as described in the next section.
Encourage the Heart
S
Finally, Kouzes and Posner suggest that effective leaders recognize individual performance
S
while at the same time creating an environment
that celebrates collective effort. When a
team member has made a significant contribution,
that person should be recognized for his
R
or her efforts. To do so, leaders can adopt a philosophy of looking for reasons to applaud team
.
members instead of trying to catch them doing something wrong. As the old adage goes, “You
can catch more flies with honey than with
, vinegar.” This practice, however, can be overused.
While some members need encouragement in order to stay motivated, others do not. It is up
to the leader to determine the needs of each team member. But even if a member is not parGthe leader is creating a positive, encouraging atmoticularly responsive to public recognition,
sphere and reinforcing the norms and expectations
for ideal member behavior.
A
High-performing teams work hard to reach their goals and celebrate their victories with
R teams to strive for success are quick to reward
equal verve. Leaders who have pushed their
their teams for their effort. Various awards
R such as trophies, trips, cash bonuses, or other
perks can be used to recognize excellence. When teams have faced adversity and overcome
Y a strong bond. Those experiences should be
obstacles to achieve a goal, they develop
reflected upon and celebrated. For example, the 1980 U.S. hockey team overcame great
odds to win a gold medal at Lake Placid, New York. Imagine the thrill and team pride shared
by the players as they stood together on2a platform in front of thousands of people as the
“Star Spangled Banner” was playing. The
0 blood, sweat, and tears that it took to get to the
champion circle were swallowed up by the thrill of victory in that one moment.
9
0
FIVE BASES OF POWER
T
In his book Power: A New Social Analysis, the famous philosopher Bertrand Russell (1938)
suggests that “the fundamental concept inSsocial science is power, in the same way that energy
is the fundamental concept in physics.” Power is the capacity to influence one’s environment
and the people within it. But where does power come from? There are times when power is
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80
Working in Teams
inherent in a position or job title. Other times, it is not the title, but a particular quality or circumstance that allows the individual increased influence and power within a social setting or
organization. This section will explore French and Raven’s (1959) five bases of power including reward, coercive, legitimate, expert, and referent power within a team setting.
Reward power is established when a member of a team possesses sufficient means to
reward other members for positive behaviors. Rewards can take many forms, from verbal
encouragement to financial compensation.S
If the reward is perceived as valuable and the
request is reasonably attainable, individuals will comply. The drawback to this type of
transaction is that member behavior may A
only be sustained as long as the rewards are
offered. In other words, the work and ultimate
U purpose of the group may not be fully internalized by members (Pink, 2009). Furthermore, if rewards are promised but not delivered,
N
resentment and distrust may follow and can compromise motivation for future tasks.
Coercive power stems from the power to punish
D others. The power holder has the capacity to issue negative consequences when requests are not followed or rules are broken. The
E
degree of the consequence may range from the mild (sending a bad review to the member’s
R from the team). Individuals with this type
superior) to the extreme (eliminating a member
of power can threaten, constrain, block, or interfere
with others, and thus use fear to conS
trol their behavior.
Legitimate power is associated with the implied power of certain roles in a group or
organization. For example, team leaders might
S be given a certain amount of authority over
their group. Members obey the requests of the group’s authority figures out of a sense of
R can command compliance due to their
duty, loyalty, or moral obligation. While leaders
position, those who provide the reasons for .their requests enhance member commitment.
Expert power is awarded to members who are perceived as having knowledge that is par,
ticularly useful to the group. One of the earliest
pioneers of management theory, Peter
Drucker, speculated more than 30 years ago that modern employees would need to be
“knowledge workers” (Davenport, 2005). The strongest assets these workers bring to teams
G
and organizations are their knowledge, intellect, and ability to solve complex problems. Their
expertise in various subject matters helps teams
A critique ideas and make better decisions.
Referent power is a source of power that is established by those who are charismatic and
R
well-liked by others. They may not have the best ideas or suggestions, but they garner a lot
R
of support because they are so likeable. Members
want to please them and gain their
approval, rendering them quite influential over individual members, in particular, and the
Y
group process, in general.
Some sources of power are more valuable in particular contexts than others. Naturally,
groups tend to value those sources that are 2
most applicable to their identity and purpose.
For example, Krause and Kearney (2006) conducted research on power bases in hospitals,
schools, orchestras, and corporations. They0found that the use of legitimate and expert
power were most prominent in hospitals and
9 orchestras; this is not surprising, since those
organizations value achievement and expertise. Status and power are embedded in titles
such as “doctor” or “conductor.” In contrast,0coercive, reward, and legitimate power were
strongly operational in schools. Teachers T
regulate school performance by distributing
grades (reward power) or punishment (coercive power). Teachers and principals are granted
S of those roles. Lastly, in corporations, referrespect in most cases because of the legitimacy
ent and expert power were most highly valued. Their organizational success depends on
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CHAPTER 4 Leadership
81
how well people work together and the amount of knowledge those individuals bring to
the team. This research shows that the importance of power bases across contexts depends
on their value to that particular set of circumstances (Schriesheim & Neider, 2006).
Group members respond differently to different sources of power. Coercive power can
generate resistance or reluctant compliance, whereas reward or legitimate power often
results in a more positive response. However, it is referent and expert power that engender
true commitment (Yukl & Falbe, 1991).SWhen members are voluntarily enlisted through
rational persuasion rather than force, and inspirational appeals rather than positional
A
power, they are far more likely to be committed
to the task.
Not surprisingly, people with multipleUsources of power have an even greater capacity to
influence the behavior of others. For example, after successfully overseeing the merger of
N
Compaq Computer and Hewlett-Packard, Michael Capellas joined MCI/WorldCom in December
2002 as president and CEO. Despite its D
position as the world’s largest telecommunications
company at the time, MCI/WorldCom was embroiled in an accounting scandal and forced into
E
bankruptcy. Using his impressive business acumen, Capellas brought the company out of
Rnegotiated its sale to Verizon Business a year later.
bankruptcy in early 2004 and successfully
His possession of the five bases of powerS
clearly contributed to his success. He had the power
to reward competent and highly motivated employees and remove those who were less than
stellar. In addition, his position at the top of the organizational chart garnered respect and
obedience. But Capellas was more than a S
typical high-level executive who understood balance
sheets and reporting structures; he was an expert in the field of information technology and
R
an avid reader of information about technology
development and future trends. He knew his
stuff. Furthermore, he was likeable and very
relational.
He inspired hundreds of thousands of
.
discouraged MCI employees to commit to a vision that would turn the company around and
,
reassert its global presence. By most accounts,
he was completely successful.
G
A
While leaders have access to different power bases within a group, they also have choices
R
as to how they will exercise that power. Influence tactics are the means by which people
influence the attitudes and behavior ofR
others. The choice of which tactic to use is based
upon available resources (i.e., the power bases one possesses), the willingness to invoke a
Y
power base (based upon personal values, social norms, and possible costs associated with
INFLUENCE STRATEGIES
each tactic), and the resistance one expects from the target (Bruins, 1999; Kipnis, 1976).
Yukl and associates originally identified
2 nine influence tactics (Yukl & Falbe, 1990, 1991;
Yukl, Kim, & Falbe, 1996; Yukl & Tracey, 1992), and their most recent research has identified two additional tactics (Yukl, Chavez,0& Seifert, 2005). Most of the methods can be used
by either leaders or members and, thus,9fit well within a self-managed team environment.
The following table describes each of the 11 tactics.
Not all influence tactics produce the 0
same results. According to Yukl and Tracey (1992),
three core tactics (rational persuasion, inspirational
appeals, and consultation) were found
T
to be the most effective at gaining task commitment and were strongly related to successful
S Committed members, as opposed to merely
leadership as evaluated by their superiors.
compliant members, understand the value of the requests being made; thus, they tend to
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82
Working in Teams
Table 4.3
Eleven Primary Influence Tactics
Influence Tactic
Definition
Rational persuasion
The person uses logical arguments and factual evidence to persuade others that a
certain position is the best course of action.
Inspirational appeal
The person makes a request or proposal that arouses enthusiasm by appealing to
values, ideals, and aspirations. A
Consultation
U in planning a strategy, activity, or change
The person seeks others’ participation
and is willing to modify a proposal based upon their concerns and suggestions.
Ingratiation
The person seeks to get others inDa good mood or to think favorably of him or her
before making a request.
Exchange
The person offers an exchange of favors, indicates willingness to reciprocate at a
later time, or promises a share ofRthe benefits if help is given.
Personal appeal
The person appeals to feelings ofSloyalty and friendship.
Coalition
The person garners the aid and support of others before making a request for
someone to do something.
S
Legitimating
The person seeks to establish theRlegitimacy of a request by claiming the authority
or right to make it or by verifying that it is consistent with existing policies, rules,
.
practices, or traditions.
Pressure
, or persistent reminders to influence the
The person uses demands, threats,
attitudes or behavior of others.
Collaboration
The person offers to provide relevant
G resources or assistance if others will carry
out a request or approve a proposed change.
Apprising
The person explains how others will benefit by complying with the request.
S
N
E
SOURCE: Adapted from Yukl, Chavez, & Seifert, 2005
A
R
R
Y
carry out their tasks with enthusiasm, initiative, and persistence. The most ineffective influence tactics identified in the study were pressure, coalition, and legitimating (Yukl & Tracey,
1992). While these strategies may elicit compliance,
overuse can produce resistance.
2
Furthermore, compliance only guarantees that members carry out their duties, not that
0
they exhibit any more than minimal to average effort.
9 95 managers and nonmanagerial profesIn another study, Falbe and Yukl (1992) asked
sionals in a variety of private companies and public agencies to evaluate their reaction to
0
504 influence attempts made upon them. Each attempt was categorized as one of the nine
T a resulting response of resistance, complioriginal influence tactics and associated with
ance, or commitment. The following table describes
the results.
S
Hard tactics such as legitimating, coalition, and pressure often produce resistance
and rarely engender commitment. Leaders will have significantly better long-term outcomes if they use softer tactics such as consultation, inspirational appeals, or ingratiation
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CHAPTER 4 Leadership
Table 4.4
83
Effectiveness of Various Influence Tactics
Outcomes
Influence Tactics
Inspirational appeal
Resistance
0%
Consultation
18
Personal appeal
25
Exchange
24
Ingratiation
41
Rational persuasion
47
Legitimating
44
Coalition
53
Pressure
56
Compliance
S
A
U
N
D
E
R
S
Commitment
10%
90%
27
55
33
42
41
35
28
31
30
23
56
0
44
3
41
3
S
SOURCE: Adapted from Falbe and Yukl (1992).
R
(Falbe & Yukl, 1992). Feedback and skills
. training can help team leaders develop influence
tactics that are most effective. Seifert, Yukl, and McDonald (2003) found that multisource
,
feedback and the use of a feedback facilitator
can help leaders and managers become
more aware of their own strategies and develop more effective ways to motivate subordinates and peers.
G
A
PERSUADING OTHERS
R
R leader or influential member can do to ensure
This section describes specific things a team
that his or her voice is not only heard, but
Y heeded. We’ve already talked about the impor-
tance of voicing one’s opinions and positions in group settings, but how do you make sure
that those opinions are given the consideration they deserve by the rest of the group?
Conger’s (1998) research identifies four 2
components of successful persuasion: (a) establishing credibility, (b) finding common ground, (c) providing evidence, and (d) making an emo0
tional connection. The best and most persuasive arguments include all four components.
9
0
Establish Credibility
T must have credibility and respect from their
In order to be persuasive, group members
peers. The ideas of a low-status or marginally
committed member are not likely to be
S
heard, even if they are brilliant. It takes some measure of status and personal power to be
taken seriously. According to Conger (1998), credibility comes from intellectual competence, interpersonal competence, and personal character.
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84
Working in Teams
Intellectual competence is demonstrated every time a member makes a significant
contribution to the group. When a competent member speaks, others believe that what is
being said is worth listening to because ideas from that member have been credible in the
past. In short, competence is a characteristic that engenders trust and is established when
members have proven themselves to have sound judgment and valuable knowledge.
Credibility is also enhanced when a member has interpersonal competence and quality
relationships with others. The ability to workScollaboratively with others will go a long way
toward building relational trust. When members are seen as “team players,” they are appreciated by the group. This type of credibilityAis acquired when members are perceived as
likeable, agreeable, and enjoyable to work with.
U
Finally, members are highly valued when they demonstrate honesty, consistency, and
N
reliability—personal character. Honesty and fairness are admirable characteristics that
earn the respect of others. Furthermore, those
D who consistently follow through on their
commitments are highly regarded as well. Meeting deadlines with high-quality work is a
E
sure way to win over colleagues. Another characteristic that is admired on teams is work
R shows commitment to team success over
ethic. If a person is willing to work hard and
personal gain, he or she has earned the right
Sto be heard.
Find Common Ground
S
In addition to having credibility, effective persuasion requires the ability to frame suggestions in terms of their benefit to the whole R
group. Unfortunately, when people are overly
attached to a certain perspective or position,
. they lose sight of the group’s interests.
Discussions can become personal and competitive, and members can feel compelled to
,
win at all costs. A potential power struggle ensues
with members going on the attack and
attempting to pressure others to agree with them. It is not uncommon for these negative
patterns of interaction to emerge when others refuse to comply. To avoid this from happenG
ing, members should keep in mind that the best arguments are tied to the ultimate goals
and success of the group.
A
According to Conger (1998), an understanding of the audience is a prerequisite for finding
R
common ground. The most effective persuaders are students of human nature who seek to
R before advocating their own agenda. They
understand the concerns and interests of others
are active listeners who collect data through conversations and meetings. This allows them
Y
to construct arguments that emphasize issues of mutual concert and mutual benefit.
Finding common ground also allows for compromise and collaboration. Those who wish to
influence the group will be more successful if2
they stay open to the concerns and perspectives
of others and are willing to adapt and modify their own position. When met with resistance,
0
these individuals listen, paraphrase, and ask probing
questions to better understand the issues
of concern. Influence tactics such as consultation,
collaboration,
and apprising can be effective
9
in identifying shared benefits and building a common framework from which to work.
0
T
Provide Evidence
S is a practice in which groups make deciAs the name suggests, data-based decision making
sions and create plans based upon careful calculations of the best data available to them.
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CHAPTER 4 Leadership
85
Setting measurable goals and correctly analyzing problems help groups uncover the necessary data that can guide their efforts. Solid numerical data provide the reasoning and justification for group decisions and direction.
Before putting forth an argument, a member should anticipate the question: “What
evidence do you have for your position?” Argyris (1994) describes this process as coming
down the ladder of inference because members provide the data and reasoning upon
which a decision, conclusion, or argument
S was based. When a person has already established credibility, providing strong empirical data that support a certain perspective makes
A
for a compelling argument.
Knowledge is a source of power, and
Usharing it empowers the rest of the group. This
principle is the basis for using trend data, which, while not perfect, give approximate proN
jections of what is likely to occur in the future. For example, if a marketing team responsible for selling nutrition bars is trying to
Dcreate a marketing plan for the next five years, it
will use data from the previous five years, along with information on current market condiE
tions, to project sales and create a strategic plan.
R they do not tell the whole story. Statistics and
While numbers and data are important,
graphs are most effective when they S
are presented with vivid language and concrete
examples. Stories can be powerful tools that bring numbers to life and persuade others to
arrive at certain conclusions. Analogies, anecdotes, and metaphors can also be used to
make data more concrete, interesting, and
S tangible. Instead of making an argument based
solely upon past performance and current market trends, a customer testimonial describR after buying the company’s product may provide
ing how his or her quality of life improved
the emotional dynamic that rounds out .a strong case for more aggressive growth. Consider
Subway, the fast-food sandwich giant whose marketing team designed an entire campaign
around “Jared,” a man who lost over 200, pounds in one year by eating nothing but Subway
food. The ad campaign not only included data in terms of the number of pounds that Jared
lost, but it also tied the numbers to his own life story.
G
A
Connect Emotionally
R
While rational arguments can foster agreement, establishing an emotional connection is
R
often needed to ensure commitment. Inspirational
appeal is the most effective tactic for
generating commitment because it engages
people
on
an emotional level. When it is done
Y
effectively, people rarely resist. In a study conducted by Falbe and Yukl (1992), inspirational
appeals resulted in commitment 90% of the time and compliance 10% of the time, and
they never generated outright resistance.
2 Connecting emotionally requires that members
demonstrate their own emotional commitment and passion for the position they are advocating. In addition, they must be able to0accurately read the emotions of their audience to
know whether or not the listeners are receiving
the message enthusiastically.
9
With credibility, common ground, strong data, and relevant examples, members can per0 must be convinced of the legitimacy of their own
suasively advocate their position. But they
ideas, or their efforts will be in vain. People
T can see through a polished argument devoid of
passion. If group members cannot tell that the member behind the delivery is thoroughly
S
convinced, they, too, will likely be unconvinced. Yet too much emotion might create the
impression that a person has lost objectivity or is too invested in a certain decision. Thus,
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86
Working in Teams
members who wish to influence others should demonstrate an appropriate amount of conviction to champion a given position by taking into consideration the comfort level of the
audience. Each group environment will dictate the optimal level of emotional expression.
Conger (1998) warns against underestimating the importance of being able to assess the
emotional state of the audience. Presenters must be able to judge whether they are being
well received or even understood. This can be achieved by observing nonverbal messages
and reading between the lines of questionsSand comments. In spite of the stated importance of rationality in organizational settings, emotions play a strong role. Thus, those who
A
are effective at persuading can judge the emotional
reactions of others and adjust their
comments accordingly.
U
Influential members who are effective at persuading colleagues establish credibility, find
N
common ground, provide compelling evidence for their position, and connect emotionally
with the group. If members want to be activeD
and influential in their groups, they can utilize
these methods to increase their effect on group decision making.
CONDUCTING EFFECTIVE MEETINGS
E
R
S
Meetings are a critical component of group work; most of the important work of teams
takes place in a forum where members communicate
with one another face to face or
S
through some computer-mediated space (Kauffeld & Lehmann-Willenbrock, 2012; Scott,
R
Shanock, & Rogelberg, 2012). Unfortunately, many people experience the typical meeting
as inefficient and even unpleasant (O’Neill .& Allen, 2012). In his book Death by Meeting,
Patrick Lencioni (2004) reports that the most common complaint about meetings is that
,
they are both ineffective and boring. Although meetings are the lifeblood of teamwork,
they can be quite frustrating, especially as teams grow in size. Hence the dictum that the
larger the team, the greater the potential forGinefficiencies and process losses. In order to
combat these shortcomings, Whetten and Cameron (2007) have identified several strategies
Amore effective, which we discuss below.
that teams can implement to make meetings
R
1. Purpose: The reason for holding a meeting should be explicitly clear. Meetings are
R build commitment to a project, provide
generally called in order to share information,
information, give or receive feedback, and/or
Yproblem-solve.
2. Participants: It is important to pay attention to the number of people in attendance.
Meetings of more than 10 people should be used to report information as opposed to being
2
an open discussion of ideas. Also, group composition is an important consideration: How
similar are members in terms of backgrounds,
0 personalities, knowledge, and the like? Are
they competitive, or do they prefer cooperation? Are they task or process oriented? These
9
are important questions to ask. For example, discussion may be difficult in a large group of
people. And groups that are not very diverse0may not be able to generate a wide variety of
creative perspectives and solutions to a particular problem.
T
3. Planning: Setting the agenda is a keyStask for the meeting facilitator. The agenda
should be distributed to attendees prior to the meeting, and should inform participants of
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CHAPTER 4 Leadership
87
what to expect, any contributions they are required to make, and the duration of the meeting. Agenda items should be written with action verbs like “approve minutes,” rather than
“minutes,” and organized into three phases: old business, new business, and closing
thoughts. Then the group needs to stick to the agenda and begin and end on time.
4. Participation: After paying careful attention to ensure that the right people are present, it makes sense to focus on their participation. Begin meetings with introductions so
S with one another. Leaders can encourage parthat all members begin to feel comfortable
ticipation through various communication
A strategies such as asking open-ended questions,
making eye contact, paraphrasing comments, linking comments together, and summarizU
ing discussions.
N
5. Perspective: Perspective involves analyzing the meeting in hindsight. Leaders who
regularly reflect on the quality of their meetings
not only improve their own skills, but also
D
improve the overall productivity of the team. In the same way, it is often helpful to get the
E
perspective of the participants as well. Direct questioning and the use of anonymous surveys are both effective ways to collectRfeedback on what went well and what changes
should be made in the future.
S
LEADERSHIP IN ACTION
S
R
The five practices of exemplary leaders can make
.anyone a better leader. We just need to look for
to serve as a positive role model,
,opportunities
inspire a shared vision, productively challenge the
process, enable others to act, and encourage the
hearts of teammates. These practices, though, will
G
require a certain amount of reflectiveness. Leaders
A
in training must be willing to step back from team
experiences and think critically about their own
R
role, the variables at play, and the fine and nuanced
R
dance between them and their team. Strong leaders are not only aware of their own perceptions,
Y
but are also inquisitive and responsive to other
people’s perceptions and needs. So much of lead2ership is about managing information, personaliand perceptions. To do this well, leaders need
0ties,
to be constantly observing their own behavior and
9that of their teammates.
These five practices are not necessarily per0formed
in order. Rather, they are a dynamic list of
T
tools that can be employed any time a situation
warrants them. The more they are used, the more
S
effective they become. At first, it may feel strange
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88
Working in Teams
to try to “inspire” colleagues, but those skills will develop over time and with practice. A
good starting place is to lead by example by showing up early, arriving prepared, staying
engaged, and bringing a positive and encouraging attitude to team meetings. Then, as credibility increases, emerging leaders can add in such practices as offering productive challenges and enabling others to act by giving feedback and suggestions for improvement.
The key to developing leadership skills is to be intentional about it. After every team
experience, leaders should reflect (think critically)
on what happened, what worked well,
S
and what the leader might have done differently to improve the outcome. Essentially, these
A basis so they become internalized and part
five practices need to be exercised on a regular
of one’s identity. Leaders in training should U
model the positive and productive habits they
wish to see within their teams. They should encourage team members who demonstrate
N
positive behaviors and challenge those who don’t. They should hold their team accountable to the highest standards of excellence D
and create a culture in which team members
challenge one another to work harder. Developing these skills requires a significant amount
E
of trial and error. New practices will be far from perfect at first, but over time they will
R
pay rich dividends. Successful leadership development
requires courage, discipline, selfreflection, and intentionality.
S
KEY TERMS
Self-managed work teams 69
Situational leadership 72
Directing style of leadership 73
Coaching style of leadership 73
Supporting style of leadership 73
S
R
Delegating
style of leadership 73
Influence
tactics
81
.
Intellectual competence 84
,
Interpersonal
competence 84
Personal character
84
G
A
R and workers has changed. Describe
Over the last century, the dynamic between managers
those changes and discuss how those changes have
R affected teams.
Describe French and Raven’s five bases of power
Yand give an example of each.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3. Describe the three influence tactics you think are most effective for team leaders.
4. Describe the four leadership styles within the situational
leadership model. Give examples of
2
each.
0
5. Discuss the difference between transactional leadership and transformational leadership.
9
What are the outcomes of each?
0
T
How do most effective leaders establish credibility?
S
What are the four components of successful persuasion? Create a hypothetical case study in
6. What are the five practices of effective leaders? Name and describe each.
7.
8.
which a team leader is trying to get members to be more committed to the team.
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CHAPTER 4 Leadership
89
GROUP ACTIVITIES
EXERCISE 4.1 INSPIRATIONAL LEADERS
Get into groups of four to five people to talk about your past experiences with leaders,
supervisors, and bosses.
S
A
U
• Create a list of characteristics associated with the worst leaders you have observed.
N
• Who is the leader your team admires most? Provide a detailed rationale for your
D
answer.
E
Appoint a spokesperson to present the results of your discussion to the rest of the class.
R
S
• Create a list of qualities of the best leaders you have observed.
EXERCISE 4.2 PRACTICING EXEMPLARY LEADERSHIP
S
You have been selected to be on a nomination
committee to identify viable candidates for
student body president. In groups of four to five students, discuss the characteristics of a
R
successful student body president and choose someone from your class as a possible can. from your group but does have to be a member
didate. The nominee doesn’t have to come
of this class. While you are having this,conversation, practice one of the five practices of
exemplary leadership described in this chapter (model the way, inspire a shared vision,
challenge the process, enable others to act, or encourage the heart). Be relentless. Continue
to use the same practice over and over again,
G no matter how silly or contrived it might feel.
At the end of the exercise, try to guess the practice that each person was practicing.
A
CASE 4.2: OUTLINING R
LEADERSHIP STRENGTHS
R
You’ve been working at your company,Y
Galactic Enterprises, LLC, for three years and have
developed a good reputation for getting things done. Your boss, who refers to you as his
“go-to person,” has called you into his office to talk about a project team whose leader
unexpectedly took a new job with a rival
2 company, giving only two-weeks’ notice. When
you arrive at the meeting, your boss is sitting there with three other managers. He asks you
0 philosophy and to lay out the approach you
to describe for the group your leadership
would use to lead the project team out of
9 confusion and back on plan.
0
• Using content from the chapter, create an appropriate, semi-formal presentation to
describe how you would lead this team
T and why you are the right person for the job.
S
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C H A P T E R
5
Communication
A
S
U
N
D
Verbal and nonverbal communicationE among group members defines much team life.
Individual goals, team goals, structure, and norms are evident in the communication patR are accomplished and relationships managed
terns that develop among members. Tasks
through interpersonal interaction. Yet not
S all communication is positive, and as a result,
team performance can be compromised. This chapter describes communication skills and
patterns that lead to team success. It also identifies specific strategies members can adopt
S effectively. The chapter ends with a discussion
to improve their ability to communicate
about virtual communication and the benefits and challenges of virtual teams.
R
.
CASE 5.1: THE
, APPRENTICE
The TV reality show The Apprentice first aired on NBC during the winter of 2004 and quickly became the hit that
G are divided into two teams that compete against each
it is today. At the beginning of each season, 16 contestants
other for the ultimate prize of becoming the presidentA
of one of Donald Trump’s companies. Every week the two
teams face off in various challenges, ranging from selling lemonade on the streets of New York City to organizing
R
charity events. The project leader of the losing team must face Trump in the boardroom and explain why the team
R team who, in his opinion, was most responsible for the
did not succeed. Trump then identifies a member of the
loss and issues his now famous decree, “You’re fired.” Y
In week two of the first season, the two teams, Versacorp (all men) and Protégé (all women), were given the
task of designing an advertising campaign for a private jet service. Each team chose a project leader and began
2 they decided not to conduct customer interviews. Not
to structure the task. The men made a strategic error when
knowing the distinguishing characteristics or the desires
0 of the customer proved to be fatal and led to Versacorp’s
downfall. In addition, one of the more eccentric members of the team, Sam, talked excessively during planning
9 when he spent valuable project time lying on the floor
sessions, frequently getting off topic. In one of the meetings,
0
of a conference room taking a nap, his credibility was compromised.
As a result, when he later tried to interject his
ideas and influence other members, he was interruptedTby the project leader, Jason, and marginalized.
In contrast to the men, Protégé met with the customer and eventually decided upon an advertising campaign
S all the members were comfortable using that approach,
that used sexual overtones in its print ads. However, not
as it risked offending the customer. In the process of discussing options and making decisions, a number of
91
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92
Working in Teams
members had different opinions, and tempers flared. Even though the women won the competition, it became
obvious that there were serious interpersonal problems on their team. Two of the members, Omarosa and Ereka,
had engaged in a number of arguments, and other members of the team were concerned that their dislike for each
other would hurt the team’s performance in the future.
For this challenge, Trump asked Donny Deutsch, the principal of a successful advertising agency in New York City,
to decide the winning proposal. Deutsch and his two associates were torn between the men and the women. The sex
S
appeal in the women’s presentation may not have been appropriate for an actual print campaign, but it showed that
A qualities persuaded Deutsch to declare the women
they were more creative and willing to take risks. Ultimately, those
victorious. In addition, he commented that their presentationU
was sharper and more persuasive than that of the men.
Their ability to communicate their ideas with passion and enthusiasm connected well with Deutsch.
N men’s team, identified Sam as the team’s biggest
After losing the task, Jason, the project manager for the
problem. Jason explained to Trump how Sam failed the group
Dby literally falling asleep during the project and not
caring about the team’s performance. Sam told Trump that
EJason was just an average leader who made many
mistakes, including not meeting with the customer. He added that because the team did not take the time to
Rwas flawed from the start. Thus, Sam didn’t respect
thoroughly understand the customer’s needs, the project plan
Jason’s leadership and became passively detached. In the end,
S Trump held the team leader, Jason, responsible and
fired him; Sam was spared. However, the group members became so frustrated with him that they decided to make
him team leader for the next project in an effort to get him to “put up or shut up.” While this may have been a
S next competition. Although the women’s team was
strategic move to deal with Sam, the team suffered, losing the
winning competitions, interpersonal conflicts began taking
R their toll. Hostility and mistrust among members
began to compromise the team’s ability to perform.
Case Study Discussion Questions
.
,
• What should the men do about Sam? How do you view members who don’t exactly fit in with the group? Is
G
Sam a resource or a liability to the team? Explain.
A
R
What do you typically do in group situations when people are angry and start attacking one another? What
R
do you do when others challenge you?
Y
What communication skills are needed in the men’s group? In the women’s group?
• Two of the women strongly dislike each other. How would you handle that situation?
•
•
2
In an article in Business Communication 0
Quarterly, Kinnick and Parton (2005) describe
the results of a content analysis they performed on all 15 episodes from the first season of
9
The Apprentice. They examined the following communication skills in each of the episodes:
oral and written communications, interpersonal
0 communication, teamwork skills, intercultural communication, negotiating skills, and ethical communication. In addition, they
T
examined Trump’s view of how those skills influenced individual and team performance.
Trump and his associates identified poor S
communication skills as a factor in 5 of the
15 team losses. Poor communication was also cited as a factor in more than half of the
individual firings. The last five players in the competition at the end of the season were
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CHAPTER 5 Communication
93
considerably more likely to be praised for their communication skills than were the first
five who were eliminated.
Communication skills are foundational for individual, team, and organizational success
(Kinnick & Parton, 2005). For example, oral communication and interpersonal skills are
often cited as the most important criteria in evaluating job candidates. Interpersonal skills
were mentioned more frequently than any other competency listed in classified ads for
entry-level jobs in 10 major metropolitanSnewspapers. Not surprisingly, the U.S. Department
of Labor has identified communication and interpersonal skills as core requirements for
A individuals for professional success by helpfuture workers. Colleges work hard to prepare
ing them develop these skills throughU
team-based learning activities and class projects
(Kalliath & Laiken, 2006). And once employees are hired, organizations invest significant
N
resources to enhance their communication skills. According to one study, 88% of U.S.
companies provide communication skills
D training for their employees (Industry Report,
1999). The importance of communication cannot be overstated. Thus, it is important to
E
thoroughly understand this powerful interpersonal process.
R
S
ENCODING AND DECODING MESSAGES
Communication is the exchange of thoughts,
S information, or ideas that results in mutual
understanding between two or more people. The process requires at least one sender, one
R
receiver, and a message that is transmitted within a communication medium. It begins with
.
an idea or concept in the mind of the sender.
He or she encodes the idea into meaningful
symbols in the form of words, pictures, or gestures (i.e., language). The sender then selects
,
a medium to transmit those symbols so the receiver can access them through one or more
senses. The medium can be a face-to-face conversation, a piece of artwork hanging in an
G
A
Figure 5.1 Sending and Receiving Messages
R
R
Sender
Y
Receiver
Transmission
Encoding
2
0
9Response
0
T
Transmission
Medium:
S
Oral, written, non-verbal, or electronic
Decoding
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94
Working in Teams
art gallery, a text message, or any growing number of electronic transmission media. When
the receiver receives the message, he or she must decode the symbols in order to interpret
the message and understand the intent of the sender, as depicted below.
Meaningful communication takes place when the receiver accurately understands the
message transmitted by the sender. However, this does not always happen perfectly. A
multitude of potential problems can hinder the process and block understanding. The rest
of the chapter examines the many ways in which
S a message can become distorted or misunderstood; it also suggests ways to minimize the potential for communication missteps.
A
U
VERBAL COMMUNICATION
N
D
The use of verbal statements is one of the most common ways individuals communicate with
Eto understand problems and manage projects,
one another. As team members work together
hundreds, if not thousands, of verbal comments are exchanged. A team member might be
R
communicating a message at face value, or he or she may be implying hidden meanings or
S
even multiple layers of meaning in a single statement.
Because members do not always know
the exact intent of one another’s comments, there can be multiple interpretations and
frequent misunderstandings. In the early stages of group development, team members have
S and understand that particular group.
to learn the most effective way to interact with
Wheelan and her associates have developed
R a classification system called the Group
Development Observation System (GDOS) as a way of categorizing and analyzing the verbal
.
interactions that take place among group members
(Wheelan, Davidson, & Tilin, 2003). The
GDOS classifies statements into one of eight
, categories, and while statements can sometimes fit more than one category, trained observers are in agreement 85% to 95% of the
time. The eight GDOS categories are as follows:
G
• Dependency statements are those that show an inclination to conform to the
A direction from others.
dominant mood of the group and to solicit
• Counterdependency statements assert R
independence by resisting the current
leadership and direction of the group.R
• Fight statements directly challenge others
Y using argumentativeness, criticism, or
aggression.
• Flight statements are attempts to avoid work and demonstrate a lack of
2
commitment to the group.
• Pairing statements are expressions of warmth,
friendship, and support toward others.
0
• Counterpairing statements demonstrate
9 an avoidance of intimacy and
interpersonal connection by keeping the discussion distant and intellectual.
0
T
Unscorable statements include unintelligible, inaudible, or fragmentary statements.
S
• Work statements are those that represent goal-directed and task-oriented efforts.
•
After observing 26 task groups in various stages of development, researchers identified
31,782 verbal statements made during one meeting for each of the groups. Wheelan,
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CHAPTER 5 Communication
95
Davidson, and Tilin (2003) found that established groups utilized twice as many taskrelated statements as compared with newly formed groups. In the early stages of group
development, for example, there are more fight, flight, and dependency statements communicated among members than in later stages (Wheelan, 2005). Interestingly, they found
that the number of pairing statements remain relatively stable. Approximately 17% of the
statements made at any stage of development are supportive of others and meant to engender positive relationships (Wheelan, 2005).
S
The verbal statements of members of any group can be evaluated to determine whether
A resistant, or disengaged from the team at any
or not members are committed, compliant,
given time. Observing a member’s consistent
U pattern of verbal statements over time is one
possible way to determine that person’s commitment to the task and people of the group.
N
Dependency statements suggest compliance, whereas counterdependency and fight statements suggest resistance. Flight and counterpairing
statements often indicate disengageD
ment. Finally, pairing statements suggest commitment to other group members, while
E
work statements suggest commitment to team goals.
NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
R
S
As verbal messages are being communicated, an equally important process of communication is taking place on a nonverbal level.
S Nonverbal cues from a speaker such as smiling,
eye contact, or fidgetiness help listeners interpret the meaning behind the words a person
R
is using to communicate a message. Listeners perceive these messages subconsciously and
often have a difficult time articulating .why they arrived at a certain understanding of a
person’s message. As the title of Malcolm Gladwell’s (2005) book Blink: The Power of
,
Thinking Without Thinking suggests, this process of rapid cognition takes place in the blink
of an eye and often outside of awareness. For instance, although the words are the same,
the message below may be interpretedG
as having entirely different meanings based upon
the nonverbal cues associated with it:
A
R
Table 5.1 Using Nonverbal Cues to Interpret Messages
R
Verbal Message Nonverbal Cues
Y
Possible Meanings
We need to be
more prepared
for the next
project.
The speaker is desperate. For her, there is
The speaker scans the group and gestures
a lot riding on the success of the group.
widely. Her facial expression demonstrates
2 the word
sincere pleading as she emphasizes
need.
We need to be
more prepared
for the next
project.
The speaker emphasizes the word prepared
as she looks intently at and leans9toward a
particular member. Her brow is furrowed
and
0
she appears frustrated.
We need to be
more prepared
for the next
project.
0
T voice
The speaker says this in a monotone
with no energy, facial expression,Sor hand
gestures. Her body is facing slightly away
from the group.
The speaker is blaming one of the other
members for the group’s recent failure and
hopes to shame that person into doing
better in the future.
The speaker is disengaged, does not
actually care whether the group sees
improvement, and does not plan to put in
any extra effort.
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96
Working in Teams
Mehrabian’s (1981) seminal research on the importance of nonverbal communication
suggests that messages, especially those that express feelings, are overwhelmingly understood through nonverbal cues. The following percentages represent the relative contributions of the verbal and nonverbal components that a listener uses to interpret a message:
• 7% from verbal cues (words)
• 38% from vocal cues (volume, pitch, S
rhythm, etc.)
• 55% from facial expressions (smiling,A
frowning, etc.) and other body movements
(arms crossed, eye contact, etc.)
U
Nonverbal cues such as physical appearance,
N facial expressions, level of eye contact, body
movements, vocal qualities, and the physical space between members all contribute to the
D
way a message is interpreted. An accurate perception of nonverbal communication helps the
listener understand the intent of the speaker E
and is strongly related to social intelligence and
interpersonal sensitivity (Goleman, 2006). So while an individual’s “words” can be difficult
R
to understand, nonverbal cues are even more subject to personal interpretation as listeners
Sinterpret the nonverbal expressions of others.
use their own subjective frame of reference to
Nonverbal cues not only help members interpret verbal messages, they also help regulate the flow of conversation (Goleman, 2006). For example, when members want to interject a comment into a discussion, they may S
use any number of nonverbal prompts such as
leaning forward, clearing their throats, making
R direct eye contact with the current speaker,
or posing a facial expression that indicates a desire to speak. Additionally, if speakers
.
receive positive nonverbal feedback from others
while they are speaking (i.e., head nodding, eye contact, or smiling), they will continue
with
confidence that they are being heard.
,
Speakers signal the end of their comments by relaxing their body posture, reducing verbal
volume, or leaning back in their seat. These cues prompt others to respond or add their
own thoughts. A more direct invitation might
G be to nod or gesture toward a particular
member with an open hand, palm facing upward. Effective group facilitators frequently use
A
these types of nonverbal cues to move members in and out of the conversation and to
otherwise regulate the discussion.
R
POSTURING
R
Y
Individuals use both verbal and nonverbal means to establish credibility and communicate
ideas in a persuasive manner. Because people
2 desire to be understood and respected, the
use of posturing is common. Posturing and the use of identity markers are used to influ0
ence the perception, opinion, and approval of others and to bolster one’s status within the
team (Polzer, 2003). According to Polzer, “We
9do not communicate identity-relevant information solely for the benefit of others. . . . When we bring others to see us in a favorable
0
light, we tend to boost our own self-image as we bask in their approval” (p. 3). Identity
T
markers might include the following:
S people are dressed, whether they have a
• Physical appearance: This includes how
well-groomed appearance, or their fitness level.
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CHAPTER 5 Communication
97
• Personal office or room decorations: The presence or absence of plaques, framed
diplomas, photographs, or other indicators of success.
• Body posture: How much space a person takes up, whether their arms or legs are
crossed, whether they stand up straight or slouch, the direction they are facing,
strength of eye contact.
• Demeanor: Loud voice or soft, smiles
S or frowns, engaged or withdrawn, warm or
cold, attentive or aloof.
A
• Explicit statements: Success stories that are shared verbally, statements of one’s
U
strengths, subtle references to past accomplishments.
N
The communication and utilization of these markers is driven by the need for selfD
enhancement. The self-enhancement motive relates to the desire to present oneself in a
E from others. This is commonly demonstrated
positive light to garner respect and admiration
on college campuses, for example, by identity markers such as fraternity or sorority T-shirts,
R
sweatshirts, and accessories to identify as a member of an elite social group or by clothing,
S
automobiles, and vacation trips to communicate
wealth and social status. Leaders need to
be attuned to both the subtle and blatant attempts of members to promote themselves. Selfpromoting behavior can intimidate others and restrict the free expression of ideas, and it
S
can be off-putting and hinder the development
of trust and cohesion. It might also signal a
strong need for recognition and admiration
R on the part of those who employ such tactics.
Unfortunately, members posture and perform for others in order to gain their respect
.
and admiration at the expense of authenticity.
Teams can become like families in which
the members (siblings) compete for the ,approval of the team leaders (parents). This type of
“sibling rivalry” in which the members compete for the favored child status can be a distraction for the team. One way a leader can help minimize this dynamic is by establishing
the norms of authenticity, honesty, andGtransparency early on in the life of the team by
sharing his or her own mistakes or weaknesses. This sends a strong message that members
A
do not need to compete with one another for performance-based status but, instead, will
be valued for their genuineness and humanity.
R
R
Y
COMPONENTS OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Communication skills, such as active listening and assertiveness, help make information
2 to understand and interpret the verbal mesprocessing more transparent. Actively trying
sages of others takes work. Simply asking
0 another person to provide the evidence that led
to certain conclusions can be very enlightening. Similarly, it is helpful to others when we
9
describe the specific data and interpretation of that data that led to our conclusions.
Advocating our ideas in a confident and0comprehensive way is demonstrated in the practice of assertiveness. In a typical workgroup setting, assertiveness can take many forms
T
such as promoting a new idea, lobbying for a policy change, or publicly supporting one
S number of alternatives. The following section
method of resolving a problem over any
describes the communication skills of active listening and assertiveness in detail.
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98
Working in Teams
Active Listening
Active listening is the key to accurately understanding what another person is saying. It
requires effort and discipline. Yet group members are often preoccupied or distracted, and
thus do not give 100% of their attention to one another (McKay, Davis, & Fanning, 1995).
Instead, listeners may be busy comparing themselves with the speaker, mentally rehearsing
S
what they will say next, daydreaming about a
A experience, or wishing they were somepast
where else. They might also be speculating
U
about what is going on in the mind of the
N
speaker
(mind reading), filtering out parts of his
or
her
message,
or jumping to conclusions and
D
offering premature advice. It is also all too comE for some listeners to be more focused on
mon
debating
and critiquing than actually hearing
R
what is being said. In contrast to the benefits
S when a person feels heard, contentiousreaped
ness can elicit either a defensive reaction or
passive detachment, compromising meaningful
S
dialogue.
RAn accurate understanding of others is
needed before a meaningful response can be
.
made. Effective listeners suspend judgment in
, to first understand the perspective of the
order
speaker. This advanced developmental skill
requires listeners to attempt to “get into the
G of the speaker and see the issue through
shoes”
his
A or her eyes before responding (Kegan,
1994). The comments of others will make more
R if understood from within that person’s
sense
perspective. Paying attention to posture, paraphrasing
what is heard, and probing for
R
deeper meaning are skills that facilitate this type of perspective taking and lead to a more
Yare communicated.
accurate understanding of the messages that
First, active listeners pay attention to their posture. Specifically, they use their physical
posture to help them focus on what is being said. It also creates an interpersonal dynamic
2 attention. The acronym SOLER describes
that signals to speakers that the listener is paying
five specific behaviors that encourage a listening
0 posture:
9
0
O—Open: Keep an open posture without crossed
arms or legs.
T and engagement. Head nods and verbal
L—Lean slightly forward to communicate interest
encouragers like “uh-huh” and “yes!” are also
S effective.
S—Square: Face the person squarely.
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CHAPTER 5 Communication
99
E—Eye contact: Maintain direct eye contact according to appropriate social norms.
R—Relax: Stay relaxed. Listeners should be comfortable with silence where appropriate
and allow the conversation to unfold without force.
By following these guidelines, listeners will be perceived as enga...
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