Logistics in Disaster - Final Paper Your final paper will be a culmination of presentations, discussions and research during this course of study. I expect that you will be able to discuss or cite relevant topics we cover in the course as evidence that you have read the material and are facile enough to write about the importance of this subject matter even if you are not an expert. Do not include irrelevant extraneous material. The paper should utilize APA format. If you have ANY questions about the paper please contact the faculty member AS SOON AS POSSIBLE to avoid wasting time doing the assignment incorrectly. The final paper will be your opportunity to present a plan and objectives for providing logistic support to a fictional disaster situation. Although every situation encountered has its own unique requirements in order to successfully support the operation, there are basic actions taken pre-, intra- and post that should be followed. Incorporate what you have learned in policy, practice and possibly personal experience and develop an operational (tactical) plan- focused on logistics support- to ensure that disaster operations go smoothly. The goal of your paper should not to create the “perfect solution”; more it should be an examination/analysis of the situation at hand, and your role as a disaster logistician to assist the Incident Commander in supporting emergency operations. You may select one of the topics for your paper: • A community of approximately 10,000 has been exposed to an unknown virus. It appears to be spread by contact. At present, only a small portion of the population is affected. Government leaders and health officials are contemplating community containment. Discuss how you, as the logistic chief, would supply and support emergency operations, what agencies would you seek support from, and establish points of distribution. • Severe storms have ravaged your rural community of 10,000. Fortunately, there are few deaths but many are displaced. Being rural, access to the community is limited and made worse by the storms. Discuss your immediate actions post-incident, and present a plan for short term sustainment of operations and support to population. If a logistics pre-plan would be beneficial, include that in your discussion. • Your rural community of 10,000 main employer- a large agricultural chemical processing plant- is struck by a large fire. Due to the nature of the chemicals, the fire may last for days. Emergency Management has decided to tell citizens to shelter in place versus to evacuate. The incident has drawn responders from a large area, and most arrive ill equipped for a sustained operation. Further complicating the issue is water runoff from fire suppression into the town’s only source of water. Discuss how you would support both the citizens and the providers while being aware of sheltering, along with limited movement because of the fire. Do not be concerned about the potential exposure- focus on the logistic support. Emergency Management Assistance Compact Highlights • A mutual aid agreement that allows stateto-state assistance during declared states of emergency • Includes all 50 states, three territories, and the District of Columbia • Allows unaffected states to provide resources to affected states including the use of National Guard forces and equipment • The National Guard can forecast a need and pre-position forces and equipment in anticipation of a call for assistance EMAC capabilities: • State and local emergency operations center support • Damage assessment • Disaster recovery • Logistic support • Security • Communications • Fire fighting • Aviation support • Biological and chemical events • Community outreach • Search and rescue • Debris clearance • Public Health • Hazardous materials • Information and planning Fast and flexible assistance Mission: The Emergency Management Assistance Compact, or EMAC, is a national mutual aid partnership agreement that allows state-to-state assistance during governor- or federally-declared emergencies. The EMAC is about governors helping fellow governors in time of need. Overview: The EMAC concept was approved by Congress in 1996 (Public Law 104-321) and provides governors a means to quickly request assistance for any type of emergency, from earthquakes to acts of terrorism. When state resources are overwhelmed, other states, to include National Guard units nationwide, can step in and fill shortfalls. In responding to national emergencies and disasters, EMAC is instrumental in providing needed advice and assistance to governors as it relates to identifying, selecting, requesting and deploying all types of resources. Hurricanes Katrina and Rita showcased the largest deployment of state-to-state aid in history and stand as a testament to EMAC’s effectiveness and efficiency in sharing of resources through mutual aid agreements. The use of EMAC facilitated the deployment of 65,919 personnel, to include 19,431 civilians and 46,488 National Guard members from 50 states and three territories, and the District of Columbia to the affected areas in Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, and Texas – including 19,431 civilians and 46,488 National Guard members. The EMAC provides another way for states to receive interstate aid in a disaster, outside of federal assistance. To date, all 50 states, three territories and the District of Columbia have authorized EMAC agreements. • Legal and fiscal protections Learn more at www.nationalguard.mil Emergency Management Assistance Compact (EMAC) Overview for National Response Framework EMAC is a national interstate mutual aid agreement that enables states to share resources during times of disaster. Since the 104th Congress ratified the compact, EMAC has grown to become the nation's system for providing mutual aid through operational procedures and protocols that have been validated through experience. EMAC is administered by NEMA, the National Emergency Management Association, headquartered in Lexington, KY. EMAC acts as a complement to the federal disaster response system, providing timely and cost-effective relief to states requesting assistance from assisting member states who understand the needs of jurisdictions that are struggling to preserve life, the economy, and the environment. EMAC can be used either in lieu of federal assistance or in conjunction with federal assistance, thus providing a "seamless" flow of needed goods and services to an impacted state. EMAC further provides another venue for mitigating resource deficiencies by ensuring maximum use of all available resources within member states' inventories. The thirteen (13) articles of the Compact sets the foundation for sharing resources from state to state that have been adopted by all 50 states, the District of Columbia, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, and has been ratified by Congress (PL-104-321). The four more commonly referenced articles of the compact (Article V, IV, VIII, and IX) address the primary concerns of personnel and states offering and receiving assistance: Article V - Licenses and Permits Whenever any person holds a license, certificate, or other permit issued by any state party to the compact evidencing the meeting of qualifications for professional, mechanical, or other skills, and when such assistance is requested by the receiving party state, such person shall be deemed licensed, certified, or permitted by the state requesting assistance to render aid involving such skill to meet a declared emergency or disaster, subject to such limitations and conditions as the governor of the requesting state may prescribe by executive order or otherwise. Article VI - Liability Officers or employees of a party state rendering aid in another state pursuant to this comp act shall be considered agents of the requesting state for tort liability and immunity purposes; and no party state or its officers or employees rendering aid in another state pursuant to this compact shall be liable on account of any act or omission in good faith on the part of such forces while so engaged or on account of the maintenance or use of any equipment or supplies in connection therewith. Good faith in this article shall not include willful misconduct, gross negligence, or recklessness. Article VIII - Compensation Each party state shall provide for the payment of compensation and death benefits to injured members of the emergency forces of that state and representatives of deceased members of such forces in case such members sustain injuries or are killed while rendering aid pursuant to this compact, in the same manner and on the same terms as if the injury or death were sustained within their own state. 1 Article IX - Reimbursement Any party state rendering aid in another state pursuant to this compact shall be reimbursed by the party state receiving such aid for any loss or damage to or expense incurred in the operation of any equipment and the provision of any service in answering a request for aid and for the costs incurred in connection with such requests; provided, that any aiding party state may assume in whole or in part such loss, damage, expense, or other cost, or may loan such equipment or donate such services to the receiving party state without charge or cost; and provided further, that any two or more party states may enter into supplementary agreements establishing a different allocation of costs among those states. Article VIII expenses shall not be reimbursable under this provision. EMAC Governance Structure An outline of the EMAC Governance Structure is given below: 1. National Emergency Management Association: NEMA was established in 1974 when state directors of emergency management first united in order to exchange information on common emergency management issues that threatened their constituencies. NEMA has administered EMAC since 1995 and has 2.5 staff members dedicated to EMAC administration and training. 2. EMAC Committee: The EMAC Committee, the managing body of the compact, is a standing committee under the NEMA organizational structure that maintains oversight of EMAC and the EMAC Executive Task Force. The EMAC Committee consists of a chair, fourteen (14) state directors (or their designees) and a nonvoting private sector liaison. The emergency management director and Governor from every state and territory that has passed EMAC legislation and signed EMAC into (state) law are invited to participate. 3. The EMAC Advisory Group: The EMAC Advisory Group is comprised of invited representatives from the national based organizations who represent the first responder community and other mutual aid stakeholders (including DHS/FEMA, CDC, and the National Guard Bureau). The mission is to facilitate the effective integration of multi-discipline emergency response and recovery assets for nationwide mutual aid through EMAC. 4. The EMAC Executive Task Force (ETF): The ETF conducts the day-to-day work of the EMAC Committee. The ETF is comprised of a Chair, Chair-elect, Past Chair, and ten (10) voting Lead State Representative members (chosen by the state emergency management directors), three (3) members at large (chosen by the EMAC ETF Chair), and four (4) non-voting members (NEMA Legal Committee Liaison, NEMA EMAC Coordinator, NEMA EMAC Sr. Advisor, and NEMA EMAC Training Coordinator). The Chair of the EMAC Executive Task Force serves as the Team Leader to the National Coordination Group. 5. National Coordination Group (NCG): The NCG (state of the EMAC ETF Chair) works very closely with NEMA on the daily workings of EMAC and during an event works to direct EMAC policy and procedures. 2 How EMAC Works Requesting and deploying resources is made at the discretion of the impacted (Requesting) state allowing them the ability to pick what they need and for what price. The responding (Assisting) state only has to offer assistance if they have the resources and can deploy it. At all times, impacted states retain the choice of seeking resource support from either state or federal, or both as may be appropriate for their circumstances. Local resources can be deployed under EMAC if the state has adopted intrastate legislation (see Model Intrastate Mutual Aid Legislation at NEMA’s Web Site (www.nemaweb.org). The EMAC process is outlined below. Note: The state emergency management director is an appointed EMAC Authorized Representative and can designate both EMAC Authorized Representatives and EMAC Designated Contacts in their agency. EMAC Authorized Representatives have the authority to obligate the state financially (make requests for resources to come into their state under an emergency declaration). EMAC Designated Contacts cannot financially obligate the state but can be contacted to get more information about EMAC coordination. 1. EMAC Authorized Representative confirms declaration of emergency by Governor 2. State assesses needs for resources 3. State determines if they need an external EMAC A-Team to assist with acquisition of resources or if they will use their in-state EMAC A-Team and acquires external ATeam if needed 4. State determines best source for needed resource (EMAC, Federal, private sector, etc.) 5. EMAC A-Teams request resources by one or all of the following methodologies: a. Direct contact with state (knows the resource and can go directly to the state that has it – often a recurring mission). b. EMAC resource request is made utilizing the EMAC Emergency Operations System (EOS) broadcast functionality. States may request broadcast by region (FEMA regions), two regions, or 3 regions, an individual state, or an individual EMAC Authorized Representative or EMAC Designated Contact within a state. c. Agencies within the states may refer request and suggested resource to the state emergency management agency for their follow-up. 6. EMAC A-Teams determine cost and availability of resources 7. The EMAC REQ-A Form is completed by the EMAC Authorized Representatives between both the Requesting State and the Assisting State. 8. Resources are mobilized from the Assisting State to the Requesting State. 9. Resources check in at state staging areas and are deployment locations and missions are confirmed. 10. Resources complete mission – relaying any issues back to their home state emergency management agency. 11. Resources are demobilized. 12. Assisting States complete reimbursement request and after internal audit sends to the Requesting State. 13. Requesting State reimburses the Assisting State 3 EMAC Operational Levels The three levels of EMAC operation (Level 3, Level 2, and Level 1) are mirrored after most state and federal operation levels and have worked effectively and seamlessly within NIMS. The EMAC coordinating components are typed according to size, organizational composition, function, and mission requirements to meet operational demands. EMAC operational deployment levels are activated depending upon the scale of the event. If the event warrants, the levels of operational deployment can be ramped up from a Level 3 to a Level 1. The highest level of EMAC operational level is 1, where all components and functions are in play (see image below). The decision to expand or elevate the level of operation rests with the EMAC Executive Task Force Chair acting as the NCG Team Leader. The EMAC Operation Levels are reviewed below. A. Level 3 – The lowest level of EMAC activation involves the activation of the Assisting State, the NCG, and the NEMA EMAC Coordinator. The Assisting State is using their internal state A-Team to request resources. B. Level 2 – A level 2 operation may involve a single-state or multiple states and deployment of an A-Team is requested by one or more affected states. C. Level 1 - The highest level of EMAC activation is in effect whenever a single -state or multiple states within single or multiple regions have suffered a major disaster requiring resources. A-Teams have been requested by one or more affected states and DHS/FEMA Headquarters has requested that an EMAC National Coordinating Team (NCT) and/or an EMAC Regional Coordinating Team (RCT) be deployed to appropriate locations to coordinate resource needs with federal and state counterparts. 4 How EMAC is Coordinated with the Federal Response: EMAC is first and foremost a state-to-state compact; however, DHS/FEMA and EMAC leadership have a long-standing agreement in which NEMA, through the NCG, facilitates requests to deploy a team to coordinate EMAC activities with federal personnel whenever requested by DHS/FEMA Headquarters. When requested, this results in EMAC moving from a Level 2 to a Level 1 operation. Upon a request by DHS/FEMA with the concurrence of the NCG Leader and NEMA, an EMAC Coordinating Team may be deployed to the National Response Coordination Center (NRCC) at DHS/FEMA Headquarters in Washington, DC, or to a DHS/FEMA Regional Response Coordination Center (RRCC). Member States should use Form REQ-B (Appendix V. h: EMAC Forms: 4. EMAC Form REQ- B: NCT and RCT Cost Estimate) to capture estimated mission costs tracked by NEMA. To stand up the NRCC or an RRCC, FEMA NRCC contacts the NEMA EMAC Coordinator who coordinates with the NRCC, NEMA Executive Director, and the National Coordination Group to complete a task order and determine if the deployment of state resources under EMAC is at a level that coordination is necessitated. For more information about EMAC visit www.emacweb.org, contact NEMA (www.nemaweb.org), or your state emergency management agency. 5 LIST OF RELIEF ORGANIZATIONS Action Against Hunger (AAH) http://www.aah-usa.org/ Develops and runs emergency programs in nutrition, health, water and food security for countries in need. Also provides disaster preparedness programs with the goal of anticipating and preventing humanitarian crises. CARE http://www.careusa.org/ CARE is one of the world's largest private international humanitarian organizations, committed to helping families in poor communities improve their lives and achieve lasting victories over poverty. Founded in 1945 to provide relief to survivors of World War II, CARE quickly became a trusted vehicle for the compassion and generosity of millions. Caritas Internationalis http://www.caritas.org/ Caritas Internationalis is a confederation of 162 Catholic relief, development and social service organisations working to build a better world, especially for the poor and oppressed, in over 200 countries and territories. Catholic Relief Services (CRS - USCC) http://www.crs.org/ Catholic Relief Services was founded in 1943 by the Catholic Bishops of the United States to assist the poor and disadvantaged outside the country. Working through local offices and an extensive network of partners, CRS operates on 5 continents and in over 90 countries. They aid the poor by first providing direct assistance where needed, then encouraging these people to help with their own development. Together, this fosters secure, productive, just communities that enable people to realize their potential. Doctors Without Borders http://www.dwb.org/ Doctors Without Borders delivers medical help to populations endangered by war, civil strife, epidemics or natural disasters. Each year over 2,000 volunteer doctors representing 45 nationalities work worldwide in front-line hospitals, refugee camps, disaster sites, towns and villages providing primary health care, performing surgery, vaccinating children, operating emergency nutrition and sanitation programs and training local medical staff. Emergency Nutrition Network (ENN) http://www.ennonline.net/ Independently funded organization based in Dublin, Ireland UK. Works to improve the effectiveness of emergency food and nutrition interventions by providing a means of information exchange between field staff, humanitarian institutions, academics and researchers. Food For The Hungry International (FHI) http://www.fh.org/ Food For The Hungry is an international relief and development organization of Christian motivation, committed to working with poor people to overcome hunger and poverty through integrated self-development and relief programs. Hunger Plus, Inc. http://www.hungerplus.org/ Not-for-profit relief agency that provides food and related supplies for emergency use. Partners with individuals, NGOs, government agencies, church and civic groups. Projects in self sufficiency focus on food preservation, agriculture, water, health, education, housing and technology. Interaction http://www.interaction.org/ InterAction is a coalition of over 150 US-based non-profit organizations which are usually the first to respond to a crisis. InterAction coordinates and promotes relief aid programs. With more than 160 members operating in every developing country, they work to overcome poverty, exclusion and suffering by advancing social justice and basic dignity for all. International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) http://www.icrc.org/eng The ICRC, independent of all governments and international organizations, endeavors to promote international humanitarian law and the fundamental human values underlying that law. The ICRC was founded by Geneva citizens in 1863 and has its headquarters in Geneva. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) http://www.ifrc.org/ The IFRC is one part of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, which comprises National Red Cross or Red Crescent Societies, the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (the Federation), and the ICRC. The IFRC is the permanent liaison body of the National Societies and acts as their representative internationally. It organizes and coordinates international disaster response in support of the actions of the affected National Societies, encourages the creation of new National Societies and assists them in developing their structures and programs. The IFRC Secretariat in Geneva is staffed by more than 245 people of some 30 different nationalities. International Organization for Migration (IOM) http://www.iom.int/ The IOM is committed to the principle that humane and orderly migration benefits migrants and society. As an intergovernmental body, IOM acts with its partners in the international community to: Assist in meeting the operational challenges of migration; Advance understanding of migration issues; Encourage social and economic development through migration; Uphold the human dignity and well-being of migrants. International Rescue Committee (IRC) http://www.theirc.org/ Founded in 1933, the International Rescue Committee is the voluntary organization involved in resettlement assistance, global emergency relief, rehabilitation, and advocacy for refugees. The IRC delivers lifesaving aid in emergencies, rebuilds shattered communities, cares for wartraumatized children, rehabilitates health care, water and sanitation systems, reunites separated families, restores lost livelihoods, establishes schools, trains teachers, strengthens the capacity of local organizations and supports civil society and good-governance initiatives. For refugees afforded sanctuary in the United States, IRC offices across the country provide a range of assistance aimed at helping new arrivals get settled, adjust and acquire the skills to become selfsufficient. Committed to restoring dignity and self-reliance, the IRC is a global symbol of hope and renewal for those who have taken flight in search of freedom. Lutheran World Federation http://www.lutheranworld.org/ Specializing in emergency relief linked to disaster preparedness (risk management) and sustainable development. Mennonite Central Committee (MCC) http://www.mennonitecc.ca/ Relief and development arm of the North American Mennonite and Brethren in Christ churches. MCC sends people, food and material goods to communities recovering from war and natural disasters. Mercy Corps (MC) http://www.mercycorps.org/ Nonprofit organization providing emergency relief and supporting development programs in agriculture, economic development, health, housing and infrastructure, and strengthening local organizations. Overseas Development Institute (ODI) http://www.odi.org.uk/ Independent think-tank on international development and humanitarian issues. Oxfam http://www.oxfam.org/ Oxfam is a development and relief agency working to end poverty. Oxfam International is a confederation of 12 organizations working together with over 3,000 partners in more than 100 countries to find lasting solutions to poverty, suffering and injustice. Refugees International http://www.refintl.org/ Refugees International generates lifesaving humanitarian assistance and protection for displaced people around the world and works to end the conditions that create displacement. Refugees International advocates for refugees through diplomacy and the press. Relief International http://www.ri.org/ Founded in 1990, Relief International provides emergency, rehabilitation and development services that empower beneficiaries in the process. RI’s programs include health, shelter construction, education, community development, agriculture, food, income-generation, and conflict resolution. Save the Children http://www.savethechildren.org/ Save the Children is the leading independent organization creating real and lasting change for children in need in the United States and around the world. It is a member of the International Save the Children Alliance, comprising 27 national Save the Children organizations working in more than 100 countries to ensure the well-being of children. Save the Children responds to any emergency that puts at great risk the survival, protection, and well-being of significant numbers of children, where addressing the needs and well-being of those children is beyond the indigenous coping capacity, and where Save the Children is able to mobilize the financial and human resources to take urgent action on their behalf. The Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA) http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/humanitarian_assistance/disaster_assistance/ OFDA is the office within USAID responsible for providing non-food humanitarian assistance in response to international crises and disasters. Responsible for facilitating and coordinating U.S. Government emergency assistance overseas and to provide humanitarian assistance to save lives, alleviate human suffering, and reduce the social and economic impact of natural and man-made disasters worldwide. United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) http://www.unicef.org/ While working to ensure the survival, protection and development of children and advocating a high priority for them in the allocation of resources at all times, UNICEF continues to give relief and rehabilitation assistance in emergencies. The agency was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1965. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/home The UNHCR provides protection and assistance to the world's refugees. Today, the UNHCR is one of the world's principal humanitarian agencies, with headquarters in Geneva, and offices in some 115 countries. More than 80 percent of UNHCR's 5,000-member staff work in the field, often in isolated, dangerous and difficult conditions. The UNHCR has twice been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for its work. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) http://ochaonline.un.org/ OCHA is mandated to mobilize and coordinate the collective efforts of the international community, in particular those of the UN system, to meet in a coherent and timely manner the needs of those exposed to human suffering and material destruction in disasters and emergencies. US Committee for Refugees (USCR) http://www.refugees.org/ Provides aid and resources for refugees worldwide.. World Vision International http://www.worldvision.org/ World Vision is a Christian relief and development organization dedicated to helping children and their communities worldwide reach their full potential by tackling the causes of poverty. In addition to these resources, ReliefWeb (http://www.reliefweb.int/) provides a comprehensive Directory of Humanitarian Organisations. Overview of Stafford Act Support to States This overview illustrates actions Federal agencies are likely to take to assist State, tribal, and local governments that are affected by a major disaster or emergency. Key operational components that may be activated include the National Response Coordination Center (NRCC), Regional Response Coordination Center (RRCC), Joint Field Office (JFO), and Disaster Recovery Centers (DRCs). 1. The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) National Operations Center continually monitors potential major disasters and emergencies. When advance warning is received, DHS may deploy—and may request that other Federal agencies deploy—liaison officers and personnel to a State emergency operations center to assess the emerging situation. An RRCC may be fully or partially activated. Facilities, such as mobilization centers, may be established to accommodate Federal personnel, equipment, and supplies. 2. Immediately after a major incident, tribal and/or local emergency personnel respond and assess the situation. If necessary, those officials seek additional resources through mutual aid and assistance agreements and the State. State officials also review the situation, mobilize State resources, use interstate mutual aid and assistance processes such as the Emergency Management Assistance Compact to augment State resources, and provide situation assessments to the DHS/Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) regional office. The Governor activates the State emergency operations plan, declares a state of emergency, and may request a State/DHS joint Preliminary Damage Assessment (PDA). The State and Federal officials conduct the PDA in coordination with tribal/local officials as required and determine whether the impact of the event warrants a request for a Presidential declaration of a major disaster or emergency. Based on the results of the PDA, the Governor may request a Presidential declaration specifying the kind of Federal assistance needed. 3. After a major disaster or emergency declaration, an RRCC coordinates initial regional and field activities until a JFO is established. Regional teams assess the impact of the event, gauge immediate State needs, and make preliminary arrangements to set up field facilities. (If regional resources are or may be overwhelmed or if it appears that the event may result in particularly significant consequences, DHS may deploy a nationallevel Incident Management Assistance Team (IMAT).) 4. Depending on the scope and impact of the event, the NRCC carries out initial activations and mission assignments and supports the RRCC. 5. The Governor appoints a State Coordinating Officer (SCO) to oversee State response and recovery efforts. A Federal Coordinating Officer (FCO), appointed by the President in a Stafford Act declaration, coordinates Federal activities in support of the State. 6. A JFO may be established locally to provide a central point for Federal, State, tribal, and local executives to coordinate their support to the incident. The Unified Coordination Group leads the JFO. The Unified Coordination Group typically consists of the FCO, SCO, and senior officials from other entities with primary statutory or jurisdictional responsibility and significant operational responsibility for an aspect of an incident. This group may meet initially via conference calls to develop a common set of objectives and a coordinated initial JFO action plan. 7. The Unified Coordination Group coordinates field operations from a JFO. In coordination with State, tribal, and/or local agencies, Emergency Support Functions assess the situation and identify requirements. Federal agencies provide resources under DHS/FEMA mission assignments or their own authorities. National Response Framework: Stafford Act Support to States 1 of 2 8. As immediate response priorities are met, recovery activities begin. Federal and State agencies assisting with recovery and mitigation activities convene to discuss needs. 9. The Stafford Act Public Assistance program provides disaster assistance to States, tribes, local governments, and certain private nonprofit organizations. FEMA, in conjunction with the State, conducts briefings to inform potential applicants of the assistance that is available and how to apply. 10. Throughout response and recovery operations, DHS/FEMA Hazard Mitigation program staff at the JFO look for opportunities to maximize mitigation efforts in accordance with State hazard mitigation plans. 11. As the need for full-time interagency coordination at the JFO decreases, the Unified Coordination Group plans for selective release of Federal resources, demobilization, and closeout. Federal agencies work directly with disaster assistance grantees (i.e., State or tribal governments) from their regional or headquarters offices to administer and monitor individual recovery programs, support, and technical services. The following chart summarizes Stafford Act support to States. National Response Framework: Stafford Act Support to States 2 of 2 Relief Supply Chain Management for Disasters: Humanitarian Aid and Emergency Logistics Gyöngyi Kovács HUMLOG Institute, Hanken School of Economics, Finland Karen M. Spens HUMLOG Institute, Hanken School of Economics, Finland Senior Editorial Director: Director of Book Publications: Editorial Director: Acquisitions Editor: Development Editor: Production Editor: Typesetters: Print Coordinator: Cover Design: Kristin Klinger Julia Mosemann Lindsay Johnston Erika Carter Joel Gamon Sean Woznicki Natalie Pronio, Jennifer Romanchak, Milan Vracarich, Jr. Jamie Snavely Nick Newcomer Published in the United States of America by Business Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global) 701 E. Chocolate Avenue Hershey PA 17033 Tel: 717-533-8845 Fax: 717-533-8661 E-mail: cust@igi-global.com Web site: http://www.igi-global.com Copyright © 2012 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher. Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Relief supply chain management for disasters: humanitarian aid and emergency logistics / Gyöngyi Kovács and Karen M. Spens, editors. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. Summary: “This book furthers the scholarly understanding of SCM in disaster relief, particularly establishing the central role of logistics in averting and limiting unnecessary hardships”--Provided by publisher. ISBN 978-1-60960-824-8 (hbk.) -- ISBN 978-1-60960-825-5 (ebook) -- ISBN 9781-60960-826-2 (print & perpetual access) 1. Disaster relief. 2. Humanitarian assistance. 3. Logistics. I. Kovacs, Gyongi, 1977- II. Spens, Karen M., 1963HV553.R373 2011 363.34’80687--dc22 2011015748 British Cataloguing in Publication Data A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library. All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher. Editorial Advisory Board Ruth Banomyong, Thammasat University, Thailand Anthony Beresford, Cardiff University, UK Susanne Hertz, Jönköping International Business School, Sweden Marianne Jahre, Lund University, Sweden Paul Larson, University of Manitoba, Canada Tore Listou, Norwegian Defence Command and Staff College, Norway Peter Schmitz, CSIR, South Africa Peter Tatham, Cranfield University, UK List of Reviewers Ruth Banomyong, Thammasat University, Thailand Elisabeth Barber, University of New South Wales, Australia Ira Haavisto, Hanken School of Economics, Finland Graham Heaslip, National University of Ireland, Maynooth, Ireland Paul Larson,University of Manitoba, Canada Aristides Matopoulos, University of Macedonia, Greece Stephen Pettit, Cardiff Business School, UK Joseph Sarkis, Clark University, USA Peter Schmitz, CSIR, South Africa Per Skoglund, Jönköping International Business School, Sweden Peter Tathaml,Cranfield University, UK David Taylor, Cranfield University, UK Rolando Tomasini, Hanken School of Economics, Finland Y-C J Wu, National Kaohsiung First University of Science and Technology, Taiwan Table of Contents Foreword ............................................................................................................................................... xi Preface ..................................................................................................................................................xii Chapter 1 Strategic Partners and Strange Bedfellows: Relationship Building in the Relief Supply Chain ............ 1 Paul D. Larson, University of Manitoba, Canada Chapter 2 Humanitarian Partnerships ‒ Drivers, Facilitators, and Components: The Case of Non-Food Item Distribution in Sudan ............................................................................................................................ 16 Rolando M. Tomasini, Hanken School of Economics, Finland Chapter 3 Relief Supply Chain Planning: Insights from Thailand ........................................................................ 31 Ruth Banomyong, Thammasat University, Thailand Apichat Sodapang, Chiangmai University, Thailand Chapter 4 Humanitarian Aid Logistics: The Wenchuan and Haiti Earthquakes Compared .................................. 45 Anthony Beresford, Cardiff University, UK Stephen Pettit, Cardiff University, UK Chapter 5 The Application of Value Chain Analysis for the Evaluation of Alternative Supply Chain Strategies for the Provision of Humanitarian Aid to Africa .................................................................. 68 David H. Taylor, Sheffield, UK Chapter 6 Designing Post-Disaster Supply Chains: Learning from Housing Reconstruction Projects ................ 90 Gyöngyi Kovács, HUMLOG Institute, Hanken School of Economics, Finland Aristides Matopoulos, University of Macedonia, Greece Odran Hayes, European Agency for Reconstruction, Ireland Chapter 7 Local Sourcing in Peacekeeping: A Case Study of Swedish Military Sourcing ................................. 103 Per Skoglund, Jönköping International Business School, Sweden Susanne Hertz, Jönköping International Business School, Sweden Chapter 8 Military Involvement in Humanitarian Supply Chains....................................................................... 123 Elizabeth Barber, University of New South Wales, Australian Defence Force Academy, Australia Chapter 9 Challenges of Civil Military Cooperation / Coordination in Humanitarian Relief ............................ 147 Graham Heaslip, National University of Ireland - Maynooth, Ireland Chapter 10 Developing and Maintaining Trust in Hastily Formed Relief Networks ............................................ 173 Peter Tatham, Griffith University, Australia Gyöngyi Kovács, HUMLOG Institute, Hanken School of Economics, Finland Chapter 11 A Study of Barriers to Greening the Relief Supply Chain .................................................................. 196 Joseph Sarkis, Clark University, USA Karen M. Spens, HUMLOG Institute, Hanken School of Economics, Finland Gyöngyi Kovács, HUMLOG Institute, Hanken School of Economics, Finland Chapter 12 Disaster Impact and Country Logistics Performance ......................................................................... 208 Ira Haavisto, Hanken School of Economics, Finland Compilation of References ............................................................................................................... 225 About the Contributors .................................................................................................................... 244 Index ................................................................................................................................................... 249 Detailed Table of Contents Foreword ............................................................................................................................................... xi Preface ..................................................................................................................................................xii Chapter 1 Strategic Partners and Strange Bedfellows: Relationship Building in the Relief Supply Chain ............ 1 Paul D. Larson, University of Manitoba, Canada This chapter is about relationship building in relief supply chains. Its primary purpose is to present and discuss the author’s actor-based typology of humanitarian relationships. The framework includes relationships among NGOs, as well as between NGOs and UN agencies, military units, and business firms. Examples are used to explore unique issues in the various types of relationships. One particular NGO, Airline Ambassadors International, is offered as an example of an NGO that builds relationships with a wide variety of humanitarian actors. The chapter also examines compatibility and complementarity of organizations across the three phases of humanitarian work: preparation, response and recovery or development. Research opportunities are discussed in the concluding comments. Chapter 2 Humanitarian Partnerships ‒ Drivers, Facilitators, and Components: The Case of Non-Food Item Distribution in Sudan ............................................................................................................................ 16 Rolando M. Tomasini, Hanken School of Economics, Finland Through the use of a case study this chapter discusses the design of a partnership between humanitarian organizations to understand what are the drivers, facilitators, and components of the partnership. This research has been designed using a topical literature review and a case study. The practical implications include a discussion and guidelines for designing partnerships under high uncertainty and limited resources. Chapter 3 Relief Supply Chain Planning: Insights from Thailand ........................................................................ 31 Ruth Banomyong, Thammasat University, Thailand Apichat Sodapang, Chiangmai University, Thailand The purpose of this chapter is to provide a framework for the development of relief supply chain systems. An illustrative case study is presented in order to help relief supply chain decision makers in their relief supply chain planning process. Developing simulation models to test proposed relief supply chain response plans is much less risky than actually waiting for another disaster to happen and test the proposed relief supply chain model in a real life situation. The simulated outcome can then be used to refine the developed relief supply chain response model. Chapter 4 Humanitarian Aid Logistics: The Wenchuan and Haiti Earthquakes Compared .................................. 45 Anthony Beresford, Cardiff University, UK Stephen Pettit, Cardiff University, UK This chapter contrasts the response to the Wenchuan earthquake (May 2008) which took place in a landlocked region of China with that of the January 2010 earthquake in Haiti, which as an island nation, theoretically easily accessible to external aid provision via air or sea. In the initial period following the Wenchuan earthquake, the response was wholly internal, as a detailed needs assessment was carried out. Once the Chinese authorities had established the scale of response required, international assistance was quickly allowed into the country. Several multimodal solutions were devised to minimize the risk of supply breakdown. Haiti required substantial external aid and logistics support, but severe organizational and infrastructural weaknesses rendered the supply chain extremely vulnerable locally. This translated to a mismatch between the volume of aid supplied and logistics capability, highlighting the importance of ‘last-mile’ distribution management. The two earthquakes posed extreme challenges to the logistics operations, though both required a mix of military and non-military input into the logistics response. Nonetheless, in each case the non-standard logistics solutions which were devised broadly met the requirements for effective aid distribution in extreme environments. Chapter 5 The Application of Value Chain Analysis for the Evaluation of Alternative Supply Chain Strategies for the Provision of Humanitarian Aid to Africa .................................................................. 68 David H. Taylor, Sheffield, UK The study reported in this chapter was commissioned in 2009 by the charity ‘Advance Aid’ in order to provide an independent evaluation to compare conventional methods of supplying humanitarian aid products to Africa from outside the continent, with a proposed model of local manufacture and pre-positioned stocks. The evaluation was carried out using ‘value chain analysis’ techniques based on ‘lean’ concepts to provide a strategic evaluation of alternative supply models. The findings show that a system of local manufacturing and pre-positioned stockholding would offer significant advantages over conventional humanitarian supply chains in terms of responsiveness, risk of disruption and carbon footprint, and that delivered costs would be similar to or significantly better than current non-African supply options. Local manufacturing would also have important benefits in terms of creating employment and economic growth, which in the long run would help African states to mitigate and/or respond to future disasters and thus become less dependent on external aid. Chapter 6 Designing Post-Disaster Supply Chains: Learning from Housing Reconstruction Projects ................ 90 Gyöngyi Kovács, HUMLOG Institute, Hanken School of Economics, Finland Aristides Matopoulos, University of Macedonia, Greece Odran Hayes, European Agency for Reconstruction, Ireland Post-disaster housing reconstruction projects face several challenges. Resources and material supplies are often scarce, several and different types of organizations are involved, and projects must be completed as quickly as possible to foster recovery. Within this context, the chapter aims to increase the understanding of relief supply chain design in reconstruction. In addition, the chapter is introducing a community based and beneficiary perspective to relief supply chains by evaluating the implications of local components for supply chain design in reconstruction. This is achieved through the means of secondary data analysis based on the evaluation reports of two major housing reconstruction projects that took place in Europe the last decade. A comparative analysis of the organizational designs of these projects highlights the ways in which users can be involved. The performance of reconstruction supply chains seems to depend to a large extent on the way beneficiaries are integrated in supply chain design impacting positively on the effectiveness of reconstruction supply chains. Chapter 7 Local Sourcing in Peacekeeping: A Case Study of Swedish Military Sourcing ................................. 103 Per Skoglund, Jönköping International Business School, Sweden Susanne Hertz, Jönköping International Business School, Sweden This case study explores the Swedish armed forces’ sourcing from local suppliers in the area of the peacekeeping operation in Liberia. The paper discusses why, what, and how the Swedish armed forces develop local sourcing. For the study, a theoretical framework was developed with an industrial network perspective based on three cornerstones: supplier buyer relation development, internationalization, and finally, souring and business development in a war-torn country. The results of the study show that both implicit and explicit reasons to source locally exist. Every operation is unique, and therefore the sourcing needs to be tailored for each operation. Local sourcing was developed in the country based on existing needs and when opportunities arose. Theoretically, new insights of differences between business relations in military operations and normal business to business relations were gained. Practically, this study illustrates the importance to develop and diversify sourcing in international operations. Chapter 8 Military Involvement in Humanitarian Supply Chains....................................................................... 123 Elizabeth Barber, University of New South Wales, Australian Defence Force Academy, Australia The purpose of this chapter is to demonstrate the multitude of activities that military logisticians can provide throughout the various stages in relief supply chains. Most military joint doctrine identifies humanitarian assistance (HA) as one of the “Military Operations Other Than War” (MOOTW) that military personnel are trained to undertake. Part of this HA involves contributing to humanitarian supply chains and logistics management. The supply chain management processes, physical flows, as well as associated information and financial systems form part of the military contributions that play an important role in the relief supply chain. The main roles of the military to relief supply chains include security and protection, distribution, and engineering. Examples of these key contributions will be provided in this chapter. Chapter 9 Challenges of Civil Military Cooperation / Coordination in Humanitarian Relief ............................ 147 Graham Heaslip, National University of Ireland - Maynooth, Ireland The term civil military coordination (CIMIC) suggests the seamless division of labor between aid workers and international military forces. The media coverage from crises such as New Orleans, Kosovo, the tsunami in Asia, Pakistan, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Chad ,and more recently Haiti, showing humanitarian organizations distributing food and medicines under the protection of military forces, or aid workers and military working together to construct refugee camps, set up field hospitals, provide emergency water and sanitation, et cetera, has heightened the expectation of a smooth interaction. Due to fundamental differences between international military forces, humanitarian and development organizations in terms of the principles and doctrines guiding their work, their agendas, operating styles, and roles, the area of civil military coordination in disaster relief has proven to be more difficult than other interagency relationships. This chapter will identify the many factors that render integration and collaboration problematic between diverse organizations, and especially so between civilian and military agencies. The chapter will conclude with proposals to improve CIMIC within disaster relief. Chapter 10 Developing and Maintaining Trust in Hastily Formed Relief Networks ............................................ 173 Peter Tatham, Griffith University, Australia Gyöngyi Kovács, HUMLOG Institute, Hanken School of Economics, Finland Although there is a vast body of academic and practitioner literature championing the importance of trust in long-term business relationships, relatively little has been written which discusses the development and maintenance of trust in networks that are formed at short notice and that often operate for a limited period of time. Some models of trust and trusting behavior in such “hastily formed relief networks” (HFRN) do exist , however, and the aim of this chapter is to consider the theoretical application of one of the most prominent examples –known as “swift trust” – to a post-disaster humanitarian logistics scenario. Presented from the perspective of a HFRN, the chapter presents a discussion of the practical application of the swift trust model. Chapter 11 A Study of Barriers to Greening the Relief Supply Chain .................................................................. 196 Joseph Sarkis, Clark University, USA Karen M. Spens, HUMLOG Institute, Hanken School of Economics, Finland Gyöngyi Kovács, HUMLOG Institute, Hanken School of Economics, Finland Relief supply chain (SC) management is a relatively unexplored field. In this field, practitioners have shown some interest in greening practices, but little practical or academic literature exists to help provide insights into combining the two fields. Adoption of green SC principles in the relief SC requires a systematic study of existing barriers in order to remove these barriers and allow introduction of green practices. The aim of this chapter is to explore barriers to implementation of green practices in the relief SC. Expert opinions and literature from humanitarian logistics and green supply chain management are used to establish a list of barriers and to propose a categorization of barriers. Further research to evaluate the relationships and importance of these barrier factors is identified. Chapter 12 Disaster Impact and Country Logistics Performance ......................................................................... 208 Ira Haavisto, Hanken School of Economics, Finland The study seeks to answer the question whether a country’s logistics performance has a correlation with the impacts of a disaster; impact being measured in average amount of affected, the average amount of deaths, the average amount of injured in a disaster, or the average amount of economic damage. This is a quantitative study where the EM-DATs disaster data is analyzed through correlation analysis against the World Bank’s logistics performance index (LPI). The findings do not show a significant relationship between countries LPI and the average number of deaths or injured in a disaster. A positive correlation between the variable LPI and the variable economic damage can be found. A negative correlation between the LPI and the average amount of affected can be found for countries with an average ranking LPI. Countries with low LPI and high disaster occurrence are further identified. Findings encourage the identified countries to take into consideration their logistics performance when planning and carrying out humanitarian response operations. Results also encourage humanitarian organizations to pay attention to the receiving countries’ logistics performance in planning and carrying out of humanitarian response operations. Compilation of References ............................................................................................................... 225 About the Contributors .................................................................................................................... 244 Index ................................................................................................................................................... 249 xi Foreword For some years now, the major insurance and re-insurance companies have been tracking the occurrence of natural disasters. The disturbing findings of all of these analyses point to the fact that these events have been happening with significantly greater frequency and severity in recent years. Graphed over a fifty year time-line, the rate of increase appears to be almost exponential. Whatever the reasons for this increase, the implication is clear: the need to develop a much higher level of capability for the provision of relief and reconstruction will become ever more pressing. Underpinning the success of any humanitarian aid and relief programme are logistics and supply chain processes that agile and adaptive: agile in the sense that they can respond rapidly to unexpected events, and adaptive in that they can be configured to meet the needs of specific situations and contexts. Surprisingly, it is only recently that the need for higher levels of capability in the practice of humanitarian logistics and supply chain management has been recognised. It could be argued that the shortage of appropriate logistics management skills and supporting infrastructure has meant that many aid and relief programmes in the past have been less effective than they could have been. For this reason, it is opportune that this book should be compiled and published at this particular time. In the last few years alone, a tremendous amount of knowledge has been gained into how humanitarian logistics and supply chain performance can be made much more effective by the application of new ideas and techniques. The issues addressed by the various contributors to this book are critical to the achievement of the goals of any humanitarian aid and relief programme. The breadth as well as the depth of the analysis contained within these chapters is impressive, and together they provide valuable insights into how current practice can be improved. The message to be drawn from this is that whilst disasters and existential threats from a multitude of sources will sadly always be with us, at least we can seek to learn how to mitigate their consequences. Martin Christopher Cranfield University, UK Martin Christopher is an Emeritus Professor of Marketing and Logistics at the Cranfield School of Management in the UK. For many years Martin Christopher has been involved in teaching and researching new ideas in logistics and supply chain management. He has published widely, and his book, “Logistics and Supply Chain Management,” has become one of the most widely cited texts in its field. As well as his Emeritus position at Cranfield, Martin Christopher is a Visiting Professor at a number of leading Universities around the world. xii Preface INTRODUCTION Relief supply chains are argued to be the most dynamic and agile supply chains, yet research in this area of supply chain management (SCM) is scant. Relief SCM has recently gained attention due to many natural and man-made disasters and the recognition of the central role of logistics in responding to these. Relief supply chains (SC) constitute a substantial industry that responds to over 500 disasters annually resultant in loss of 75 000 lives and affecting over 200 million people. SC costs are also argued to account for over 80% of costs incurred in any disaster relief operation. Due to the fact that relief supply chains so far have received little attention, there seems to be a gap that this book can fill. The anthology also presents a continuation of a doctoral course in Supply Chain Management for Disaster Relief given at Hanken School of Economics in the fall of 2009, as many of the chapters are written by participants, as well as core faculty of this doctoral course. The book is therefore a collection of chapters by researchers, both junior and senior, in the field of humanitarian logistics and relief supply chain management. The chapters were, however, submitted after a broader call for papers and were thereafter peer-reviewed, ending up as a collection of chapters that were accepted. The interest for courses in this field has continued to grow since; therefore, the hope is that this anthology will provide a platform for creating and giving even more courses in the field. More broadly, the anthology is part of a large research project funded by the Academy of Finland, called Relief Supply Chain Management. The overall aim of the anthology Relief Supply Chain Management for Disasters: Humanitarian Aid and Emergency Logistics is to further the understanding of SCM in disaster relief. As the first book in this field, the hope is that it will serve scholarly thought as well as provide a textbook for courses introducing this new and exciting area in the field of logistics. BACKGROUND Supply chain management (SCM) research has developed rapidly in the past two decades, but is still “a discipline in the early stages of evolution” (Gibson et al., 2005, p.17). The following most commonly used definition of SCM is provided by the Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals (CSCMP): ‘Supply Chain Management encompasses the planning and management of all activities involved in sourcing and procurement, conversion, and all Logistics Management activities. Importantly, it also includes coordination and collaboration with channel partners, which can be suppliers, intermediaries, third-party service providers, and customers. In essence, Supply Chain Management integrates supply and demand management within and across companies’ (CSCMP, 2006). xiii Traditional streams of SCM literature encompass different topics, ranging from supply chain modelling and optimisation (Lee et al., 2004; Svensson, 2003) to supply chain performance measurement (Bagchi et al., 2005; Beamon, 1999), supply chain processes (Croxton et al., 2001; Lambert et al., 1998), portfolio models in SCM (Fisher, 1997), and supply chain collaboration and integration (Barratt, 2004; Fawcett & Magnan, 2002; Min et al., 2005). Portfolio models in SCM discuss different types of supply chains, contrasting supply chains for functional products with a focus on cost efficiencies to supply chains for innovative products with a focus on responsiveness to market dynamics (Fisher, 1997). But while this portfolio thinking is at the core of SCM, literature has traditionally focused on efficient (or “lean”) supply chains only (Lee, 2004). Therefore, the current trend in SCM literature is towards discussing more innovative and responsive – or “agile” – supply chains that operate in a highly dynamic environment (Christopher et al., 2006; Towill and Christopher, 2002). Relief supply chain management has recently gained attention due to a number of natural and manmade disasters and the recognition of the central role of logistics in responding to these. Oloruntoba and Gray (2006, p.117) argue that relief supply chains are “clearly unpredictable, turbulent, and requiring flexibility.” In essence, relief supply chains can be seen as highly dynamic, innovative, and agile (Oloruntoba & Gray, 2006; van Wassenhove, 2006), and hereby it can be argued that even (traditional) commercial supply chains can learn from the high flexibility of relief supply chains (Sowinski, 2003). Especially in sudden-onset disasters, relief supply chains have to be deployed in situations with a destabilised infrastructure and with very limited knowledge about the situation at hand (Beamon, 2004; Long & Wood, 1995; Tomasini & van Wassenhove, 2004). Relief supply chain management, although arguably much different from business logistics, does also show similarities. Therefore the definitions,techniques, and approaches used within business logistics can often be transferred or altered so they fit the purpose of their context. Notwithstanding the fact that the ultimate goals and purpose of conducting the logistical activities are different, still many of the definitions relating to the field can be extracted from current definitions found in the business context. In the following paragraphs, we are providing an overview of the definitions that the book adheres to. The definitions were provided to the authors of the chapters at the outset and have been used accordingly throughout the book. Admittedly, as in the field of logistics, defining concepts is a difficult task, so authors often tend to use definitions or even define concepts in a way that fits their purpose. The chapters therefore are the sole responsibility of the authors and do reflect their views on particular issues and concepts, however, we argue that the definitions provided in the end of our preface seemingly have gained acceptance among the authors of the chapters of this book. This anthology is designed to bring together theoretical frameworks and the latest findings from research with their discussion in particular cases. Besides a number of frameworks – of types of relationships in the relief supply chain (ch.1), relief logistics development (ch.3), value chain analysis (ch.5), civil-military co-operation (ch.9), and trust models in disaster relief (ch.10) – cases range from logistical partnerships in the Sudan (ch.2), to a comparison of relief supply chains in different earthquakes (Haiti vs. Wenchuan, ch.4), to local sourcing in Liberia (ch.7), and reconstruction in the Kosovo and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (ch.6). This way, insights from theory and practice are combined. The anthology ends with a chapter on one of the most recent areas humanitarian logistics research and practice has embraced: questions of sustainability, and most importantly, the issue of greening the relief supply chain (ch.11). xiv THE COLLECTION OF CHAPTERS: A SHORT INTRODUCTION In the foreword, Martin Christopher, Emeritus Professor from Cranfield University, discusses the importance of the topic more broadly. Professor Christopher is undeniably one of the most well-known authors and scholars in the field of logistics who has also recently embraced the field of humanitarian logistics through co-editing a book with Peter Tatham. We hope these two books will complement each other. In the preface, the editors of the book, Gyöngyi Kovács and Karen M. Spens, outline the field, provide some key definitions, and provide an overview of the chapters included. In the first chapter by Paul D. Larson from University of Manitoba, relationship building in humanitarian supply chains is discussed. The primary purpose of the chapter, named “Strategic Partners and Strange Bedfellows: Relationship Building in the Relief Supply Chain,” is to present and discuss the author’s actor-based typology of humanitarian relationships. The framework includes relationships among NGOs, as well as between NGOs and UN agencies, military units, and business firms. Examples are used to explore unique issues in the various types of relationships. One particular NGO, Airline Ambassadors International, is offered as an example of an NGO that builds relationships with a wide variety of humanitarian actors. The chapter also examines compatibility and complementarity of organizations across the three phases of humanitarian work: preparation, response, and recovery or development. Research opportunities are discussed in the concluding comments. The chapter serves as a good introduction to following ones that further discuss some of the types of relationships outlined here. The next chapter takes up the question of partnerships in the relief supply chain. Rolando M. Tomasini, Hanken School of Economics, Finland, in his chapter, “Humanitarian Partnerships - Drivers, Facilitators, and Components: The Case of Non-Food Item Distribution in Sudan,” uses a case study to discuss the design of partnerships between humanitarian organizations in order to understand the drivers, facilitators and components, of a partnership. The research was designed using a topical literature review and a case study. The practical implications include discussion and guidelines for designing partnerships under high uncertainty and limited resources. This is followed by another case study, this time of disaster preparedness and management in Thailand. At the same time, Ruth Banomyong from Thammasat University, Thailand and Apichat Sodapang from Chiangmai University, Thailand present a more general framework for relief supply chain management in the third chapter. Their “Relief Supply Chain Planning: Insights from Thailand” builds on and evaluates a general framework for humanitarian logistics. The chapter highlights the need for planning and preparedness prior to a disaster. Further cases are presented and contrasted in chapter 4, “Humanitarian Aid Logistics: The Wenchuan and Haiti Earthquakes Compared,” by Anthony Beresford and Stephen Pettit from Cardiff University, UK. The comparison of a similar disaster in different environments helps to highlight common features in humanitarian logistics and set these apart from contextual factors such as infrastructural weaknesses. Access to a disaster area is contrasted between islands and landlocked countries. Furthermore, as in chapter one, the cases show the importance of co-ordination in the logistics response of humanitarian and military organizations. Chapter 5, called “The Application of Value Chain Analysis for the Evaluation of Alternative Supply Chain Strategies for the Provision of Humanitarian Aid to Africa,” is a prime example of presenting a framework and discussing it on a particular case. David H. Taylor, from Sheffield, UK is an expert in value chain analysis. The study reported in this chapter was commissioned in 2009 by the charity “Advance Aid” in order to provide an independent evaluation to compare conventional methods of sup- xv plying humanitarian aid products to Africa from outside the continent, with a proposed model of local manufacturing and pre-positioned stocks. The findings show that a system of locally manufactured and pre-positioned stockholding would offer significant advantages over conventional relief supply chains in terms of responsiveness, risk of disruption, and carbon footprint, and that delivered costs would be similar to or significantly better than current non-African supply options. Local manufacture would also have important benefits in terms of creating employment and economic growth, which in the long run would help African states to mitigate and/or respond to future disasters and thus become less dependent on external aid. Local sourcing and manufacturing is also at the core of chapter 6, “Designing Post-Disaster Supply Chains: Learning from Housing Reconstruction Projects.” In this chapter, Gyöngyi Kovács, HUMLOG Institute, Hanken School of Economics, Finland, Aristides Matopoulos, University of Macedonia, Greece and Odran Hayes from the European Agency for Reconstruction, Ireland introduce a community based and beneficiary perspective to relief supply chains by evaluating the implications of local components for supply chain design in reconstruction. The chapter further discusses the challenges of post-disaster housing reconstruction projects on the cases of housing reconstruction programs in the Kosovo and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, finding that resources and material supplies are often scarce. Several and different types of organizations are involved while projects must be completed as quickly as possible to foster recovery. The performance of reconstruction supply chains seems to depend to a large extent on the way beneficiaries are integrated in supply chain design impacting positively on the effectiveness of reconstruction supply chains. Local sourcing is also taken up from a peacekeeping perspective. Per Skoglund and Susanne Hertz from Jönköping International Business School, Sweden, present a case study of the Swedish armed forces in Liberia and compare local sourcing in peacekeeping there with other cases in Afghanistan and the Kosovo. The chapter, “Local Sourcing in Peacekeeping: A Case Study of Swedish Military Sourcing,” not only illustrates these three cases but applies the theoretical framework of the Uppsala model of internationalisation to them. Of particular interest is the discussion of psychic distance in local sourcing. Coming back to different types of actors and relationships in the relief supply chain, Elizabeth Barber, from the University of New South Wales, Australian Defence Force Academy, Australia discusses the role of the military in disaster relief. The chapter, “Military Involvement in Humanitarian Supply Chains,” demonstrates the multitude of activities that military logisticians can provide throughout the various stages in the humanitarian supply chains. Most military joint doctrine identifies humanitarian assistance as one of the “Military Operations Other Than War” that military personnel are trained to undertake. The supply chain management processes, physical flows, as well as associated information and financial systems form part of the military contributions to the relief supply chain. The main roles of the military to humanitarian supply chains include security and protection, distribution, and engineering. Examples of these key contributions are provided in this chapter. Upon outlining the roles and contributions of the military, the next chapter turns to “Challenges of Civil Military Cooperation / Coordination in Humanitarian Relief.” Graham Heaslip, National University of Ireland-Maynooth, Ireland, goes through the various meanings and definitions of civil military coordination (CIMIC) and the fundamental differences between the principles and doctrines guiding the work of international military forces and humanitarian organizations. This chapter identifies the many factors that render integration and collaboration problematic between diverse assistance agencies, and especially so between civilian and military agencies. It concludes with proposals to improve CIMIC within humanitarian relief. xvi The challenges to develop relationships, and in particular, trust, between representatives of different humanitarian organizations is also a core theme of chapter 10, “Developing and Maintaining Trust in Hastily Formed Relief Networks.” In this chapter, Peter Tatham from Griffith University, Australia, and Gyöngyi Kovács, HUMLOG Institute, Hanken School of Economics, Finland, discuss the implications of the practical implication of a “swift trust” model in the ad hoc networks of humanitarian logisticians in the field. In the following chapter, “A Study of Barriers to Greening the Relief Supply Chain,” the authors Joseph Sarkis, Clark University, USA, and Karen M. Spens and Gyöngyi Kovács from the HUMLOG Institute, Hanken School of Economics, Finland reveal barriers to the greening of the relief supply chain. Adoption of green SC principles in the relief SC requires a systematic study of existing barriers in order to remove these barriers and allow introduction of green practices. Expert opinions and literature from humanitarian logistics and green supply chain management are used to establish a list of barriers and to propose a categorization of barriers. The final chapter, Ira Haavisto from the Hanken School of Economics, Finland, takes a more macroeconomic view on disaster occurrence and impact in light of the logistics performance of a country. “Disaster Impact and Country Logistics Performance” discusses the links between the states of logistics infrastructure, and hence, country logistics performance, and the various impacts of disasters in terms of loss of life, number of people affected, and economic damage. Not surprisingly, high country logistics performance correlates with the economic damage of disasters, but more interestingly, high country logistics performance shows a negative correlation to the numbers of people affected. At the same time, the analysis points towards an increased need for preparedness in countries with high disaster occurrence and a low logistics performance. In summary, the topics and chapters provided give a broad overview of the issues relevant and prevailing in the field of relief supply chain management. The actor structure in relief supply chains is, as earlier research has pointed out, complex, due to the fact that there are military, humanitarian, governmental, and for-profit actors involved in delivering relief. Partnerships, coordination, and collaboration are themes found in the chapters that relate more to strategic thinking, whereas value chain analysis and simulation provide a tool for operational types of changes to relief supply chains. The phases of disaster relief are also covered in the text, as some chapters relate more to preparedness, whereas others touch more upon the response phase of the disaster relief cycle. Some topical new issues are also discussed, such as greening the relief supply chain. In business logistics, sustainability and greening has become key, whereas green thinking, at least in academic papers found in the field of humanitarian logistics, are still scarce. FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS The book covers a broad variety of topics relating to relief supply chain management. Many of the chapters identify future directions for research. Relationship building in the relief supply chain is such an area (see ch.1). A significant body of literature has focused on coordination, or the lack thereof, in humanitarian logistics. Turning away from aspects of inter-organizational or inter-agency coordination, the focus is now shifting towards collaboration in the supply chain, i.e. considering partners such as logistics service providers (see ch.2), suppliers, and even beneficiaries (ch.6). xvii Another important direction is the development of comparative studies (as in ch.4) as to be able to draw on commonalities of the relief supply chain and to learn from previous disasters. The use of logistical concepts and models (ch.5) and the development of generic frameworks for humanitarian logistics (ch.3) aid in unearthing the critical success factors of logistics in disaster relief (cf. Pettit & Beresford, 2009). The final chapter of the book indicates a further future research direction, that of considering the sustainability of aid. There are multiple meanings of sustainability in the humanitarian context. Ch.11 addresses sustainability from the perspective of greening the relief supply chain, which extends previous considerations of green logistics that were primarily concerned with transportation emissions, beyond organizational boundaries, and to other aspects of environmental impact. Also, ch.5 considers the carbon footprint of humanitarian aid. Greening aspects are of particular importance considering the debate on climate change. Ch.6 considers another aspect of sustainability, involving the community of beneficiaries in supply chain design, while ch.7 highlights the social side of sustainability in local sourcing. Further research is still needed in these areas to address questions of long-term development and sustainable exit strategies of humanitarian aid. CONCLUSION The field of humanitarian logistics and relief supply chain management is receiving increasing attention among academics, as well as practitioners. The number of related publications has been increasing steadily (Kovács & Spens, 2008), and a number of journals have dedicated special issues to this field. This book is, however, the first compilation of chapters dedicated to relief supply chain management. As such, it provides an overview of some of the topics covered by academics on the topic of Relief Supply Chain Management in a variety of countries around the world. However, the topics certainly do not cover all the research done in this field as we are well aware that there are a multitude of ongoing projects and research being conducted which would have been interesting to include. Our sincere hope is that this book, nevertheless, fills a gap and can be used in courses that aim to introduce academic readers to this new and emerging field. We are very grateful to all the authors who took the time to contribute and we are also indebted to the reviewers who took the time to comment on the chapters. As the editors of this book, and also, the editors of an academic journal (the Journal of Humanitarian Logistics and Supply Chain Management) that is to be launched in 2011, our hope is also that this book will inspire even more authors so that the field continues to grow and mature. Gyöngyi Kovács HUMLOG Institute, Hanken School of Economics, Finland Karen M. Spens HUMLOG Institute, Hanken School of Economics, Finland xviii REFERENCES Bagchi, P. K., Ha, B. C., Skjoett-Larsen, T., & Soerensen, L. B. (2005). Supply chain integration: A European survey. International Journal of Logistics Management, 16(2), 275–294. doi:10.1108/09574090510634557 Barratt, M. (2004). Understanding the meaning of collaboration in the supply chain. Supply Chain Management: An International Journal, 9(1), 30–42. doi:10.1108/13598540410517566 Beamon, B. M. (1999). Measuring supply chain performance . 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International Journal of Physical Distribution and Logistics Management, 32(5), 339–361. doi:10.1108/09600030210436222 Fisher, M. L. (1997). What is the right supply chain for your product? Harvard Business Review, (MarchApril): 105–116. Kovács, G., & Spens, K. (2008). Humanitarian logistics revisited . In Arlbjørn, J. S., Halldórsson, Á., Jahre, M., & Spens, K. (Eds.), Northern lights in logistics and supply chain management (pp. 217–232). Copenhagen, Denmark: CBS Press. Lambert, D. M., Cooper, M. C., & Pagh, J. D. (1998). Supply chain management: Implementation issues and research opportunities. International Journal of Logistics Management, 9(2), 1–19. doi:10.1108/09574099810805807 Lee, H. L. (2004). The triple-A supply chain. Harvard Business Review, 82(10), 102–112. Lee, H. L., Padmanabhan, V., & Whang, S. (2004). Information distortion in the supply chain: The bullwhip effect. Management Science, 50(12), 1875–1886. doi:10.1287/mnsc.1040.0266 Long, D. C., & Wood, D. F. (1995). The logistics of famine relief. Journal of Business Logistics, 16(1), 213–229. Min, S., Roath, A. S., Daugherty, P. J., Genchev, S. E., Chen, H., Arndt, A. D., & Richey, R. G. (2005). Supply chain collaboration: What’s happening? International Journal of Logistics Management, 16(2), 237–256. doi:10.1108/09574090510634539 xix Oloruntoba, R., & Gray, R. (2006). Humanitarian aid: An agile supply chain? Supply Chain Management: An International Journal, 11(2), 115–120. doi:10.1108/13598540610652492 Pettit, S., & Beresford, A. (2009). Critical success factors in the context of humanitarian aid supply chains. International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, 39(6), 450–468. doi:10.1108/09600030910985811 SCM. IJ. (2010). Author guidelines. Supply Chain Management: an International Journal. Retrieved August 1, 2010, from http://info.emeraldinsight.com/ products/ journals/ author_guidelines.htm? id=scm Sowinski, L. L. (2003). The lean, mean supply chain and its human counterpart. World Trade, 16(6), 18. Svensson, G. (2003). The bullwhip effect in intra-organisational echelons. International Journal of Physical Distribution and Logistics Management, 33(2), 103–131. doi:10.1108/09600030310469135 Thomas, A., & Mizushima, M. (2005). Logistics training: Necessity or luxury? Forced Migration Review, 22, 60–61. Tomasini, R. M., & van Wassenhove, L. N. (2004). Pan-American health organization’s humanitarian supply management system: De-politicization of the humanitarian supply chain by creating accountability. Journal of Public Procurement, 4(3), 437–449. Towill, D., & Christopher, M. (2002). The supply chain strategy conundrum: To be lean or agile or to be lean and agile? International Journal of Logistics: Research and Applications, 5(3), 299–309. doi:10.1080/1367556021000026736 van Wassenhove, L. N. (2006). Humanitarian aid logistics: Supply chain management in high gear. The Journal of the Operational Research Society, 57, 475–589. doi:10.1057/palgrave.jors.2602125 ADDITIONAL READING Relief supply chain management is a rather new field of research. Nonetheless, there is a steady rise in the number of relevant published articles. Whilst noting some of the most important works we would also like to refer to Peter Tatham’s Bibliography that is constantly updated and can be obtained from the first author or chapter 9. To be noted are the following special issues in scientific journals: Transportation Research Part E: Logistics and Transportation Review, Vol.43 No.6 (2007) on “Challenges of Emergency Logistics Management” International Journal of Services Technology and Management, Vol.12 No.4 (2009) on “Coordination of Service Providers in Humanitarian Aid” International Journal of Risk Assessment and Management, Vol.13 No.1 (2009) on “Managing Supply Chains in Disasters” International Journal of Physical Distribution and Logistics Management, Vol.39 No.5/6 (2009) on “SCM in Times of Humanitarian Crisis” xx Supply Chain Forum: an International Journal, Vol.11 No.3 (2010) on “Humanitarian Supply Chains” International Journal of Physical Distribution and Logistics Management, Vol.40 No.8/9 (2010) on “Developments in Humanitarian Logistics” Interfaces, Vol.40 No.(in press) on “Doing Good with Good OR” International Journal of Production Economics, Vol.126 No.1 (2010) on “Improving Disaster Supply Chain Management – Key supply chain factors for humanitarian relief and the dedicated Journal of Humanitarian Logistics and Supply Chain Management, to be launched in 2011. FURTHER ADDITIONAL READING Altay, N., Prasad, S., & Sounderpandian, J. (2009). Strategic planning for disaster relief logistics: Lessons from supply chain management. International Journal of Services Sciences, 2(2), 142–161. doi:10.1504/ IJSSCI.2009.024937 Beamon, B. M., & Balcik, B. (2008). Performance measurement in humanitarian relief chains. International Journal of Public Sector Management, 21(1), 4–25. doi:10.1108/09513550810846087 Carter, W. N. (1999). Disaster Management: A Disaster Management Handbook. Manila: Asian Development Bank. Glenn, R. R. Jr. (2009). The supply chain crisis and disaster pyramid: A theoretical framework for understanding preparedness and recovery. International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, 39(7), 619–628. doi:10.1108/09600030910996288 Haas, J. E., Kates, R. W., & Bowden, M. (1977). Reconstruction Following Disaster. Cambridge: MIT Press. Heaslip, G. (2008). Humanitarian aid supply chains . In Mangan, J., Lalwani, C., & Butcher, T. (Eds.), Global Logistics and Supply Chain Management. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. Jahre, M., & Heigh, I. (2008). Does the current constraints in funding promote failure in humanitarian supply chains? Supply Chain Forum, 9(2), 44–54. Kovács, G., & Spens, K. (2009). Identifying challenges in humanitarian logistics. International Journal of Physical Distribution and Logistics Management, 39(6), 506–528. doi:10.1108/09600030910985848 Kovács, G., & Spens, K. M. (2007). Humanitarian logistics in disaster relief operations. International Journal of Physical Distribution and Logistics Management, 29(12), 801–819. Long, D. (1997). Logistics for disaster relief: engineering on the run . IIE Solutions, 29(6), 26–29. Maon, F., Lindgreen, A., & Vanhamme, J. (2009). Developing supply chains in disaster relief operations through cross-sector socially oriented collaborations. Supply Chain Management: An International Journal, 14(2), 149–164. doi:10.1108/13598540910942019 xxi Ozdamar, L., Ekinci, E., & Kucukyazici, B. (2004). Emergency logistics planning in natural disasters . Annals of Operations Research, 129, 217–245. doi:10.1023/B:ANOR.0000030690.27939.39 Pettit, S. J., & Beresford, A. K. C. (2005). Emergency relief logistics: an evaluation of military, non military and composite response models . International Journal of Logistics: Research and Applications, 8(4), 313–332. Rietjens, S. J. H., Voordijk, H., & De Boer, S. J. (2007). Co-ordinating humanitarian operations in peace support missions . Disaster Prevention and Management, 16(1), 56–69. doi:10.1108/09653560710729811 Thomas, A. (2003). Why logistics? Forced Migration Review, 18(Sep), 4. Thomas, A., & Fritz, L. (2006). Disaster Relief, Inc. Harvard Business Review, (Nov): 114–122. Tomasini, R., & Van Wassenhove, L. (2009). Humanitarian Logistics. Palgrave MacMillan. doi:10.1057/9780230233485 Tomasini & van Wassenhove review of cases Whiting, M. (2009). Chapter 7: Enhanced civil military cooperation in humanitarian supply chains, In: Gattorna (ed), Dynamic Supply Chain Management, Gower Publishing, Surrey, England, pp. 107-122. KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Disaster: A disaster is “a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving widespread human, material, economic or environmental losses and impacts, which exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources” (UN/ISDR 2009). This definition is also used by WHO and EM-DAT. Disasters can be natural or man-made, as well as complex emergencies (combining a man-made and a natural disaster). Synonyms: emergency, calamity, catastrophe, disruption, conflict. Disaster Relief: Encompasses humanitarian activities in the phases of disaster preparedness, immediate response and reconstruction. But, if not specified otherwise in a chapter, disaster relief can be seen as synonymous with activities in the immediate response phase. Synonyms: emergency relief, humanitarian aid, humanitarian assistance. Synonyms for disaster relief phases: preparation, planning, prevention / recovery, restoration, rehabilitation. The phases do not need to be seen in a sequential manner as activities from different disaster relief phases can run in parallel, and activities can also be linked to each other in a cyclical manner. Humanitarian Logistics: “The process of planning, implementing and controlling the efficient, cost-effective flow and storage of goods and materials, as well as related information, from point of origin to point of consumption for the purpose of meeting the end beneficiary’s requirements” (Thomas and Mizushima, 2005, p.60). Synonyms as used in this book: emergency relief logistics, relief logistics, disaster relief logistics, humanitarian operations, catastrophe logistics. Humanitarian Organization: An organization that manages the delivery of aid to beneficiaries, following humanitarian principles. “Humanitarian organization” is an umbrella term for non-governmental organizations and aid agencies regardless of their mandate or organizational structure. Aid can be delivered by the humanitarian organization or through (implementing) partners. xxii Logistics vs. Supply Chain Management: In this book we adhere to CSCMP’s definitions of logistics vs. supply chain management (CSCMP, 2006). Note that activities such as warehousing, purchasing etc. are included in the definition of logistics. We also follow the view of a supply chain extending beyond a dyad, as laid out in the author guidelines of Supply Chain Management: an International Journal (SCM:IJ, 2010). Relief Supply Chain Management: Encompasses the planning and management of all activities related to material, information and financial flows in disaster relief. Importantly, it also includes co-ordination and collaboration with supply chain members, third party service providers, and across humanitarian organizations. Synonyms: humanitarian supply chain, humanitarian supply chain management. However, relief supply chain management does not include the development aid aspect of humanitarian logistics. 1 Chapter 1 Strategic Partners and Strange Bedfellows: Relationship Building in the Relief Supply Chain Paul D. Larson University of Manitoba, Canada ABSTRACT This chapter is about relationship building in relief supply chains. Its primary purpose is to present and discuss the author’s actor-based typology of humanitarian relationships. The framework includes relationships among NGOs, as well as between NGOs and UN agencies, military units, and business firms. Examples are used to explore unique issues in the various types of relationships. One particular NGO, Airline Ambassadors International, is offered as an example of an NGO that builds relationships with a wide variety of humanitarian actors. The chapter also examines compatibility and complementarity of organizations across the three phases of humanitarian work: preparation, response, and recovery or development. Research opportunities are discussed in the concluding comments. INTRODUCTION At 4:53 p.m. January 12, 2010, an earthquake of over 7.0 on the Richter scale hit Haiti. It struck 17 km. south-west of Port-au-Prince, the capital city, in an area with more than 2 million people. After the earthquake, electricity was unavailable and communications were difficult. According to initial reports, there was wide-spread damage and many casualties. The Port-au-Prince airport could accommodate radio-assisted, line-of-sight landings only. For now, it would be open only for humanitarian assistance flights. All roads to the capital were partially blocked by debris and other obstacles. United Nations agencies and the International Federation of the Red Cross and DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60960-824-8.ch001 Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited. Strategic Partners and Strange Bedfellows Red Crescent Society (IFRC) were preparing to deploy teams and material aid, from a regional hub in Panama (OCHA 2010a). Two days later, access became feasible and needs began to be assessed. The initial priorities included search-and-rescue assistance, as well as teams with heavy-lifting equipment, medical assistance and supplies. Access to people in need remained difficult due to debris and obstacles on the roads. At this point, The United Nations Office of the Coordination for Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) announced: “Logistics and the lack of transport remain the key constraints to the delivery of aid.” Displaced persons were scattered across multiple locations. Temporary shelters were urgently needed. Fifteen sites were identified for distribution of relief items. By the fourth day the World Food Programme (WFP) had reached 13,000 people with food, jerry cans and water purification tablets. The UN Disaster and Assessment Coordination (UNDAC) team and OCHA teams were on the ground in Haiti; and the following announcement was made: “Coordination of assistance is vital” (OCHA 2010b). Like many prior disasters, all over the world, the 2010 Haiti earthquake shows once again that logistics and supply chain management are critical to effective delivery of humanitarian relief. Moreover, supply chain coordination across a wide variety of organizations offering assistance is needed to save as many lives and ease as much suffering as possible, in light of fiscal, material and personnel limits. While logistical considerations are critical, Spring (2006), drawing on information from the Fritz Institute, suggests that humanitarian aid agencies are twenty years behind the large corporations in adopting today’s fundamental tools of logistics and supply chain management. The purpose of this chapter is to discuss a range of relationship issues within humanitarian relief supply chains. The remainder is organized as follows. The second and third sections present a brief contrast of humanitarian logistics vs. business logistics and an abbreviated review of 2 relationship building literature, respectively. This sets the stage for the author’s actor-based typology of humanitarian supply chain relationships, in section IV. Section V discusses relationship building across four phases of humanitarian action, and then section VI provides a summary and conclusions. HUMANITARIAN LOGISTICS VERSUS BUSINESS LOGISTICS According to Pettit and Beresford (2005, p. 314), “There are clear parallels between business logistics and relief logistics, but the transfer of knowledge between the two has been limited and the latter remains relatively unsophisticated.” Kovács and Spens (2007) discuss several important differences between business logistics and humanitarian logistics. While business logisticians work with predetermined actors or partners and predictable demand, humanitarians deal with unknown or changing actors and unpredictable demand. Aid agencies receive many unsolicited and sometimes even unwanted donations, such as: drugs and foods past their expiry dates; laptops needing electricity where infrastructure has been destroyed; and heavy clothing not suitable for tropical regions. Compared to their business counterparts, humanitarian logisticians have greater challenges in collaboration and coordination of effort. Coordination of many different aid agencies, suppliers, and local and regional actors, all with their own ways of operating and own structures can be very challenging. Descriptions of relief operations frequently criticize aid agencies for their lack of collaboration, redundancies, and duplicated efforts and materials. McLachlin, Larson and Khan (2009) offer a framework in which differences between business and humanitarian logistics largely follow from two dimensions: motivation (profit versus not-for-profit) and environment (uninterrupted versus interrupted). In business logistics, actors Strategic Partners and Strange Bedfellows have the profit motive and generally operate in uninterrupted environments. Interrupted operating environments are rare exceptions. To the contrary, in humanitarian logistics, actors are usually not-for-profit organizations and interrupted environments are the norm, especially in the case of disaster relief as opposed to ongoing development aid operations. Thus, the framework (see Table 1) contains four quadrants representing four types of supply chains: (1) for-profit, uninterrupted; (2) for-profit, interrupted; (3) not-for-profit, uninterrupted; and (4) not-for-profit, interrupted. Uninterrupted environments are reasonably stable in terms of political and economic conditions; infrastructure is in place; and all the critical actors (customers, suppliers, service providers and employees) are on the stage. Interrupted environments, on the other hand, are characterized by a lack of stability, greater complexity, and special challenges in matching multiple sources of supply with shifting customer (or recipient) demand. Unlike for-profit firms, not-for-profit (NFP) agencies emphasize social rather than economic objectives. Kleindorfer and Saad (2005) identify two primary categories of supply chain risk: (1) problems in the coordination of supply and demand; and (2) disruptions to normal activities. Supply chain risk analysis is important for humanitarian logistics for at least two reasons. First, supply chain interruptions can cause, or at least contribute to humanitarian crises. Second, humanitarian relief efforts often face multiple risk events simultaneously, including operational sources of risk, “the interruption” t...
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