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Research Proposal Assignment (April 22, 2019 - May 5, 2019)
Assignment: The proposal assignment is to write an original research proposal about a topic in mass
communications that interests you. This assignment asks you to examine the relationships between
‘media consumption’ and ‘relevant outcomes’ (linkage of message to attitudes, perceptions, and
behaviors), to review how communication theory has been used in previous scholarly studies, and then
to design your own original research proposal. Your proposal must include an introduction, rationale,
literature review, and method. The proposal must also include a title, a bibliography (a minimum of 10
references), and a draft of your questionnaire (a minimum of 40 questions). Use word processing
program for spelling check and proofread it carefully for other typographical errors. This proposal may
be no less than 7 pages and no more than 12 pages long (not including the cover page, references, and
draft questionnaire), single-spaced with one-inch margins, formatting according to the publication
manual of the American Psychological Association (6th Edition: http://www.apastyle.org).
PROPOSAL GUIDELINE: Go to the next page (p. 2) for the proposal guideline & example.
PROPOSAL SAMPLE: Under ‘Resources,’ you will find two sample proposals (1 & 2).
Assignment Point: 10 points (10% of 100 semester points)*
*To receive the maximum 10 points, you should provide all relevant & in-depth
answers/information to the questions/assignments.
This is an individual assignment, not a group assignment. If you have any questions about the assignment,
please don’t hesitate to e-mail me between Monday and Friday (I am not available on Saturday & Sunday).
Assignment Due: All work for this unit is due by Sunday May 5, 2019 at 11:59 p.m.
Please email your assignment directly to me: jgkang@ilstu.edu (NOT via ReggieNet).
Next page please!
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PROPOSAL GUIDELINE & EXAMPLE
INTRODUCTION: A brief, general statement about the focus of the study, including why it is important and how
you propose to conduct it. Think of this as a summary or abstract of the entire proposal.
• What is the general area of your research problem? Introduce topic and why it is worth studying.
• What previous work has been done in this area that is directly related to your problem?
Introduce (briefly) prior research and/or theoretical framework.
• What is the specific problem that you investigate in your research?
RATIONALE: A more detailed elaboration of the theoretical background of your study. This section should
explain and justify the need to do research on your topic, and fit it into some larger context. In other words,
you should explain both the specific aims of your original research and also discuss its larger, more general
significance.
• Why is an important or interesting area to study?
• What answer did you expect to get and why?
• What is the purpose of your study? State purpose of the research.
LITERATURE REVIEW (PREVIOUS RESEARCH): A critical discussion of previous research on your topic.
It is unlikely to include all major previous studies, but it should deal with a sufficient number to indicate that this
is an ongoing area of concern (minimum: 10 articles). Do not simply report the results of these studies. Describe
what the authors did to reach their conclusions, and assess any methodological flaws, limitations, or threats to the
validity of their findings and inferences. Use this section to build a foundation for your own study and to point out
gaps in what we already know about the topic -- gaps our own study will fill.
• Discussion of previous research on your topic (Just do not report their findings).
• Should include all major studies in your topic.
• Outline the theory guiding your research.
• Describe what the researchers did to reach their conclusion.
• Assess any methodological problems, limitations, and possible reliability and validity problems.
Sample Writing (Literature Review):
It has been agreed that television has become the source of the most broadly shared images and messages in history (Gerbner
et al., 1986). Since television sets have become common household items, television has played a role as a powerful agent of
people’s socialization (Morgan & Signorielli, 1990; Kang 1990). Although some critics say that television has lost its magic
so that people regard it simply as furniture, it still offers fun, excitement, and imagination and remains fascinating to the mass
audience.
Television has played a number of different roles. In some homes, it has been a substitute for the mother, a baby-sitter for the
children that makes no demands on anyone, and is a constant playmate that is entertaining and non-threatening (England,
1984). Television can help children, as well as adults, relax and escape from the problems and tensions of daily existence.
Television’s symbolic impacts on shaping or directing viewers’ perceptions and behaviors toward others and society have
been widely researched and documented in the United States and other countries.
Over the past three decades, however, the television industry has been under continuing attack because of the heavy diet of
violence and mayhem it feeds to enormous audiences, a diet feared to produce a variety of ill effects (Weaver & Wakshlag,
1986). For a number of years, Gerbner and his associates profiled the amount of violence on U. S. network television from the
theoretical background of cultivation. Results from their studies (1969, 1970, 1973, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1982, and 1986) have
indicated that there is an overwhelming amount of violence on television. According to their research, frequent exposure to
great numbers of violent scenes leads viewers to a distorted and fearful view of society.
The findings by Gerbner and his associates have suggested that heavy television viewers are more likely to express
exaggerated apprehensions about their chances of encountering violence (1973, 1978, 1979, and 1980) and to overestimate
interpersonal mistrust (1980). Similar findings were reported by Dominick and Greenberg (1972), Gross and Morgan (1985),
Pingree (1983), Robinson and Bachman (1972), Kang (1993) and among others. Specifically, heavy television viewers are
more likely to express alienation and fear of crime (Gerbner & Gross, 1976; Gerbner et al., 1978; Gerbner et al., 1979). In
addition, heavy viewers are more likely to describe their lives as less satisfying (Morgan 1986), and regard the elderly as weak
and ineffectual (Gerbner et al., 1980).
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METHOD: This section is likely to have several sub-sections, each explaining (in full detail) a specific aspect of
what you propose to do. For example, how will you draw your sample? Explain the data collection
procedure -- phone interview, mail survey, personal interview, classroom data collection, etc. Be specific!
• Explain research method. The method(s) should help you answer your research questions/hypotheses.
• What data will you collect? Explain the data collection procedure.
• How will you draw your sample? Define population and justify sampling method and sample size.
• Explain independent and dependent variables.
• What scales will you use to measure your IVs and DVs?
Sample Writing (Method):
A self-administered questionnaire will be given to a random sample of 500 students attending a large university in June 2016.
College students are chosen because they are likely ___________. The survey will be conducted in classes over a one-week
period. Trained instructors will be present to answer any questions raised by respondents, although they did not reveal the
specific purposes of the study.
The independent variable in this study is amount of television viewing, and is measured by the question, “On an average day,
how much time do you spend watching television?” While the research question focuses primarily on television viewing, this
study will examine several other media uses: magazine, internet, computer game, and SNS. Other media consumptions will be
studied for insurance purposes. For example, internet use will be measured by the question, “On an average day, how much time
do you spend using internet?”
The dependent measures are derived from a total of 30 items which deal mainly with respondents’ attitudes, perceptions, and
behaviors toward _________. Response categories are five-point Likert scales from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree,” with
“no opinion” as midpoint. Conceptually and empirically, these 30 items are reduced to three indices of ‘attitudes,’ ‘perceptions’
and ‘behaviors.’ The dimension tapped by the indices are as follows:
REFERENCES: Your references should include a minimum of 10 articles from ‘scholarly sources.’ Use the communication
research database (‘Communication Source’) to find relevant research articles from communication textbooks,
journals, and conference papers (see Lecture Notes A, pp. 21-25). Follow the proper APA style (6th Edition:
http://www.apastyle.org).
Sample References:
References
Anderson, C., & Dill, K. (2000).Video games and aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behavior in the laboratory and in life.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 772– 790.
Ferguson, C (2007). The Good, The Bad and the Ugly: A Meta-analytic Review of Positive and Negative Effects of Violent
Video Games. Psychiatric Quarterly , 78, 309-316.
Kang, J. G. (1993). The Case of Violence in Prime-Time Television Drama in the U.S., the Netherlands, and
Korea: Message System Analysis. World Communication Journal, 22: 30-36.
Strauss, S., Rupp, S., & Love, T. F. (Eds.). (2013). Cultures of energy: Power, practices, technologies. Walnut Creek, CA: Left
Coast Press.
Rowling, L. (1993, September). Schools and grief: How does Australia compare to the United States. In Wandarna coowar:
Hidden grief. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 8th National Conference of the National Association for Loss and Grief
(Australia), Yeppoon, Queensland (pp. 196-201).
QUESTIONNAIRE: Using the guidelines discussed in your readings for writing valid survey questions and response
measurements (scales), prepare a minimum of 40 survey questions (5 demographics, 5 IVs, & 30 DVs) to test the relationships
between ‘media use’ and ‘relevant outcomes’ (linkage of message to attitudes, perceptions, and behaviors). For more information,
please go to ‘Lecture Notes B,’ pp. 26-51.
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Sample Questionnaire:
These questions are part of a study of people's opinions about various topics. Most questions do not have right
or wrong answers; if you are not sure, just take your best guess. Please do not write your name on this
questionnaire; everything you say will be completely anonymous, so please answer as honestly as you can.
Thank you very much for your help!
1. What is your gender?
male
2. How old are you?
female
years old
3. How well would you say you do in school?
In general, my grades are:
Well above average
Above average
Average
Below average
Well below average
4. How many close friends do you have? _______ friend(s)
5. Which do you think best describes you?
1
2
Very
Conservative Conservative
6. What is your weight?
_______lbs
7. What is your height?
___ ‘ ___’’
3
4
Moderate
Liberal
5___
Very
Liberal
On an “average day,” how much time do you spend:
8. Watching television?
9. Reading magazine?
10. Using internet?
11. Playing computer games?
12. On social networking?
hour(s)
hour(s)
hour(s)
hour(s)
hour(s)
minute(s)
minute(s)
minute(s)
minute(s)
minute(s)
The next section of survey consists of 30 questions concerning your opinions about various topics.
Please circle the number corresponding to the term that describes how you feel about the following statement.
13. Fighting is a way to solve problems.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
___2__ _ _ 3_ _ __ _4__
Disagree No
Agree
Opinion
__ 5____
Strongly
Agree
14. Many people are victims of violence.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
___2__ _ _ 3_ _ __ _4__
Disagree No
Agree
Opinion
__ 5____
Strongly
Agree
15. It is dangerous to walk alone in the big city at night.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
___2__ _ _ 3_ _ __ _4__
Disagree No
Agree
Opinion
__ 5____
Strongly
Agree
43. I get impatient if I have to wait long periods of time.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
___2__ _ _ 3_ _ __ _4__
Disagree No
Agree
Opinion
__ 5____
Strongly
Agree
Effects of Media Advertising on a Person’s Self-image
Research Proposal
by
_______________
Introduction
Maxwell Maltz, a motivational author once said, “Our self-image, strongly held, essentially
determines what we become.” With that in mind, a person’s self-image is the mental picture that someone
has of themselves. Whether it is a physical, social, or emotional picture, someone’s self-image is
continuously changing, with the media having the largest effect on a person’s self-image. Advertisements
are everywhere. They are present on billboards while we drive, on busses passing us, in the pages of our
favorite magazines and pop up on websites. With advertisements and celebrities showing off what is
deemed to be the “perfect body,” young adults are constantly judging their own image against these. The
purpose of this study is to determine how much of an impact the media has on a college person and his or
her self-image. With the rise in social networking sites, celebrity paparazzi, and print media, it is
extremely easy for a person to compare, judge, and alter his or her self-image to those around them. This
study is also aimed to see if correlations exist between the amount of exposure to media advertising and
negative self-image.
Past studies indicate that majority of college women are more self-conscious of their bodies, and
that they are more apt to judge themselves based on what they saw in the media. Men on the other hand,
are expected to not be as self-conscious about their bodies, and are to be more satisfied with the way they
look. This is an interesting topic to study because it is important to know just how much of an impact the
media has on a person’s self-image. Since advertisements can be found everywhere around the world, it is
important to know what effects they have on someone’s self-esteem. Thus, this study posits that the more
media consumption a person has, the more likely they are to have negative thoughts about their body.
Rationale
The purpose behind all advertising is persuasion. Employing Aristotle’s ethos, pathos, and logos,
advertisers manipulate messages to persuade consumers to desire, need, or want certain products. More
often than not, television and magazine advertisers compliment their persuasive messages by grabbing the
consumer’s attention with visual stimulation. Beautiful, well-known celebrities, supermodels with long,
slender physiques, superior athletes with muscular, well-toned bodies: these advertising images can be
found any time you turn on the television or flip through the pages of a magazine, fueling the old adage
that “sex sells”.
However, beyond measuring the effectiveness of visual stimulation mentioned above, and more
important to this study, is discovering how this visual representation of men and women in advertising
affects consumer's attitudes toward their self-image. Several scholars have illustrated the power and
influence the mass media has over the attitudes and perceived self-image of their consumers. Consumers
naturally compare themselves to the men and women represented in advertisements. Luther (2009)
discovered that men and women not only compare themselves to the models in advertisements but that
these comparisons have a significant association to the importance they place on physical attractiveness.
Other studies explain that these heightened levels of body self-consciousness are due to the exposure of
“sexually objectifying media” (Aubrey, 2007). Consumers see male and female advertising models
scantily clad, void of blemishes and imperfections, representing the ideal human being. When individuals
don’t measure up to these ideal standards, resentment builds and leads to more negative self-perceived
feelings. In some extreme cases, exposure to ideal-body images have even influenced young adults’
eating behavior, reducing or increasing the amount of food eaten among men and women (Harrison, et al.,
2006).
As more and more studies continue to develop and explain the relationship between advertising
and its effects on self-image, further research is needed. Too often researchers measure the effects of
television advertising or magazine advertising, limiting the mediums that have potential to influence an
individual's self-image. This study attempts to examine which types of media have the most influence on
individuals’ self-image, and whether those effects are negative or positive.
Literature Review
A woman's body image is certainly an important source of her self-esteem. Negative feelings
about one's body can play a major role in the development of low self-esteem and depression. Among the
many forces believed to play a role is the increasingly thin ideal dominating the media. In fact, abundant
exposure to thin media images has led to the commonly held belief that the thin ideal is normal and
central to attractiveness. Social comparison is a central feature of human social life. Festinger (1954)
found that individuals are driven by a desire for self-evaluation, by which they compare their own
attributes and abilities with those of others.
Objectification theory suggests that media that places women's appearance at a premium can
cause women to self-objectify, or to feel ashamed of their bodies (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). This
theory suggests that self-objectifying individuals tend to define the self in terms of how they appear to
others. A primary way that an objectifying culture is propagated is through media outlets. One could
argue that objectifying is infused throughout American culture. Fredrickson and Roberts (1997)
suggested that personal and physical attributes more than likely influence how or if women respond to
sexual objectification.
Smeesters et al. (2009) examined how advertisements containing thin or heavy models influence
self-esteem levels of overweight and underweight consumers. The findings reveal that it is not the
absolute size of the model in the ad but, rather, the relative distance between the consumer's size and the
model's size that determines the ad's effects on self-esteem. Smeesters et al. (2009) conducted three
studies manipulating the size (thin vs. heavy) of advertising models and exposed the images to individuals
differing in Body Mass Index (BMI) levels. Individuals with different BMI levels utilized different
comparison processes and self-judgments (as measured by appearance self-esteem) when encountering
comparison standards in ads. Low-BMI individuals experienced positive shifts in self-esteem when
exposed to both thin and heavy models, but high-BMI participants experienced negative shifts in selfesteem both in the case of heavy models and thin models (Smeesters et al., 2009).
We must continue to ask what role advertising plays with regards to self-concept. American
cultural norms dictate the importance of being physically attractive, and particularly of being thin. Martin
and Kennedy (1993) assessed the effects of highly attractive models in ads on female pre-adolescents and
adolescents but found no support for lowering self-perceptions. If you consider Festinger’s (1954)
original conception of social comparison theory, those researchers did not account for motive. So isn’t it
possible females could compare themselves to models in ads for any number of motives?
Martin and Gentry (1997) found that motives do play an important role in the study context; they
found differential effects for changes in self-perceptions of physical attractiveness, self-perceptions of
body image, and self-esteem. Using social comparison theory as a framework, they proposed that young
girls compare their physical traits with those of advertising models and, subsequently, their selfperceptions and self-esteem are affected depending on the motive for comparison. The results indicated
that adolescents’ self-perceptions and self-esteem can be detrimentally affected when self-evaluation
occurred. Self-perceptions of physical attractiveness were lowered in all subjects who self-evaluated.
Given the importance of self-perception of physical attractiveness in influencing self-image and selfesteem, the comparisons may result in changes to self-esteem (Martin & Gentry, 1997).
The previous study focused on adolescents up through grade eight, so how are female college
students affected? Martin and Kennedy (1993) found that female college students do compare their
physical attractiveness against that of models in ads, but there were no clear findings relating to effects on
self-esteem. Aubrey (2006) focused a study around college aged women and contended that the adverse
effects of the media could be more powerful to those with low self-esteem, as individuals with higher
self-esteem might be more motivated to preserve their self-image, thus, they would have a higher
likelihood of rejecting comparisons with media standards of attractiveness. The study was designed to
examine the effects of exposure to sexually objectifying media, incorporating media that focus and
highlight women's bodies, and often conform to the thin ideal (Aubrey, 2006). The sample was limited to
women because a central assumption of objectification theory is that women are more often than men
targeted for objectification. Media exposure was hypothesized to influence women's self-perceptions
negatively. The results showed that exposure to sexually objectifying media predicted a slight decrease in
trait self-objectification for women in general, but that the effect was much stronger for the women who
were low in self-esteem (Aubrey, 2006). A possible interpretation of these results is that the negative
influences of advertising are likely if individual characteristics make women more susceptible to the
media's influence. Is it possible that advertising only adversely affects self-image of women who are
classified as vulnerable in the first place? This study showed that only college women that reported a low
level of self-esteem were adversely affected by exposure to sexually objectifying media.
Body image is formed via positive and negative feedback from others whose opinions matter to
us (Hutchinson, 1985). Choi et al. (2008) explored why women are influenced negatively by ideal body
image in the third-person effect framework. In particular, the authors proposed gendered “others” and
showed that when those others were men, there would be a negative relationship between third-person
gaps and body area satisfaction. Findings confirmed that women estimated male friends would be more
affected by ideal body image than female friends. Findings also revealed that people tend to believe that
mass communication has a greater impact on others than on themselves and this perception may lead to
behavioral consequences. Women believe others are influenced by idealized body images more than they
themselves are and this perceptual gap sometimes results in behavioral consequences such as negative
evaluation of their bodies, and extreme diet (Choi et al., 2008). Quite interestingly, it needs careful
interpretation because like data from other studies, participants' self-esteem likely plays a self-defense
role. We also must know that this study used 86 university students; this sample size may not be adequate
to draw any longstanding conclusions. Additionally, their sample was heavily skewed to Caucasians
(83.7%), and self-concept may vary among cultures.
Krcmar et al. (2008) found that the self-esteem levels of first-year college aged women are highly
affected by the media; especially magazines. Studies show that magazine reading was linked to body
dissatisfaction and eating disorders. All of the incoming freshman females of a private southeastern
United States university were invited to complete a survey. They filled out many demographic traits, such
as SES and race at the beginning of this survey. During the survey, the females were asked to answer
questions about frequency of participation and healthy and risky behaviors, bodily perception, media
exposure, peer and parent norms, and social comparison to media personalities. The findings indicated
that self-esteem of young women is affected by their comparisons with celebrities, and they can also be
affected by weight comments made by parents and peers. Social comparison was a limitation in this
study, as the survey dealt primarily with social comparison to media personalities. Though many females
may compare themselves with media personalities, they are likely also affected by other social
comparisons.
Gurari et al. (2006) measured the effects of ads on the self-image of women focusing on both
explicit and implicit effects with very interesting results. They wanted to bring to light the feelings
women really had of themselves but did not express directly to others, as women are hesitant to tell others
how they truly feel about themselves. A total of 71 female college students were given several tests to
measure how they thought others felt about performance, social, and appearance; they then took a survey
measuring body image. Results showed that women think other people place a high importance on
appearance, but when asked about their personal ideals and how they measured up, there were very few
negative comments. The implicit testing occurred at a computer where participants responded to beauty
and non beauty related ads. Participants then waited in a room while their results were being evaluated.
In this room food and magazines were provided. The food was either junk food or healthy snacks and the
magazines were either health and beauty magazines or intellectual magazines. After being exposed to the
ideal body images women chose to eat the healthier snack and pick up the beauty and health magazines.
Although the women did not explicitly say they were affected by the ideal body image ads, their actions
spoke for them. These reactions to seeing ideal body images such as choosing to eat differently are
extremely noteworthy as they can lead to drastic behavior changes such as eating disorders. We also must
know that similar to other studies, this study used a small sample size of only seventy-one university
students; this sample size may not be adequate to draw any longstanding conclusions.
The previous studies have focused on the media consumption and effects on women, so are men
affected to the same degree? Sohn (2009) suggests that social comparison theory allows men and women
to compare themselves to media images, attaining a thought of what the ideal person looks like. Though
the ideal body is rarely seen, people still compare themselves to this figure, thinking they are overweight
in comparison to what is seen, with negative impacts to their self-perception. In Sohn’s (2009) study, 134
participants were surveyed at a public university in the northeast United States. Measures were studied in
the categories of body perception, ideal body size, the body perceptual gap, body satisfaction, and social
comparison.
When measuring body satisfaction, this study utilized the Body Esteem Scale, created by Franzi
and Shields (1984). The original scale included 35 points to identify stronger and weaker areas of selfesteem, but this study only included factors that were the keys in a person’s body image. There were 17
points including arms, chest, shoulders, waist, strength, and overall body look that were rated on a 1-5
point scale. For male and female participants together, the overall mean for the categories was 3.22. The
results from this study showed that overall women are more personally affected by the media; men are
also impacted, just not to the same degree. As expected, both men and women have a perceived ideal that
is rarely seen for either gender. One of the primary limitations of this study was that even though it
included men, it was heavily skewed towards females. Overall, there were about twice as many females
as there were males. Another limitation included the measure of body satisfaction, specifically the lack of
factors. Many of the factors were physical traits, such as arms, legs and shoulders. The self-esteem of a
person could have been more accurately measured using less physical factors. Things such as body odor,
appetite, and energy level (all included in the full Body-esteem Scale) could have changed the results of
the study.
In an effort to gather data on both men and women, Harrison et al. (2006) examined comparisons
between men and women’s eating habits and their perceived self-image. Participants (222 women and
151 men) were randomly assigned to four different categories: exposure to images only, exposure to the
same images plus congruent text, exposure to the same images plus incongruent text, and no exposure at
all. Certain demographic traits such as weight, height and age were also measured to get a better
understanding of the type of people included in their study. Male and female participants were shown 30
images displaying the ideal body and attractive body types for their gender, and had to rank from 1-5 how
appealing the slide was. The participants were then told to eat in front of their peers. Results from this
study showed that while in front of the same gender, both men and women were less likely to eat. When
they did eat, they ate less than they usually would. This could certainly lead to eating disorders, if
consumption is influenced by whom they are with. One limitation to this study was how heavily it was
skewed towards females. Additionally, it only included participants from Midwestern universities.
Eating habits could certainly change with participants in other areas and climates. So, what are some
possible cross-cultural effects?
Chung (2009) attempted to study if the Americanized perception of beauty affects people crossculturally. A study was done amongst American and South Korean participants to analyze this idea.
Results revealed that overall there was a difference in the evaluation of attractiveness between the two
cultures. Advertisements in women’s fashion and beauty magazines showed that in the United States, ads
are more based on sexuality, showing that the ideal person is more about the body than just face.
Participants were asked to evaluate 17 color images of women around the world according to perceived
attractiveness, perceived femininity, and how the participant believed society would view the model.
They also answered other questions associated with social-cultural attitudes, self-discrepancy and
perceived influence of media. Results from the study showed that the two nationalities had different views
on what was attractive based on race and overall appearance. Because the cultures were so different, there
were differences in what would be considered socially acceptable. One of the primary limitations was
that the results were limited, as only two nationalities were studied. Results likely would have been
altered if they had surveyed people in all of the cultures represented in the 17 images. Another limitation
was the lack of questions that would help to get a better idea of a person’s perceived self-image.
Elliott and Elliott (2005) examined the reaction men had when exposed to different males in
advertising to see if men were negatively affected by ideal body image ads to the same extent women
were. Since the 1980’s the use of males as an ideal body image has increased. Men are portrayed as sex
symbols and macho men with perfect abs. Because of this recent explosion in male advertising, eating
disorders and image issues in men have risen in the last 30 years. Yet this issue is largely ignored by
many because of the few studies that have been conducted on it. In a past study by Gulas and McKeage
(2000), advertisement effects on men were present but not to the same degree they have on women.
There were lower responses on self-perceived attractiveness and self-image in comparison to women.
Elliott and Elliott (2005) examined their reactions to various fashion ads, both alone and in a group. When
in the individual interviews, men felt more comfortable talking about the effects ads had. They agreed that
the ads made them think twice about their own body and considered modifying their body. When put in
group discussions the answers changed, they then stated they saw the ads as artistic and homosexual. The
ads that men viewed did have an effect on them but not to the same extent that ads have on women. They
admitted that they did compare to these images but stated that these images were not realistic and
unattainable, something women do not believe in according to the participants.
The media constantly pushes the ideal to the public that “thin is in,” having very real effects on
both men and women. The overflow of ads can certainly take a toll on people’s self-image, as these past
studies have illustrated. The present study attempts to examine the connection between various types of
media consumption and the effects on a person’s self-image.
Methodology
A self-administered questionnaire will be given in June 2016 to 500 college students attending
Illinois State University. College students are chosen because they are likely to understand the concepts of
self-image more clearly than older adults.. The survey will be conducted in classes over a one-week
period. Trained instructors will be present to answer any questions raised by respondents, although they
will not reveal the specific purposes of the study. The survey is voluntary and takes approximately 15
minutes to complete.
Independent Variables: The independent variable in this study is the amount of media
consumption. While the research question focuses primarily on television, this study examines several other
media from magazines, newspaper, internet, movies and doing homework. Television viewing is measured
by the question, “On an average day, how much time per day do you spend watching television?” Other
media consumptions are examined with similar questions. For example, magazine exposure is measured by
the question, “On an average day, how much time per day you spend reading magazines?” The other
questions include how much time per day do you spend watching movies, and how much time per day do
you spend surfing the internet, and how much time per day do you spend reading newspapers? These are
measured by hours and minutes spent being exposed to such media.
Demographic variables are also asked to explore possible interactions. Subjects are asked their gender,
age, level of education, political affiliation, weight, height, race/ethnicity and relationship status.
Dependent Variables: The dependent variables are derived from a total of 37 questions which
primarily deal with the respondents’ responses towards attitudes, perceptions, and behaviors. Response
categories are five-point Likert scales, from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree,” with “no opinion” as
the midpoint. Conceptually and empirically, these 37 items are reduced to indices of ‘attitudes,’
‘perceptions,’ and ‘behaviors.’ The dimensions tapped by the indices are as follows:
Attitudes. A total of 14 questions measure students’ attitude orientations towards self-esteem and
self-image. The specific questions are:
I think negative thoughts about my body.
I am jealous of other people’s bodies.
No matter how hard I try, my body will not look the way I want it to.
I think being thin is important.
Self-image is important to me.
I am very self-conscious.
I want to look like girls/boys in the popular crowd.
I admire people who are pretty.
I feel ugly.
I fantasize about improving my appearances.
I feel self-conscious if I go shopping with someone a smaller size than me.
I would feel better about myself if I were more attractive.
I would consider getting plastic surgery to improve my image.
Perceptions. A total of 12 questions measure students’ perceptional orientations towards selfesteem and self-image. The specific questions are:
Celebrities have the perfect body.
Physical appearance is an important quality.
Thin women are more attractive.
Muscular men are more attractive.
Attractive people are happier than unattractive people.
Beautiful people are more successful.
People think that beauty can influence other’s self-image.
People spend a lot of money making themselves look good.
Women look better when they wear makeup.
Women with long hair are more beautiful.
The types of brands you wear tell a lot about image.
Clothing that shows off your body is sexy.
Behaviors. A total of 11 questions measure students’ behavioral orientations towards self-esteem
and self-image. The specific questions are:
I am constantly dieting.
I exercise regularly.
I complain about the way I look.
I often compare myself with others.
I often watch what I eat in order to stay thin.
I often wonder what people think of me.
I often worry about my appearance.
I spend lots of time trying to make myself look more attractive.
I often find myself looking in the mirror.
I worry about the way I look.
I worry about my weight.
References
Aubrey, J. S. (2006). Exposure to Sexually Objectifying Media and Body Self-Perceptions
among College Women: An Examination of the Selective Exposure Hypothesis and the
Role of Moderating Variables. Springer Science and Business Media, Inc., 55, 159-172.
Aubrey, J. S. (2007). The Impact of Sexually Objectifying Media Exposure on Negative Body
Emotions and Sexual Self-Perceptions: Investigating the Mediating Role of Body SelfConsciousness. Mass Communication & Society, 10(1), 1-23.
Choi, Y., Leshner, G., & Choi, J. (2008). Third-Person Effects of Idealized Body Image in
Magazine Advertisements. American Behavioral Scientist, 52(2), 147-160.
Chung, J. Y. (2009). Americanized Beauty? Predictors of Perceived Attractiveness from U.S. and
South Korean Participants Based on Media Exposure, Ethnicity, and Socio-Cultural
Attitudes Toward Ideal Beauty. Asian Journal of Communication, 19(2), 227-247.
Elliott, R., & Elliott, C. (2005). Idealized images of the male body in advertising: a readerresponse exploration. Journal of Marketing Communications, 11, 1-17.
Festinger, L. (1954). A Theory of Social Comparison Processes. Human Relations, 7(2), 117-40.
Franzi, S., & Shields, S. (1984). The Body Esteem Scale: Multidimensional Structure and Sex
Differences in a College Population. Journal of Personality Assessment, 48, 173-178.
Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. (1997). Objectification theory; Toward understanding women's
lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 173-200.
Gulas, C. S., & McKeage, K. (2000). Extending Social Comparison: An Examination of the
Unintended Consequences of Idealized Advertising Imagery. Journal of Advertising,
29(2), 23-26.
Gurari, I., Hetts, J., & Strube, M. (2006). Beauty in the "I" of the Beholder: Effects of idealized
media portrayals on implicit self-image. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 28(3),
273-282.
Harrison, K., Taylor, L. D., & Marske, A. L. (2006). Women's and Men's Eating Behavior
Following Exposure to Ideal-Body Images and Text. Communication Research, 33(6),
507-529.
Hutchinson, M. (1985). Transforming body image: Love the body you have. Freedom, CA:
Crossing Press.
Kremar, M., Giles, S., & Helme, D. (2008). Understanding the Process: How Mediated and Peer
Norms Affect Young Women's Body Esteem. Communicatioin Quarterly, 56(2), 111130.
Luther, C. A. (2009). Importance Placed on Physical Attractiveness and Advertisement-Inspired
Social Comparison Behavior Among Japanese Female and Male Teenagers. Journal of
Communication, 59(2), 279-295.
Martin, M. C., & Gentry, J. W. (1997). Stuck in the Model Trap: The Effects of Beautiful Models
in Ads on Female Pre-Adolescents and Adolescents. The Journal of Advertising, 26(2),
19-31.
Martin, M. C., & Kennedy, P. F. (1993). Advertising and Social Comparison: Consequences for
Female Pre-Adolescents and Adolescents. Psychology and Marketing, 10, 513-530.
Smeesters, D., Mussweiler, T., & Mandel, N. (2009). The Effects of Thin and Heavy Media
Images on Overweight and Underweight Consumers: Social Comparison Processes and
Behavioral Implications. Journal of Consumer Research, Inc., 36, 930-946.
Sohn, S. H. (2009). Body Image: Impacts of Media Channels on Men's and Women's Social
Comparison Process, and Testing of Involvement Measurement. Atlantic Journal of
Communication, 17, 19-35.
Questionnaire
These questions are part of a study of people's opinions about various topics. Most questions do not have right or wrong answers; if you
are not sure, just take your best guess. Do not write your name on this questionnaire; everything you say will be completely anonymous,
so please answer as honestly as you can. Thank you very much for your help!
1. How old are you? ______ years old
2. What is your gender?
____ Male
____ Female
3. What is your weight?
______ lbs
4. What is your height?
___ ‘ ___’’
5. What ethnicity are you? (check one)
____ White/Caucasian
____ Hispanic/Latino
____ Asian/Pacific Islander
____ African American
____ Other (please specify) __________________
6. Which do you think best describes you?
1
2
3
4
5
Very
Very
Liberal Liberal
Moderate Conservative Conservative
7. What is your highest level of education? (check one)
____ Less than High School
____ High School/GED
____ Some College
____ Associates Degree
____ Bachelors Degree
____ Masters Degree
____ Doctoral Degree
____ Professional Degree
8. How well would you say you do in school? In general, my grades are:
__ Well above average
_ Above average
Average
Below average
Well below average
9. How many close friends do you have? _______ friend(s)
10. What is your relationship status?
__ Single
__ In a relationship
11. On an average day, about how much time do you spend watching television?
__________hour(s) __________minute(s)
12. On an average day, about how much time do you spend listening to the radio?
__________hour(s) __________minute(s)
13. On an average day, about how much time do you spend on the internet?
__________hour(s) __________minute(s)
14. On an average day, about how much time do you spend watching movies?
__________hour(s) __________minute(s)
15. On an average day, about how much time do you spend reading magazines?
__________hour(s) __________minute(s)
16. On an average day, about how much time do you spend reading newspapers?
__________hour(s) __________minute(s)
17. On an average day, about how much time do you spend playing video games?
__________hour(s)___________minute(s)
18. On an average day, about how much time do you spend on social networking?
__________hour(s)___________minute(s)
19. On average I work out ______ time(s) a day.
20. On average I look at myself in the mirror ____ time(s) a day.
21. What type of clothing stores do you shop at?
__ Chain stores
__ Boutiques
__ Department stores
__ High Fashion stores
The next section of survey consists of 25 questions about various topics. Please circle the number corresponding to the term that
describes how you feel about the following statement.
22. I think negative thoughts about my body.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
23. I am jealous of other people’s bodies.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
24. No matter how hard I try, my body will not look the way I want it to.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
25. I think being thin is important.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
26. Self-image is important to me.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
27. I am very self-conscious.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
28. I want to look like girls/boys in the popular crowd.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
29. I admire people who are pretty.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
30. I feel ugly.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
31. I fantasize about improving my appearances.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
32. I feel self-conscious if I go shopping with someone a smaller size than me.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
33. I would feel better about myself if I were more attractive.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
34. I would consider getting plastic surgery to improve my image.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
35. Celebrities have the perfect body.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
36. Physical appearance is an important quality.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
37. Thin women are more attractive.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
38. Muscular men are more attractive.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
39. Attractive people are happier than unattractive people.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
40. Beautiful people are more successful.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
41. People think that beauty can influence other’s self-image.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
42. People spend a lot of money making themselves look good.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
43. Women look better when they wear makeup.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
44. Women with long hair are more beautiful.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
45. The types of brands you wear tell a lot about image.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
46. Clothing that shows off your body is sexy.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
47. I am constantly dieting.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
48. I exercise regularly.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
49. I complain about the way I look.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
50. I often compare myself with others.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
51. I often watch what I eat in order to stay thin.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
52. I often wonder what people think of me.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
53. I often worry about my appearance.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
54. I spend lots of time trying to make myself look more attractive.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
55. I often find myself looking in the mirror.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
56. I worry about the way I look.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
57. I worry about my weight.
_____1_____ _____2_____ _____3_____ _____4_____ _____5_____
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Thank you for your participation in our survey. We appreciate your time and honesty. All responses will be kept confidential.
An Analysis of the Consumption of Social Media
and Its Negative Effects on Interpersonal
Relationships
Research Proposal
by
____________
2
Introduction
The advancement of social media has changed the dynamics of communication around the
world. Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and several other social networking sites have developed
unique and strategic ways for people to communicate with others. Social media has grabbed the
attention of over one billion active monthly users and has impacted how people access
information regarding news, politics, and business. In addition, social media has particularly
affected relationships and the progressive stages within. The literature to date reveals that
technology-assisted communication impacts people in relationships in a variety of way (Bargh &
McKenna, 2014). Regarding the research perspectives, the general area of this study is on the
problems that arise in romantic relationships due to the consumptions of social media.
There is not an abundant amount of current research done on the topic of social media
and relationships, which is why it is important that more research be done to investigate what
kinds of effects social media consumption has. Research shows that many couples say social
media offers another platform to show their affection for their significant others. Others say that
social media is the source of many problems that arise in their relationships based on Facebook
relationship statuses, “liking” people’s posts, and other means of gratification on social media
sites. A method of social media communication as simple as texting lacks the nonverbal cues that
are essential in face to face communication. This concept coincides with the use of Facebook,
Snapchat, Instagram, and all other forms of social media. Girlfriends get upset when they aren’t
in their boyfriend’s profile picture. Boyfriends get suspicious when their girlfriends like other
guys’ pictures. When you lack the depth behind every online decision, questions arise and
misunderstandings within relationships take place.
This study attempts to examine the effects of social media on romantic relationships.
Interpersonal relationships are the core of society’s system and have been since the beginning of
civilization. Friends, lovers, companions, and confidants have an impact on our everyday lives. As
technology only continues to evolve we are being forced to staying connected, sometimes this will
have a positive effect and other times it will have a negative effect. Social media is becoming a
place where people stay connected with the daily lives of their significant other’s life, whether
they are sharing their emotional connects or if it's letting their significant other know that they
care. Social media is also cultivating feelings that will lead to jealousy, anxiety or uncertainty.
Furthermore, it is believed that “the public and even many scholars firmly believe that geographic
proximity and frequent face-to-face contact are necessary for developing mutual understanding,
shared meanings, and emotional attachment in romantic relationships” (Crystal &
Hancock, 2013).
The purpose of this study is to determine whether how social media affects romantic
relationships in terms of relationship maintenance, relationship satisfaction and affectionate
communication activities via such platforms. Specifically, this study is to examine the negative
effects from higher rates of consumption of social media reflected on interpersonal relationships.
3
Rationale
The purpose of the study is to examine how much social media impacts interpersonal
relationships. With the increase in usage of mobile phones over the past couple of decades, there
has also been an increase in social media use since it has grown to be more accessible. Being in a
relationship with someone ranges from a change in relationship status on Facebook and making
things “Facebook official” to spending a lot of time communicating together, going on dates, and
getting to know one another face to face. Spending time together these days could mean sitting
with each other while both partners would be browsing social media sites on their phones.
Anyone who has had a boyfriend or girlfriend in the past or the present will agree, they
spend a lot of time they may not like to admit checking up on the other person’s social media
websites on various different platforms like Facebook, Twitter, Snapchat, Instagram, etc. It may
seem childish, but it is an important step when you start dating someone. A person’s online
persona can give you a lot of information about who they are from the basics like their favorite
band to specifics, like members of their family or things from their past. People of our generation
have mastered the ability to judge the type of person someone is simply by looking at their social
media profile. It may not always be a completely accurate judgment, but our perception is
usually and generally correct in most cases.
This study is important to our generation because we are constantly in contact with each
other and on our phones. With the internet an addiction to most millennials, this study examines
the extreme to which it has progressed. Especially with so many dating websites, this study
further investigate what relationships are like now that the dating world has evolved into a
primarily online culture. Seeing what affects relationships and the causes of stress on different
couples because of internet culture. As aforementioned, because perception is only “usually”
correct in most cases when studying another person’s social media profile, the study allows us to
see with real numbers exactly what kind of effect social media consumption had on romantic
relationships. Thus, this study posits that social media sites do in fact cause a negative impact on
relationships.
Literature Review
Social network sites have been viewed as a way to maintain existing relationships and
form connections with new people around the world. However, the way these networks are used
are being called into question. Tokunaga (2014) argues that they are in fact used more often for
surveillance purposes in relationships. What he refers to as the surveillance of “Little Brother”
means those individual internet users who have us under surveillance as well. This can be your
family members, friends, and in romantic relationships. There are several factors in these
technologies that encourage such behavior. The fact that we have internet messages saved from
others gives us a better view at their offline behavior. The public exchange of information shared
through public forums or chat rooms. Also the fact that we can share almost any personal
information we’d like online. Social networking sites create an online presence of a person
which can completely clash with that person’s offline self (Tokunaga, 2014).
Interpersonal electronic surveillance is defined as strategies people use on social medium
to gain awareness of another user’s offline and online behaviors. This mindset is goal-oriented
and is done to monitor the lives of co-workers, family, friends, and significant others. Anything
4
from message exchanges, new contacts or relationships, information about social gatherings, and
personal status updates are sought by those who engage in this behavior. Surveillance is used as
a way to “monitor the world around us” (Tokunaga, 2014). It’s often used in early stages of a
new relationship in order to obtain more information about a person. It was found that people
who have previously experienced infidelity with their current partner are more likely to use this
surveillance over social media than partners who have not experienced infidelity. Females
engaged in slightly greater surveillance over social networking sites, but not to an incredible
degree compared to men. The more social media is embedded into a person’s daily routine, the
more likely they are to place their romantic partners under surveillance using these websites
(Tokunaga, 2014).
Scoping out your significant other on social media is an expression of concern
nonetheless. However, if you seek out information using only interpersonal electronic
surveillance, you’ll most likely lack the important details you get with only face-to-face contact.
Papp et al. (2012) examined male and female dating partners’ Facebook use and portraying their
intimate relationship online. Facebook users were given multiple options to build their profile
and disclose information concerning their dating relationships such as a profile status, profile
picture, etc. The findings revealed that romantic partners tend to demonstrate similar
characteristics online and offline such as health behaviors and leisure activities. Romantic
partners tend to display their relationships fairly similarly online and use Facebook just as
frequently as the other.
Although it’s less studied than profile status, the user’s profile picture is increasingly
recognized as a defining and revealing feature. Putting your partner in your profile picture with
you serves as showing a greater commitment to the person as well as relieving your partner of
potential jealousy. It was shown that profile choices plated a role in the overall functioning of the
relationship and leads to a higher satisfactory relationship. The more satisfying the relationship
on both sides, the more likely they display the other in their online profiles. They found that
lower levels of female relationship satisfaction is associated with disagreements over the
Facebook relationship status. There is a huge contribution of relationship disagreements from
Facebook alone. Facebook communication with your partner online improves the relationship
offline. In conclusion, the article found that the way partners portrayed their relationships on
Facebook held importance for the relationship functioning. And it suggests men and women
place different importance on public portrayals of the relationship (Danielewicz & Cayemberg,
2012)
Ridder and Bauwel (2015) investigated how younger generations give explanations about
sexuality, relationships and the desires on popular social media sites. As technology becomes more
modern it transforms intimacy, more specifically how everyone’s personal lives become involved
with the public space. The Internet and digital media is often used as a place of self-expression,
the users can become different versions of themselves or portray only things that they want others
to see them as. Furthermore, it is becoming more apparent that the boundaries between private and
public intimacy are becoming more obscure.
Ridder and Bauwel (2015) found that intimate relationships with one’s significant other
are more important to make public, while they also found talk about intimacies is more explicit on
social media platforms. Having a photo posted to on person's profile is a way to having evidence
of a “social success,” as well as popularity. Photos are also a way of judging if someone is authentic
or not. Ridder and Bauwel (2015) studied performativity as one of their ways of analyzing their
data. First it is important to acknowledge that social networking wants their users to produce
5
stories. They want their users creating and participating in content condoning uniqueness
compared to others in order to open their social circles. Second, this becomes a practice of
everyone sharing his or her intimate relationships on social media “because everyone does it.” It
becomes normative within the social media platforms.
In one example text a guy put a post about his girlfriend on his profile, the post’s tends to
be constructed based on strong emotion. It concentrates on feelings, happiness, dreams, and being
yourself. These are connected to norms and values about intimacy. Almost as if it becomes forced
for users to post text posts of this nature when talking about their significant others.
On the contrary if one's significant fails to post things of such an emotional nature this
raises feelings of uncertainty, jealousy and anxiety. Take a relationship status, making it official
on Facebook is a huge milestone for a couple. Issues of trust come to play when one partner sees
their boyfriend become friends with a person of the opposite and vice versa. Making one’s intimate
live public becomes another way of showing people who their significant is that they aren’t single.
Ridder and Bauwel (2015) found that intimacies are becoming increasingly meshed with social
media, making private lives become public conversations. These types of behaviors in romantic
and intimate relationships are changing the nature and norms, and ultimately not for the good.
Ridder and Bauwel (2015) believe there is still more research to be done.
In a recent study, Buboltz and Buyanjargal (2016) found a negative relationship between
intimacy and the perception of a romantic partner’s use of online social networks. Individuals are
more likely to perceive a partner’s usage as negative compared to their own usage. Intimacy
mediates the relationship between online social network usage and overall relationship
satisfaction, which suggests that the level of intimacy experienced in a relationship may serve as
a bugger that protects the overall level of satisfaction. The study examined couples who
maintained an offline relationship as well as couples who communicate online. Both partner’s
usage of social media matters, as well as their perception of each other’s usage. The findings
revealed that a partner cares more about what their partner is doing online than what they
themselves are doing online. And if that perception is negative, so is their feelings towards the
relationship. Jealousy is also a huge component of perceiving your partner’s usage. An increase
in romantic jealousy and relationship dissatisfaction is associated with excessive attachment to
Facebook. They also found that intimacy mediates the relationship between perceived partner
usage and relationship satisfaction. Intimacy serves as a buffer that may affect the couple from
experiencing a decreased level of satisfaction. There is clearly a huge power in perception of
others. Overall, the behavior of online social network usage is perceived as harmful only when it
is attributed to someone else (Buboltz & Buyanjargal, 2016).
Jealousy in relationships is not a new concept and can have many different sources. Since
social media has been introduced in the last 20 years, relationships have come in contact with
rules and what may cause jealousy. According to Utz et al. (2011), users of these social
networking sites are allowed to post on each others pages, maintain weakers ties with friends and
display their current relationships. Such displays of affection can include but are not limited to:
profile pictures including their partner, uploading multiple pictures with their partner, informing
others of their relationship and it can allow partners to communicate with each other. If partners
are in a long distance relationship, and others are posting on their partner’s wall, this could
induce jealousy and cause problems in the relationship. Since they are farther away and cannot
be there to hear about their day first hand, the other partner could feel like they are losing out on
that part of their significant other’s life. Utz et al. (2011) developed upon the thought that having
6
social networking sites in everyday life, it is not only allowing partners to post about each other,
it is allowing them to monitor their online lives as well.
Utz and Beukeboom (2011) explored how jealousy can be directly derived from
Facebook by using a scale to represent hypothetical situations regarding their current relationship
and their use of Facebook. The scale factored in relationship issues such as lack of trust,
commitment and overall relationship uncertainty and personal problems as well. Findings
indicated that women and individuals with high jealously traits tend to become more jealous over
Facebook posts. However, the higher the trust in each relationship, the lower the Facebook
jealousy. Utz and Beukeboom (2011) are arguing that because information is readily available, it
is more acceptable to monitor their partner’s profiles daily.
After discussing all the negative aspects Facebook can have on a relationship, Utz and
Beukeboom (2011) examined what positives can come from Social Networking Sites. Public
displays of affection and self-esteem boosters were two of the biggest positive factors that gave
happiness to individuals in relationships. Findings also revealed that online platforms allowed
acquaintances to become friends again and to strengthen bonds between friends.
Maynard (2013) examined that since the development of social networking sites, this
generation has not only become addicted to the ability to look at other profiles, they are addicted
to the sites as well. In some cases addictions to these sites can cause great problems in
relationships and not allow partners to fully trust one another. Findings indicated that there was a
correlation between romantic relationship satisfaction and Facebook use. Becoming “Facebook
Official” allows every friend both partners have to see that they have taken the next step in their
relationship. It could be considered a form of security to have a relationship be “Facebook
Official,” but it could also be considered a huge stress if one partner does not want to become
official. If one partner chooses to not put the other partner in their profile picture, it could lead to
an argument or dissatisfaction in that partnership.
Reizer and Hetsroni (2014) examined whether consumption of media correlated with
relationship quality among a group of college students who were in romantic relationships. They
evaluated their commitment and satisfaction to the relationship, as well as their likelihood to
engage in conflicts within the relationship. Media consumption was also measured based on the
time spent dedicated to television viewing, watching certain genres, Internet usage, and newspaper
perusal. Prior data indicates that excessive media consumption, more specifically heavy television
viewing has a relationship to over optimistic romantic expectations. It also gives unrealistic ideals
about marriage and couples-ships.
Reizer and Hetsroni (2014) used the cultivation theory, which proposes that the media,
especially in television viewing, in general serves as common modes of communication and central
concepts for emotional stories. This means that heavy television viewing may lead to the audience
to accept perspectives on the screen with unrealistic frequency compared to real life. It is plausible
to think that cultivation occurs because people encode the information they see on the media and
the Internet. Findings indicate that based on social exchange theories, romantic satisfaction is the
product of feeling fulfilled with positive expectations because they said their relationship is
meeting and/or exceeding their internal set of standards for a good relationship and do not see
other couple’s relationships meeting those standards. When a significant other makes a post about
their partner it fulfills these feelings, and it has their friends as the audience to see it too. If a couple
doesn’t post about their partner and their happiness with them some may assume they aren’t happy,
therefore not meeting these expectations in a good relationship.
7
Reizer and Hetsroni (2014) also found that the ability to handle conflict was a major key
in analyzing romantic relationships. Conflict is an indicator of the downside part so the
relationship. Conflict is measured by the amount of high intensity fighting and frequent negativity
between significant others in relationships with one another. Couples who partake in intense
fighting and hostility are assumed to have a poor relationship, therefore don’t meet their
expectations based on the social exchange theory. Conflict is often root by deeper feelings of
jealousy, trust issues, and uncertainty can be caused by heavy consumption of social media and
television.
In a recent study, Roberts (2016) examined the negative behavior of Partner phubbing
(Pphubbing) and how it influenced relationship fulfillment and individual well-being. Pphubbing
was defined by how much your romantic partner used or was distracted by their cell phone while
they were together. It was argues that greater romantic relationship satisfaction lead to higher
levels of life satisfaction and lowered levels of depression. These were all factors that determined
the quality of a romantic relationship and social media effected them negatively. According to
the results of the first study found that, Pphubbing had a positive effect on cell phone conflict
and cell phone conflict mediated the relationship between Pphubbing had a romantic relationship
satisfaction. It was also found that cell phone conflict had a substantial and negative effect on
romantic relationship satisfaction. This notion supports hypothesis of how social media negative
effects romantic relationships.
In the second study 145 US participants participated by responding to a 9-term measure of
Pphubbing, the study measured cellphone conflict, relationship satisfaction, life satisfaction,
depression, anxiety, avoidance, and interpersonal attachment. It was found that Pphubbing
increased conflict among both securely and anxious attached styles had greater conflict that those
with secure attachment styles. Pphubbing and cell phone conflict were also found to be significant
predictors on romantic relationship satisfaction, which also prove the hypothesis that was tested in
this research project. Based on this study, it was proved at interruptions and distractions caused by
a romantic partners cell phone use increased conflict, which in return reduced the romantic partners
satisfaction in their relationship. In addition it was found that Pphubbing created cell phone related
conflict because it’s moderate by attachment anxiety. So those with anxious attachment style were
more likely to over-react about their partners cell phone usage, which caused lower levels of
relationship satisfaction, compared to those with more secure attachment styles caused higher
levels of relationship satisfaction.
Roberts (2016) was able to prove that partner phubbing creates conflict over partners cell
phone use, which ultimately impacted relationship satisfaction, and personal well-being, especially
those with anxious attachment styles. The institutions of marriage and dating have under attack,
based on poor functioning relationships and low levels of relationship satisfaction. The amount of
anxious attachment styles have been steadily increasing while the negative effects of Pphubbing
have been goring stronger with time as well. This proved that how individuals use cell phones in
the present of their significant others can negatively impact their romantic relationship.
Facebook, as just one form of social media, can prove to be one of the most important
factors in determining effect of social media on interpersonal romantic relationships. The
concept of being “Facebook official” and seeing who is friends with who as well as photo “likes”
and other concepts such as these which can be seen on other forms of social media such as
Instagram and Twitter. Looking at these factors can be loosely correlated with jealousy in a
relationship.
8
Muise et al. (2015) defined that jealously is considered a “complex of thoughts, feelings,
and actions which follow threats to self-esteem and/or threats to the existence or quality of the
relationship.” Using this definition, Muise et al. (2015) developed a jealousy scale and compiled
a list of items which reflect aspects of Facebook that have the potential to contribute to sexual
and romantic jealousy. The study showed that women generally spent much more time on
Facebook, and that there were different definitions of jealousy widely based on gender
differences. However, it was “hypothesized that Facebook use uniquely contributes to the
experience of jealousy, and…therefore tested a model of Facebook jealousy that took into
account a variety of personal and relationship factors known to be associated with the general
experience of jealousy.” The finding indicates that interpersonal romantic relationships are
clearly affected by use of social media, in particular, Facebook, which is the most popular.
Utilizing Facebook to “friend” people is such a simple way to increase contact with people in our
pasts, whether that be ex-lovers or just friends, new potential love interests or significant others
are now capable of seeing your past history digitally as well. Social networking sites have
changed what kind of access we have to peoples personal and private information, which
ultimately has an effect on the nature of getting to know someone further after (or before)
meeting them in person. Social media sites perpetuate jealousy in relationships, which will be
tested further in our experiment to see the negative effect of social media on interpersonal
relationships.
The consumption of media, particularly television, has distorted individual’s perspectives
and expectations of romantic relationships. There have been various studies that have tried to
examine the effects of individual’s perception, beliefs, and attitudes of the world. For example,
‘Cultivation Theory’ not only investigates the effects of violent television consumption, but has
also been a catalyst for understanding the influence of television in romantic relationships. This
theory implies that heavy viewing of television or any other form of media cultivates some of the
unrealistic beliefs that people have while entering into martial commitment (Banjo, 2002).
Segrin and Nabi (2013) have also hypothesized that the increase in media consumption is
positively correlated with rumination. The increase in media consumption is positively correlated
to idealistic martial expectations. The increase in media consumption is positively correlated to
idealistic intimacy expectations. The increase in media consumption is negatively correlated with
trust and commitment. Lastly, the increase in media consumption is negatively correlated to
relationship satisfaction. To test the Cultivation Theory, Segrin and Nabi (2013) focused on the
connection between fantasy rumination and magazine consumption. Their findings showed a
significant positive correlation between how observant people are of magazines and how much
trust they place in magazine love quizzes and their tendency to fantasize about romance. Another
positive correlation was between the trust people place in magazines and television and their
idealistic marital expectations. Findings also revealed a positive correlation between internet
usage and their idealistic intimacy expectations. However, there were negative correlations
within their hypothesis. One of which showed a negative correlation between the subject of trust
and commitment and the consumption of talk shows and reality shows about relationships.
Facebook has become one of the biggest indicators of relationship statuses. If a romantic
relationship is serious enough it will become “Facebook Official” or known to the social
networking world. If there is a change in said relationship status, this will also be reflected in the
change of status on Facebook. With social media already at large, studying the effects it has on
relationship happiness is becoming more prominent daily.
9
Utz and Bookeboom (2011) administered a survey to students taking a course on
interpersonal communication at a large Dutch university. Findings suggested that SNS jealousy
would be related to trait jealousy and that if there was less of a trait jealousy in a partner, the less
likely there was going to be jealousy over SNS. Utz and Bookeboom (2011) concluded that there
was more happiness than jealousy when a partner used a SNS versus when they did not. Whether
it was from public grooming on a website, or making their relationship known in the most basic
ways, the jealously that Utz and Bookeboom (2011) discovered was from trait jealousy and not
SNS jealousy.
Methodology
A self-administered questionnaire will be given in May 2016 to 300 students attending
Illinois State University. College students are chosen because they are likely to understand the
concepts of social media and technological advances more clearly than older adults. The survey
will be conducted in classes over a one-week period. Trained instructors will be present to
answer any questions raised by respondents, although they will not reveal the specific purposes
of the study. The survey is voluntary and takes approximately 15 minutes to complete.
Independent variable: The independent variable in this study is the amount
of consumption of social media and is measured by the question of focus is, “On an average day,
how much time do you spend using SNS?” The social media sites include Facebook, Instagram,
Twitter, Tinder, and Snapchat. While the research question focuses primarily on SNS, this study
examines several other media uses from television, Internet, video/computer games, magazine,
and movie. Other media consumption is studied for insurance purposes. For example, the
Internet use will be measured by the question, “On an average day, how much time do you spend
using the internet?” Demographic variables are also asked to explore possible interactions.
Respondents are asked their gender, age, year in school, ethnicity, where they lived, and marital
status.
Dependent Variable: The dependent measures are derived from a total of 36 items,
which deal mainly with the respondents’ attitudes, perceptions, and behaviors. Response
categories are five-point Likert scales from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree,” with “no
opinion” as midpoint. Conceptually and empirically, these 36 items are reduced to three indices of
‘Perceptions,’ ‘Attitudes,’ and ‘Behaviors.’ The dimension tapped by the indices are as
follows:
Attitudes. A total of 12 variables measure respondents’ attitude orientations towards
various types of relationships. The specific questions are:
.
I judge romantic relationships based on their communication habits and interactions.
I believe constant communication and interaction is essential for a good relationship.
I’m very open with my significant other.
I tell my secrets to my significant other.
I share mutual friends with my significant other.
I feel annoyed when not all the focus is on me in my relationship.
My significant other and I hold hands in public.
I’m confident with the relationship I am in.
I’m emotionally attached to my significant.
I am honest with my significant other.
10
I have long conversations with my significant other about our future.
My significant other shows their appreciation for me on a daily basis.
Perceptions: A total of 12 variables measure respondents’ perceptional orientations
towards interpersonal relationships. The specific questions are:
Lack of communication prompts fights in my relationship.
It expect my relationship to be made public.
I would be upset if my significant other did not let me see their phone.
I often use texting to figure out what my significant other is doing or where they are at.
Communication helps make my relationship stronger.
My significant other plays on a gaming system (Xbox, Playstation, Wii, etc.) when we’re together.
Communication is key to a strong romantic relationship.
It bothers me when my significant other spends time with people of the opposite sex.
I feel upset when my significant other treats me bad.
Stalking my significant other’s ex’s is okay.
.
Behavior: A total of 12 variables measure students’ behavioral orientations towards
personal relationships. The specific questions are:
.
I get on my phone a lot when I’m with my significant other.
I’m with my significant other daily.
I am in an exclusive relationship.
I talk to my significant other daily.
My significant other and I don’t get in fights.
I am satisfied with my current relationship.
I get upset when my significant other doesn’t text me back during the day.
My significant and I have gotten in a fight over something I have said via text.
My significant other and I watch television when we’re together.
My significant other attends my family parties.
I go on the computer when I’m with my significant other.
My significant other and I go out to the movies.
11
References
Banjo, O. O. (2002). The effects of media consumption on the perception of romantic
relationships. Penn State McNair Journal, 9, 9-33.
Bargh, J. A., & Mckenna, K. Y. (2004). The Internet and Social Life. Annual Review of
Psychology Annu. Rev. Psychol., 55(1), 573-590.
Crystal J. L., & Hancock, J. T. (2013). Absence Makes the Communication Grow Fonder:
Geographic Separation, Interpersonal Media, and Intimacy in Dating Relationships.
Journal Of Communication, 63(3), 556-577.
Der de Ridder, S., & Van Bauwel, S. (2015). Youth and intimate media cultures: Gender,
sexuality, relationships, and desire as storytelling practices in social networking sites.
Communications: The European Journal of Communication Research, 40(3), 319-340.
Hand, M. M., Thomas, D., Buboltz, W. C., Deemer, E. D., & Buyanjargal, M. (2013). Facebook
and Romantic Relationships: Intimacy and Couple Satisfaction
Associated with
Online Social Network Use. Cyberpsychology, Behavior & Social Networking, 16(1), 813.
Marshall, T. C., Benjanyan, K., Di Castro, G., & Lee, R. A. (2013). Attachment styles as
predictors of Facebook-related jealousy and surveillance in romantic relationships.
Personal Relationships, 20, 1-22.
Muise, A., Christofides, E., & Desmarais, S. (2009). More Information than You Ever Wanted:
Does Facebook Bring Out the Green-Eyed Monster of Jealousy? CyberPsychology &
Behavior, 12(4), 441-444.
Papp, L. M., Danielewicz, J., & Cayemberg, C. (2012). 'Are We Facebook Official?'
Implications of Dating Partners' Facebook Use and Profiles for Intimate Relationship.
Peterson, S. A., Aye, T., & Wheeler, P. Y. (2014). Internet use and romantic relationships
among college students. North American Journal Of Psychology, 16(1), 53-62.
Roberts, J. A., & David, M. E. (2016). Full length article: My life has become a major distraction
from my cell phone: Partner phubbing and relationship satisfaction among romantic
partners. Computers In Human Behavior, 54134-141.
Segrin, C. & Nabi, R. L. (2002). Does television viewing cultivate unrealistic expectation about
marriage. Journal of Communication, 52, 247-263.
Utz, S., & Beukeboom, C. J. (2011). The role of social network sites in romantic relationships:
Effects on jealousy and relationship happiness. Journal of Computer-Mediated
Communication, 4, 511-527.
12
Questionnaire
These questions are part of a study of people's opinions about various topics. Most questions do not have
right or wrong answers; if you are not sure, just take your best guess. Do not write your name on this
questionnaire; everything you say will be completely anonymous, so please answer as honestly as you
can. Thank you very much for your help!
1. What’s your gender?
__ Male
__ Female
2.
How old are you?
_________________________
3.
How well would you say you do in school?
In general, my grades are:
___Well above average
___Above average
___Average
___Below average
___Well below average
4. Where did you grow up?
Countryside________
Suburbs___________
City______________
5. Your current relationship status?
In a relationship____________
Single____________________
In an open relationship_______
On an average day, how much time do you spend:
6. Using SNS (Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, etc.)?
7. Watching Television?
8. Using cellphone?
9. Using Internet?
10. Doing homework (study)?
11. Computer/video game?
_
_
_
_
_
_
hour(s)
hour(s)
hour(s)
hour(s)
hour(s)
hour(s)
minute(s)
minute(s)
minute(s)
minute(s)
minute(s)
minute(s)
The next section of survey consists of 40 questions concerning your attitudes, perceptions, and behaviors on
your interpersonal, romantic relationship. Please circle the number corresponding to the term that describes
how you feel about the following statement.
12.
I get on my phone a lot when I’m with my significant other.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
13.
___2___
Disagree
___3___
Neutral
___4___
Agree
___5___
Strongly
Agree
___4___
Agree
___5___
Strongly
Agree
I’m with my significant other daily.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
___2___
Disagree
___3___
Neutral
13
14.
I am in an exclusive relationship.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
15.
___2___
Disagree
___3___
Neutral
___2___
Disagree
___3___
Neutral
20.
___4___
Agree
___5___
Strongly
Agree
___4___
Agree
___5___
Strongly
Agree
___2___
Disagree
___3___
Neutral
___4___
Agree
___5___
Strongly
Agree
It expect my relationship to be made public.
___2___
Disagree
___3___
Neutral
___4___
Agree
___5___
Strongly
Agree
I would be upset if my significant other did not let me see their phone.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
22.
___5___
Strongly
Agree
My significant and I have gotten in a fight over something I have said via text.
___1___
___2___
___3___
___4___
___5___
Strongly
Disagree
Neutral
Agree
Strongly
Disagree
Agree
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
21.
___4___
Agree
I get upset when my significant other doesn’t text me back during the day.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
19.
___5___
Strongly
Agree
I am satisfied with my current relationship.
___1___
___2___
___3___
Strongly
Disagree
Neutral
Disagree
18.
___4___
Agree
My significant other and I don’t get in fights.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
17.
___3___
Neutral
I talk to my significant other daily.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
16.
___2___
Disagree
___2___
Disagree
___3___
Neutral
___4___
Agree
___5___
Strongly
Agree
I often use texting to figure out what my significant other is doing or where they are at.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
___2___
Disagree
___3___
Neutral
___4___
Agree
___5___
Strongly
Agree
14
23.
Communication helps make my relationship stronger.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
24.
___5___
Strongly
Agree
___2___
Disagree
___3___
Neutral
___4___
Agree
___5___
Strongly
Agree
___2___
Disagree
___3___
Neutral
___4___
Agree
___5___
Strongly
Agree
___2___
Disagree
___3___
Neutral
___4___
Agree
___5___
Strongly
Agree
___2___
Disagree
___3___
Neutral
___4___
Agree
___5___
Strongly
Agree
___2___
Disagree
___3___
Neutral
___4___
Agree
___5___
Strongly
Agree
I go on the computer when I’m with my significant other.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
31.
___4___
Agree
My significant other attends my family parties.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
30.
___3___
Neutral
My significant other and I watch television when we’re together.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
29.
___2___
Disagree
Lack of communication prompts fights in my relationship.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
28.
___5___
Strongly
Agree
It bothers me when my significant other spends time with people of the opposite sex.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
27.
___4___
Agree
Communication is key to a strong romantic relationship.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
26.
___3___
Neutral
My significant other plays on a gaming system (Xbox, Playstation, Wii, etc.) when we’re together.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
25.
___2___
Disagree
___2___
Disagree
___3___
Neutral
___4___
Agree
___5___
Strongly
Agree
I judge romantic relationships based on their communication habits and interactions.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
___2___
Disagree
___3___
Neutral
___4___
Agree
___5___
Strongly
Agree
15
32.
Stalking my significant other’s ex’s is okay.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
33.
___5___
Strongly
Agree
___2___
Disagree
___3___
Neutral
___4___
Agree
___5___
Strongly
Agree
___2___
Disagree
___3___
Neutral
___4___
Agree
___5___
Strongly
Agree
___2___
Disagree
___3___
Neutral
___4___
Agree
___5___
Strongly
Agree
___2___
Disagree
___3___
Neutral
___4___
Agree
___5___
Strongly
Agree
___2___
Disagree
___3___
Neutral
___4___
Agree
___5___
Strongly
Agree
My significant other and I hold hands in public.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
40.
___4___
Agree
I feel annoyed when not all the focus is on me in my relationship.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
39.
___3___
Neutral
I share mutual friends with my significant other.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
38.
___2___
Disagree
I tell my secrets to my significant other.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
37.
___5___
Strongly
Agree
I’m very open with my significant other.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
36.
___4___
Agree
My significant other and I go out to the movies.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
35.
___3___
Neutral
I believe constant communication and interaction is essential for a good relationship.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
34.
___2___
Disagree
___2___
Disagree
___3___
Neutral
___4___
Agree
___5___
Strongly
Agree
I’m confident with the relationship I am in.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
___2___
Disagree
___3___
Neutral
___4___
Agree
___5___
Strongly
Agree
16
41.
I feel upset when my significant other treats me bad.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
42.
___2___
Disagree
___3___
Neutral
___4___
Agree
___5___
Strongly
Agree
___2___
Disagree
___3___
Neutral
___4___
Agree
___5___
Strongly
Agree
___2___
Disagree
___3___
Neutral
___4___
Agree
___5___
Strongly
Agree
I have long conversations with my significant other about our future.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
46.
___5___
Strongly
Agree
Being truthful with my significant other is easy for me.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
45.
___4___
Agree
I am honest with my significant other.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
44.
___3___
Neutral
I’m emotionally attached to my significant.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
43.
___2___
Disagree
___2___
Disagree
___3___
Neutral
___4___
Agree
___5___
Strongly
Agree
My significant other shows their appreciation for me on a daily basis.
___1___
Strongly
Disagree
___2___
Disagree
___3___
Neutral
___4___
Agree
THANK YOU AND HAVE A GOOD DAY!
___5___
Strongly
Agree
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