AGRICULTURE, FOOD AND WATER, INVESTMENT AS A SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
1) IN ECONOMIC ASPECT
2) SOCIAL ASPECT
3)IN ENVIRONMENTAL ASSPECT
Hanna Lakkala & Jarmo Vehmas (editors)
TRENDS AND FUTURE OF SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
Proceedings of the Conference
“Trends and Future of Sustainable Development”
9-10 June 2011, Tampere, Finland
FFRC eBOOK 15/2011
Editors
Hanna Lakkala
M.Sc., Project Coordinator/Researcher
Finland Futures Research Centre, University of Turku
hanna.k.lakkala@utu.fi
Jarmo Vehmas
Ph.D., Regional Manager
Finland Futures Research Centre, University of Turku
jarmo.vehmas@utu.fi
Copyright © 2011 Authors & Finland Futures Research Centre, University of Turku
Revisited 10th October 2013
ISBN
978-952-249-131-2
ISSN
1797-1322
Finland Futures Research Centre
University of Turku
ElectroCity, Tykistökatu 4 B, FI-20014 University of Turku
Korkeavuorenkatu 25 A 2, FI-00130 Helsinki
Yliopistonkatu 58 D, FI-33100 Tampere
Tel. +358 2 333 9530
Fax +358 2 333 8686
utu.fi/ffrc
tutu-info@utu.fi, firstname.lastname@utu.fi
2
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 6
1. SUSTAINABILITY INDICATORS ....................................................................... 8
Grouping and ranking the EU-27 countries by their sustainability performance measured by
the Eurostat sustainability indicators .................................................................................... 9
Francesca Allievi, Jyrki Luukkanen, Juha Panula-Ontto and Jarmo Vehmas
“Walking in other’s shoes” − experiences of using the DECOIN tools to characterise sustainability
trade-offs in Scotland and the Cairngorms National Park ...........................................................21
K.B. Matthews, K.L. Blackstock, K. Buchan, D.G. Miller and M. Rivington
Sustainability criteria and indicators − a tool for strategic urban planning .....................................31
Tarja Söderman, Leena Kopperoinen, Sanna-Riikka Saarela, Vesa Yli-Pelkonen,
Adriaan Perrels, Juhana Rautiainen and Mirka Härkönen
Biorefinery Implementation in Marginal Land − A focus on the multifunctional use of
regional agriculture. ....................................................................................................... 43
Sandra Fahd, Gabriella Fiorentino, Salvatore Mellino, Maddalena Ripa and Sergio Ulgiati
Supporting sustainable development: Using the SMILE toolkit with stakeholders in Scotland ...............55
K.L. Blackstock, K.M. Matthews, K. Buchan, D. Miller, L. Dinnie and M. Rivington
Multi-Scale Integrated Analysis for Sustainable Policies: Romanian Socioeconomic Metabolism ............67
Raluca I. Iorgulescu, Lucian-Liviu Albu and Cristian Stanica
Trends of Finnish MFA and Future Prospects .......................................................................... 77
Jukka Hoffrén
Trends and Driving Factors in Finnish Forest Sector ................................................................. 86
Jukka Hoffrén
2. SUSTAINABILITY IN NORTH-SOUTH PERSPECTIVES ............................................ 95
“Just Begin” A Case Study in Creating Experimental Spaces in a Time of Transition .........................96
Barbara Heinzen
Powering the Future of the Least Developed Countries: World Bank's Role in Developing
Renewable Energy in Laos .............................................................................................. 108
Hanna Kaisti and Mira Käkönen
Developing Tibet into a Special Sustainability Zone of China? ................................................... 126
Tarja Ketola
Copenhagen failure and North-South dynamics ..................................................................... 138
Teea Kortetmäki
The Role of Legislation and Policies in Promoting Ecological Sanitation: Case Zambia ..................... 147
Mia O’Neill
Global governance of water security in agro-food value chains and networks ............................... 159
Suvi Sojamo
3. SUSTAINABLE CONSUMPTION .................................................................... 172
How to revise the concepts of economy ............................................................................. 173
Pekka Mäkelä
3
Towards sustainable society − transforming materialist consumerism ......................................... 185
Arto O. Salonen and Mauri Åhlberg
Maximum and minimum consumption − two-dimensional approach in defining a decent
lifestyle ..................................................................................................................... 202
Michael Lettenmeier, Satu Lähteenoja, Tuuli Hirvilammi, Kristiina Aalto and Senja Laakso
4. SUSTAINABILITY AND THE SOCIETY............................................................. 213
A conceptual framework for life cycle thinking in transitions toward sustainable waste
management ............................................................................................................... 214
David Lazarevic, Nicolas Buclet and Nils Brandt
Land use for bioenergy production − assessing the production potentials and the assumptions
of EU bioenergy policy ................................................................................................... 230
Francesca Allievi and Jenny Turunen
5. SUSTAINABLE CULTURE........................................................................... 239
Drivers and Barriers to Sustainable Development: A Historical-Futures Perspective (Case Study) ........ 240
Marcus Bussey, R.W.(Bill) Carter, Jennifer Carter, Robert Mangoyana, Julie Matthews,
Denzil Nash, Jeannette Oliver, Russell Richards, Anne Roiko, Marcello Sano, Tim Smith,
Dana Thomsen and Estelle Weber
Measuring Environmental Sustainability among Universities ...................................................... 253
Maryam Faghihimani
Designing Sustainability Together − Disciplinary competences in transdisciplinary
knowledge building ....................................................................................................... 263
Tatu Marttila
6. SUSTAINABLE ECONOMY .......................................................................... 273
Innovative fiscal policy in the context of sustainability ........................................................... 274
Olivér Kovács
Impact of fiscal policies changes on the budgetary revenues and sustainable economic growth ......... 287
Cristian Nicolae Stanica
Analysing drivers of and barriers to the sustainable development: hidden economy and
hidden migration .......................................................................................................... 295
Lucian-Liviu Albu, Raluca Iorgulescu and Cristian Stanica
Future Trends of Genuine Welfare in Finland ....................................................................... 305
Jukka Hoffrén
7. CORPORATE RESPONSIBILITY .................................................................... 314
Integrating Sustainability into Strategy and Innovation A foresight-inspired systematic approach
for businesses .............................................................................................................. 315
Bernhard Albert
Disruptive Innovations at the Bottom of the Pyramid Can they impact on the sustainability
of today’s companies? .................................................................................................... 325
Abayomi Baiyere and Jaspar Roos
Implementation of Total responsibility Management into Corporate Strategy ................................ 337
Štefka Gorenak and Vito Bobek
Stakeholders and Corporate Social Responsibility in Corporate Responsibility Disclosure .................. 349
Marileena Koskela
4
Global dispute on sustainable business: Analysing MNE-stakeholder relationships
in local media texts ...................................................................................................... 359
Hanna Lehtimäki, Johanna Kujala and Anna Heikkinen
Purpose of Sustainability Contractual Clauses ...................................................................... 371
Kateřina Peterková
Disclosure of material CSR information − comparison of the mandatory CSR disclosure systems
for listed companies in the EU and the US ........................................................................... 385
Dániel Gergely Szabó
8. FUTURES METHODS ............................................................................... 400
Need and usefulness for future foresight − Environmental scanning of the rescue services
in Finland: trend analysis and future scenarios 2025+ ............................................................. 401
Esko Kaukonen
The significance of wild cards and weak signals for sustainability – case of water services ............... 410
Ossi A. Heino and Annina J. Takala
9. SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORTATION ............................................................... 423
Delphi on Transport and CO2 Emissions − Finnish Scenarios up to 2050 ........................................ 424
Vilja Varho, Petri Tapio and Laura Joki
Analysing the sustainability of road freight transport − combining multiple sources of information .... 436
Markus Pöllänen and Heikki Liimatainen
Affecting the sustainability innovation acceptance through systematic mapping and
re-employing of actors, the case of a renewable energy project ............................................... 447
Anastasia Tsvetkova, Magnus Gustafsson and Krys Markowski
Small step towards sustainable transport? Media debate over Finnish car tax reform….……………………458
Nina A. Nygrén, Jari Lyytimäki and Petri Tapio
10. SUSTAINABLE ENERGY........................................................................... 468
CO2 economy in the BRIC countries Decomposition analysis of Brazil, Russia, India and China ........... 469
Jyrki Luukkanen, Juha Panula-Ontto, Jarmo Vehmas, Jari Kaivo-oja, Francesca Allievi,
Tytti Pasanen, Petri Tapio and Burkhard Auffermann
Microalgae as a biofuel feedstock: risks and challenges .......................................................... 488
Liandong Zhu and Tarja Ketola
11. SUSTAINABILITY IN DESIGN ..................................................................... 499
Designing sustainable innovations ..................................................................................... 500
K. Christoph Keller
Sustainability Awareness in Design − Bridging the gap between design research and practice ........... 514
Outi Ugas and Cindy Kohtala
Sustainability and industrial design in Finland: barriers and future prospects ............................... 526
Pekka Murto
12. ADDITIONAL PAPERS
Governance and Institutions for Sustainable Agricultural and Rural Development in Bosnia &
Herzegovina............................................................................................................ 538
Sinisa Berjan, Matteo Vittuari and Hamid El Bilali
5
INTRODUCTION
Finland Futures Research Centre’s 13th international conference Trends and Future of Sustainable
Development was held in Tampere, Finland in June 9–10, 2011. Sustainable development is a topic that
has gained importance in local, regional and global scales and requires multidisciplinary and crosssectorial cooperation and sharing of ideas and viewpoints. Environmentally, socially, economically and
culturally sustainable development can only be achieved by encouraging knowledge sharing and
cooperation between various sectors and decision makers.
Finland Futures Research Centre promotes futures oriented research and thinking. Futures studies
include tools for describing possible, probable and desirable variations of the present and drafting
possible images of the future. By exploring the variety of different possibilities, we can come closer to
shaping the future – rather than predicting it. Thus, futures studies can offer valuable tools for the
search of sustainable development paths.
The conference brought together 168 participants from 16 different countries. Four keynote speeches
representing both academia and private sector were invited:
•
Prof. Alan Warde (University of Manchester): “Social Sciences and Sustainable Consumption”
•
Executive Vice President of Corporate Relations and Sustainability Anne Brunila (Fortum
Corporations): “Tomorrows Sustainable Energy Solutions and Urban Living”
•
Prof. Peter Nijkamp (Free University Amsterdam): “Sustainability Challenges to Idyllic
Landscapes”
•
Prof. Richard Aspinall (Macaulay Land Use Research Institute): “Accounting for HumanEnvironmental Relationships: Beyond Ecosystem Assessment”
In addition, 32 parallel sessions with the following themes were held. Each theme has its own chapter in
this publication.
6
•
Sustainability Indicators
•
Sustainability in North-South Perspectives
•
Sustainable Consumption
•
Sustainability and the Society
•
Sustainable Culture
•
Sustainable Economy
•
Corporate Responsibility
•
Futures Methods
•
Sustainable Transportation
•
Sustainable Energy
•
Sustainability in Design
In addition, an expert panel chaired by Prof. Markku Wilenius discussed “Measurement and
indicators of sustainable development”. The panelists included Prof. Em. Pentti Malaska (Finland
Futures Research Centre), Mr. Oras Tynkkynen (Finnish Parliament), Prof. Sergio Ulgiati (Parthenope
University of Naples) and Prof. Mario Giampietro (Autonomous University of Barcelona).
Hanna Lakkala & Jarmo Vehmas
7
1.
8
SUSTAINABILITY INDICATORS
GROUPING AND RANKING THE EU-27 COUNTRIES BY
THEIR SUSTAINABILITY PERFORMANCE MEASURED
BY THE EUROSTAT SUSTAINABILITY INDICATORS
Francesca Allievi, Jyrki Luukkanen, Juha Panula-Ontto and Jarmo Vehmas
Finland Futures Research Centre
University of Turku
ABSTRACT – This paper presents the results of a sustainability indicator study on the EU-27
countries where the countries are grouped by hierarchical cluster analysis on the basis of their
performance measured with the used sustainability indicators. The used sustainability indicators can
themselves be grouped into social, environmental and economic indicator groups, reflecting the
different “aspects” of sustainability. In the study, indicators in the three groups have also been
calculated into aggregate indicators and the EU-27 countries can be compared and ranked according
to their performance measured by these aggregate indicators.
1. Introduction to the EU-27 case study
This case study was developed within the FP7 project SMILE (Synergies in Multi-scale Inter-Linkages of
Eco-social systems, more information available at: http://www.smile-fp7.eu/ ) and was one of the case
studies designed to assess the sustainability in the EU context from the economic, environmental and
social point of view. Specifically this case study was carried out as part of task 3.7, which requested a
study where EU27 countries are grouped in terms of their sustainability performance, assessed by using
a set of sustainability indicators. These will be described in detail later on. The grouping of the countries
considered is carried out by applying hierarchical cluster analysis to the selected indicators.
Sustainability performance is evaluated also through the calculation of aggregate indicators for the
different dimensions of sustainability, so that it is possible to rank the countries in terms of their
performance.
The aim of this paper is therefore to present both the methodology used and the results of this
cluster analysis and of the aggregate indicators created.
9
2. Material and methods
2.1. The Eurostat sustainability indicator data set
The Eurostat Sustainable Development Indicators (SDIs) are used to monitor the EU sustainable
Development Strategy (EU SDS). This set is constituted by more than 100 indicators divided into subthemes, such as Demographic changes, Climate change and energy, Sustainable transport and Social
inclusion (Eurostat, 2011).
Of these 19 indicators were selected according to their relevance for each of the sustainability
dimensions considered in this study. They will be described in paragraphs 2.4.1, 2.4.2 and 2.4.3.
2.2. Cluster analysis as a method of grouping EU-27 countries
Cluster analysis is used in many disciplines for different purposes, but with the same aim of creating
groups; cluster analysis is an umbrella-term for different algorithms that generate groups of statistical
cases whose members are similar to other members of the same group on the basis of a certain criteria.
The basic data needed as input for the cluster analysis is thus a matrix X containing the variable values
for each of the objects under investigation, which in the present work correspond to the EU27 countries,
that is
x11
x 21
X =
:
x
n1
x12
x 22
...
...
xn 2
...
x1 p
x2 p
:
x np
The purpose of cluster analysis in this case is thus to group the countries, represented by the n rows
of X, according to similarities (or proximities) reported in the p columns of X, which in our case are the
values for each of the indicators considered.
Different methods are available to proceed with the analysis, but in the case of hierarchical
agglomerative clustering, which is used in this study, the classification consists of a series of partitions
of the data where the first consists of n single-members clusters, while the last is made by a single group
containing all n individuals: at each step individuals or groups of individuals which are closest are fused
together (Everitt, 1993).
As the indicators included in this analysis were of various natures, the cluster analysis was executed
on the normalized distance matrices of the indicators. Thus, before proceeding with the cluster analysis
the distance matrix of each indicator had to be calculated and the distances normalized.
However, since the indicators were of different measurement scales (years, percentages, kgoe, etc.),
they could be put in the same matrix only after they had been normalized. To compute the distances of
each indicator, the city block distance was used. This distance measure represents the distance between
points in a city road grid and examines the absolute differences between the coordinates of a pair of
10
n
objects, i.e. countries. The city block distance is calculated as:
dij = ∑ xik − x jk
k =1
. The entries of the
obtained distance matrix were then normalized by dividing them by the maximum value of the distance
matrix.
2.3. Scoring and ranking
The countries analyzed in this study were scored according to their sustainability performance measured
with the selected indicators. For each indicator a weight and a ranking logic were selected. The weight
measures the relative importance of the indicator in respect to the other indicators in the same
dimension, and it also determines the maximum scoring points available from that indicator, i.e. the
points given to the best performing country measured by the indicator. The ranking logic determines if
the smallest or greatest value of the indicator is seen as the best performance: normal ranking logic
implies a higher score for a greater value, while reversed ranking logic implies a higher score for a
smaller value.
For each indicator, the best performing country was given the number of points equal to the weight
of the indicator, while the worst performing country was given a score of zero; the other countries
received a linearly scaled score according to their relative performance in respect to the best performing
country.
The normalized total score indicates the country’s performance measured by the selection of
sustainability indicators in comparison to the overall best performing country in the EU-27 group. This
analysis does not give a picture of the development of performance over time, only the performance of
the EU-27 countries in relation to each other.
2.4. Indicator and relative weight selection
2.4.1. Social dimension indicators
Weight
Ranking logic
Indicator
4
2
4
4
4
Reversed
Normal
Reversed
Reversed
Reversed
Total longterm
unemployment
rate (%)
Life
expectancy at
age 65 for
males
Suicide death
rate (crude
death rate per
300 000
persons)
Persons with
low
educational
attainment (%)
Early schoolleavers (%)
Total long-term unemployment rate (%): this indicator was selected for its relevance in the
context of social sustainability. Unemployment is known to go hand in hand with a number of other
social problems. A weight of 4 was chosen as it is the only indicator relative to the working conditions
which is present in this analysis.
11
Life expectancy at 65 for males (years): life expectancy at 65 gives a view to the general health of
the population as well as the health care system. Life expectancy for males displays more variance than
female (or total) life expectancy and was therefore selected.
Suicide death rate (crude death rate per 300 000 persons): this indicator was chosen as a proxy
indicator of the happiness of the population. The suicide death rate of three age classes (15-19 years, 5054 years and over 85 years) were summed up so to calculate the “total suicide death rate” for each
country.
Persons with low educational attainment (%): education was considered as a very relevant
aspect of sustainability within the social dimension, thus a weight of 4 was given to this indicator. Data
was adequately available only from 2000 onwards.
Early school leavers (%): for the same reason presented above, also this indicator received a
weight equal to 4. Data was adequately available only from 2000 onwards.
2.1.2 Environmental dimension indicators
Weight
Ranking logic
Indicator
Weight
Ranking logic
Indicator
2,5
4
2,5
2,5
3
Reversed
Normal
Reversed
Reversed
Reversed
Final energy
consumption
of road
transport
(TOE/capita)
Renewable
energy (% gross
electricity
consumption)
Municipal
waste
generated
(kg/capita)
Motorization
rate
(number of
cars per 1000
people)
Emissions of
particulate
matter from
road transport
(kg per capita)
1,5
Reversed
Emissions of
acidifying
substances (kg
per capita)
1,5
2,5
Reversed
Reversed
Emissions of
ozone
Domestic
precursors (kg
Material
of ozoneConsumption
forming
(tonnes/capita)
potential /
capita)
1,5
Normal
Area under
organic
farming (% of
utilized
agricultural
area)
Final energy consumption of road transport (toe/capita): this indicator was selected to
describe the transportation pattern of the countries considered. As there are also two other indicators
dealing with road transport, a weight of 2,5 was chosen.
Renewable energy (% in total energy consumption): being the only indicator relative to the use of
renewable energy in this set, it was given a weight equal to 4.
Municipal waste (Kg/capita): Municipal waste indicates a strain on the environment that a
consuming population cannot easily export to other statistical geographic entities and is for this reason a
well suited indicator of sustainability at the local level when compared to, for example, heavy industry
emissions. A weight of 2,5 was chosen for this indicator as it is relevant, but gives no indication of the
waste treatment typology.
12
Motorization rate (number of cars/ 1000 people): this indicator was selected because of its
relevance in describing the transportation habits of a country. As there are also two other indicators
dealing with road transport, a weight of 2,5 was chosen.
Emissions of PM from road transport (kg/capita): This indicator was considered relevant in
assessing the pollution deriving from the transportation sector. As there are also two other indicators
dealing with road transport, a weight of 3 was chosen. This indicator can be criticized on the grounds
that the average population densities of EU27 countries differ greatly.
Emissions of acidifying substances (kg/capita): together with the other two indicators relative
to pollution, it assesses the air quality of the countries considered. A problem with industry emissions is
that production of consumer goods is global and an economy consuming products of industries
producing acidifying substances might not be the same statistical geographic entity. A weight of only 1,5
was chosen, as it is difficult to estimate the emissions deriving from industries established abroad
(especially in Asia) by EU countries.
Emissions of ozone precursors (kg/capita): the same description of the previous indicator is
valid.
Domestic Material Consumption (tonne/capita): this indicator was chosen because it assesses
the amount of material used by an economy. For this indicator data was adequately available only from
2000 onwards.
Area under organic farming (% of utilized agricultural area): this indicator was selected in order
to give information concerning the consumers’ demand for organic produce. For this indicator data was
adequately available only from 2000 onwards.
2.1.3. Economic dimension indicators
Weight
Ranking logic
2
3
3
2
3
Normal
Reversed
Normal
Reversed
Normal
General
government
gross debt
GDP per capita
in Purchasing
Power
Standards
(PPS) (EU-27 =
100)
Energy
dependency
Total
employment
rate (%)
Indicator
Total R&D
expenditure
(%of GDP)
Total R&D expenditure (% of GDP): this indicator was selected for its relevancy in evaluating the
willingness of a government to invest in research and development, as well as the amount of money
available for that. However, a weight of only 2 was chosen because the added sustainability largely
depends on what type of R&D activities derive from these investments.
General government gross debt (% of GDP): this indicator was selected to give information
concerning the financial health of the governments in the EU countries. As it is considered quite relevant
to assess the economic prosperity, a weight equal to 3 was given.
13
GDP per capita (PPS with EU27=100): this is the most direct measure of economic prosperity,
thus a weight of 3 was given.
Energy dependency (% of consumption): this indicator was selected to evaluate the selfsufficiency of a country in energy terms. The sustainability level depends on what kind of energy is
imported
Total employment rate (%): this is another straightforward measure of the financial health of a
country, thus a weight of 3 was selected.
Time series from 1996 to 2006 was selected, but the best data coverage was between 1997 and 2005.
In the case of missing values, data was imputed through the use of, average, backcasting or forecasting
formulas, depending on the specific case. The threshold of data imputation was set to 15%: if more than
this share of data was missing for a specific year, that indicator was excluded from the analysis.
3. Results
3.1. Cluster analysis results
Figure 1.
Results for the cluster analysis within each dimension for year 2005
In Figure 1 above are reported the results of the hierarchical agglomerative clustering carried out on
the EU-27 countries for the three dimensions of sustainability for the year 2005. Each color denotes a
different cluster.
The clusters described here were obtained by choosing the point of the dendogram with the longest
distance between two consequent iterations. The dendogram was derived using the statistical analysis
program SPSS, by running the hierarchical clustering process on the distance matrixes described
previously.
In the Social Dimension the clusters formed are the following:
Cluster 1: Estonia, Latvia, Hungary, Lithuania
Cluster 2: Poland, Slovakia
Cluster 3: Czech Republic, Slovenia, Bulgaria, Romania
Cluster 4: Denmark, Finland, Sweden, Austria, France, Germany
Cluster 5: Ireland, United Kingdom, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Belgium, Greece, Cyprus
Cluster 6: Malta, Portugal
14
Cluster 7: Italy, Spain
As can be understood from the clusters above, there is a clear distinction between the developing
economies and countries such as Germany, UK and France which fall in two separate - but close clusters. Another cluster is made of the Mediterranean countries: Malta, Portugal, Cyprus and Greece,
with Italy and Spain very close as well.
In the case of the Environmental Dimension, the clusters obtained are the following:
Cluster 1: Estonia, Greece, Czech Republic, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain, Belgium, Italy, Sweden
Cluster 2: Hungary, Lithuania, France, United Kingdom, Germany, Netherlands, Malta
Cluster 3: Poland, Slovakia, Romania, Bulgaria, Latvia
Cluster 4: Cyprus, Ireland
Cluster 5: Denmark, Finland, Austria
Outlier: Luxembourg
In this dimension the clusters appear more varied than in the social dimension. The distinction
between developing economies and richer countries is not that clear anymore in the clusters. This is
especially evident in Cluster 1 and 2, which group countries very different among themselves.
Luxembourg is completely separated from all the other countries and remains an outlier until the last
iteration.
For the Economic Dimension the clusters are the following:
Cluster 1: Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Bulgaria, Romania, Poland, Hungary, Slovakia
Cluster 2: Cyprus, Portugal, Greece, Italy, Malta
Cluster 3: Czech Republic, Slovenia, Ireland, Spain
Cluster 4: Austria, Germany, France, Belgium
Cluster 5: Netherlands, United Kingdom, Finland, Sweden
Outliers: Denmark, Luxembourg
In the case of the Economic Dimension, it appears that the developing economies end up mostly in
Cluster 1, Mediterranean countries in Cluster 2 and the bigger economies in Cluster 4 and Cluster 5.
Luxembourg is again an outlier, together with Denmark.
It is important to note that each dimension presents a different set of groups, so there is no evident
cohesion in the grouping of the countries for the three thematic areas. This underlines how important it
is to keep this distinction when analyzing sustainability at the national level, as it cannot be assumed
that the behavior in one dimension will be replicated in the other two as well.
3.2. Ranking results
In this chapter the ranking results are presented for each dimension and for the years 1997 and 2005.
15
3.2.1. Social dimension
Cyprus
Sw eden
Denmark
Netherlands
Austria
United Kingdom
Germany
Czech Republic
Luxembourg
Greece
Finland
Country
Poland
France
Romania
Slovenia
Belgium
Ireland
Portugal
Italy
Estonia
Slovakia
Malta
Spain
Latvia
Lithuania
Bulgaria
Hungary
2
0
10
8
6
4
12
14
Score
Figure 2.a.
Ranking results for the social dimension in 1997
Sw eden
United Kingdom
Denmark
Cyprus
Ireland
Finland
Netherlands
Austria
Luxembourg
Belgium
Czech Republic
Country
Greece
Slovenia
Germany
France
Italy
Poland
Romania
Spain
Latvia
Estonia
Slovakia
Lithuania
Hungary
Bulgaria
Malta
Portugal
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Score
Figure 2.b.
Ranking results for the social dimension in 2005
Figure 2.a shows the ranking and the scores for the social dimension in 1997. Cyprus is the best
performing country in the EU27 group. It performs well when measured by the selected social dimension
indicators by having very low unemployment, low suicide rate and high life expectancy at 65. When
measured by the education related indicators Cyprus does not perform as well. Data for early school
leavers was sufficiently available only from 2000 onward, so it is missing from 1997 year ranking.
16
The northwestern European cluster is also performing well in the social dimension, having moderate
to high scores in suicide, unemployment and life expectancy indicators and high scores in education
indicators. The eastern European cluster appears to be performing very well when measured by the
educational indicators, but poorly with the other indicators.
As shown in Figure 2.b, the ranking by social indicators for the year 2005 is mostly the same. The
difference in scores between eastern European cluster and the northwestern cluster have become
smaller. Portugal’s relative performance has worsened greatly.
3.2.2. Environmental dimension
Latvia
Romania
Slovakia
Portugal
Austria
Lithuania
Poland
Sw eden
Greece
Hungary
Bulgaria
Country
Malta
Czech Republic
Netherlands
Spain
Estonia
France
Italy
Belgium
Finland
Ireland
Germany
Slovenia
United Kingdom
Denmark
Cyprus
Luxembourg
0
4
2
8
6
10
14
12
16
Score
Figure 3.a.
Ranking results for the environmental dimension in 1997
Latvia
Romania
Slovakia
Sw eden
Poland
Czech Republic
Lithuania
Austria
Portugal
Italy
Hungary
Country
Greece
Germany
Netherlands
France
United Kingdom
Bulgaria
Slovenia
Malta
Estonia
Denmark
Finland
Belgium
Spain
Ireland
Luxembourg
Cyprus
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
Score
Figure 3.b.
Ranking results for the environmental dimension in 2005
17
As can be seen in Figure 3.a, countries in the eastern European cluster perform very well in the
environmental dimension with the selected set of indicators by having low energy consumption of road
transport and generating little municipal waste and emissions, and also by having a relatively low
motorization rate. From the northwestern European cluster Sweden is performing best, by having
average emissions and municipal waste generation and a high score in renewable energy use, as other
countries with large hydroelectric reserves do. Indicators that would consider emissions and waste in
relation to the wealth generated in the economy could give very different results and ranking.
Figure 3.b shows the total score of the environmental dimension for year 2005. The eastern
European countries are still scoring high on many indicators, but the upward trend in the standard of
living has made the difference between western and Eastern Europe in environmental dimension scores
grow smaller.
3.2.3. Economic dimension
Figure 4.a shows the economic dimension total score for the year 1997. For most indicators the
northwestern European countries perform best. Eastern european countries have little government debt
and receive high scores when measured with that indicator. Southern Europe performs quite poorly with
all indicators.
United Kingdom
Denmark
Luxembourg
Sweden
Netherlands
Czech Republic
Finland
Germany
Austria
France
Slovenia
Country
Estonia
Poland
Romania
Portugal
Lithuania
Ireland
Latvia
Cyprus
Slovakia
Belgium
Spain
Hungary
Malta
Italy
Greece
Bulgaria
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Score
Figure 4.a.
18
Ranking results for the economic dimension in 1997
Denmark
Sweden
Luxembourg
United Kingdom
Finland
Netherlands
Ireland
Estonia
Austria
Slovenia
Czech Republic
Country
Germany
France
Latvia
Lithuania
Spain
Romania
Portugal
Cyprus
Belgium
Slovakia
Bulgaria
Poland
Hungary
Greece
Italy
Malta
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Score
Figure 4.b.
Ranking results for the economic dimension in 2005
Figure 4.b shows the total score for economic dimension for the year 2005. It can be noted that
differences between EU27-countries’ relative performance have become much greater and Denmark’s
superior performance is even more pronounced than in 1997.
4. Discussion and Conclusions
As can be seen from what was presented here, this analysis should be considered solely as an example of
what can be done to study sustainability in EU27 countries with the data currently available. Lack of data
has been the major problem in this study and the final set used implied a relevant amount of data
imputation. For the same reason certain indicators which would have given an interesting contribute to
the analysis, had to be left out (i.e. gender pay gap). This issue therefore limits the wideness of the
indicators set and should be one of the main points to be taken into account when evaluating the final
results.
The final results, especially the ranking, depend also on the choices made in the selection of the
related weights, which are in the end arbitrary. In order to see the effects of a different selection, the tool
created for this purpose can be used and new results can be obtained rather quickly. Results of different
assumptions should be then compared to evaluate their consistency.
Further developments of this study could include a deeper sensitivity analysis, for example through
the use of different cluster analysis and ranking techniques, and the comparison of the obtained results.
If forecasted data was available, it would also be possible to carry out the same analysis for future years,
thus contributing to the creation of possible scenarios and future planning.
The comprehensive set of results and data used is available on an excel file available on the SMILE
website (http://www.smile-fp7.eu/).
19
References
Eurostat (2011) Eurostat sustainable development indicators,
http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/sdi/indicators, retrieved 4.5.2011.
Everitt, B.S., 1993. Cluster Analysis, third ed. Arnold, London.
20
“WALKING IN OTHER’S SHOES” – EXPERIENCES OF
USING THE DECOIN TOOLS TO CHARACTERISE
SUSTAINABILITY TRADE-OFFS IN SCOTLAND AND THE
CAIRNGORMS NATIONAL PARK
K.B. Matthews, K.L. Blackstock, K. Buchan, D.G. Miller and M. Rivington
The James Hutton Institute Institute, Craigiebuckler, Aberdeen, AB15 8QH,
k.matthews@macaulay.ac.uk
ABSTRACT − The paper presents the experiences of using two of the DECOIN tools, SUMMA
(Sustainability Multi-criteria Multi-scale Assessment) and MuSIASEM (Multi-Scale Integrated
Analysis Societal Ecosystem Metabolism), to characterise sustainability trade-offs in Scotland and the
Cairngorms National Park (CNP). The paper reflects on the theoretical basis of the two tools that
provide for complex eco-social systems a coherent conceptual and methodological framework within
which to understand better sustainability trade-offs. Translating theory into practice, particularly
using tools and methods developed by others, however, remains a challenge. The paper reports the
progress of the analysis of changes in the sustainability of the agriculture sector (1991 to 2007 using
SUMMA) and for the wider economy (2005-2009 using MuSIASEM) for Scotland and the CNP.
Approaches to the communication of SUMMA and MuSIASEM outputs for stakeholder audiences are
also presented. The paper concludes that the DECOIN tools have significant utility in conducting
theoretically coherent, practical for implementation and policy relevant assessments of sustainability
trade-offs but that “walking in others shoes” is not always comfortable.
1. Introduction
The Synergies in Multi-Level Inter-Linkages in Eco-social Systems (SMILE) 1 project seeks to further
develop and apply the DECOIN 2 tool kit. This toolkit consists of three models: SUMMA (Sustainability
Multi-criteria Multi-scale Assessment); MuSIASEM (Multi-Scale Integrated Analysis Societal Ecosystem
Metabolism) and ASA (Advanced Sustainability Analysis). The ambition of the SMILE project is to
combine these tools into a system of sustainability accounting that provides useful insights into the
dynamics of the sustainability of complex coupled eco-social systems (Giampietro et al. 2009).
1
2
http://www.smile-fp7.eu/
http://www.decoin.eu
21
The authors applied both the SUMMA and MuSIASEM tools in a case study focused on the
Cairngorms National Park (CNP). The objectives of the research were to test the utility for end-users
and transferability of the DECOIN tools beyond their development teams and applications. This is
reported in Blackstock et al. (in this proceeding). The case-study also tried to assess the role of economic
growth in achieving sustainability objectives and the trade-offs between sustainability objectives. This
paper reports progress made towards these objectives and highlights the strengths and weaknesses of
the DECOIN tools.
The SUMMA and MuSIASEM tools take complementary but distinct approaches to the
characterisation of the sustainability of eco-social systems. SUMMA is a life-cycle oriented assessment
of the economic-environmental performance of a system. SUMMA uses multiple metrics to characterise
system performance. SUMMA considers both the upstream draw on resources and the downstream
consequences of waste. MuSIASEM is a conceptual approach to assessing overall performance and
performance of components of a system. MuSIASEM incorporates human activity, value added, energy
use and land, without resorting to a weightings based normalisation to a single unit of measure.
Combined together as defined by the MuSIASEM “grammar” these dimensions provide a coherent and
systemic characterisation using indicators of stocks and flows of resources.
A key feature of SUMMA and MuSIASEM is the multi-scale nature of the analysis. This allows the
explicit comparison of overall performance and of components, be they sectors or geographically defined
regions. This can be highly informative as the “averages” of higher level performance may be made up of
very distinctive elements, such that policy or other interventions based on the averages may be entirely
inappropriate.
In both SUMMA and MuSIASEM the extent and intensity of resource use is
simultaneously considered.
This is essential to ensure that improvements in efficiency are not
eliminated by a rebound in consumption (Jevon’s paradox).
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Case-studies
The Cairngorms National Park was created as a result of the National Park (Scotland) Act in 2003. It is
home to approximately 16,000 human residents as well as significant protected habitats and species.
National Parks in Scotland are explicitly required to achieve ‘sustainable development’. Therefore, they
are not ‘wilderness reserves’ but fit the IUCN category V (protected landscape). With partners at
Parthenope University it was decided that the SUMMA based analysis would focus on the productionoriented land-based industries (PoLbI) (agriculture, forestry and sporting estates). The importance of
the sector has been variously argued from minimal (gross value added), to marginal (employment), to
important (downstream environmental impacts) and finally as crucial (landscape/character of the
region). The focus on PoLbI played to the strengths of the authors and built on a tested SUMMA model
for the agricultural sector in Campania (Ulgiati et al. 2008). For the MuSIASEM analysis the case study
undertook analyses at Scotland wide level, local authority level and for the CNP as a whole. The analyses
considered societal averages, the paid work and industry based sub-sectors. The MuSIASEM case-study
followed existing published approaches (Giampietro 2004;Giampietro and Mayumi 2000).
22
2.2. Methods
Figure illustrates the key stages in the case study analysis. For more in-depth description of the
materials and methods see the relevant SMILE deliverables 1. The key challenges in undertaking the
analyses were familiarisation with the DECOIN methods (WP2), agreeing a scope with the CNPA
through the systems diagramming activity (WP2) and sourcing and integrating the required datasets
(WP3). SUMMA is demanding in terms of its data requirements (>250 input values for each of the three
time periods). While with MuSIASEM it is possible to progressively step into the degree of detailed
required, there were many challenges of incompatible sectoral classifications and units of spatial
collection.
Several of these could be overcome by accessing more detailed datasets, but energy
throughput datasets were limiting both in terms of spatial resolution and length of time series available,
(only from 2005). For land use there are multiple sources but their integration (beyond the agricultural
sector) is limited. Indeed it was not possible to complete the within-CNP land use analysis within the
scope of SMILE.
WP4
WP2
CNP
CNPA
DECOIN
D23
D16
D30
Data
WP3
D29
WP5
D28
with
with
he
tools
other
actions
and
cales
occur
amiliarization
or
nd
the
trade
at
different
offs
economic
Systems
processes
Diagramming
Diagrams
Scoping
Setting
How
synergies
Up
Thematic
Utility
Comparative
Case
(this
Study
document|)
report
Analyses
Report
the
Analyses
with
ocial/policy
if
sing
data
the
available)
Role
of
policy
and
Gathering
objectives
chieving
rowth
in
multiple
-&
Modifying
the
nterfacing
WP4
WP2
CNP
CNPA
DECOIN
D23
D16
D30
Data
WP3
D29
WP5
D28
with
with
he
tools
other
actions
and
cales
Role
of
economic
occur
amiliarization
or
nd
the
trade
at
different
offs
Systems
processes
Diagramming
Diagrams
Scoping
Setting
How
synergies
Up
Thematic
Utility
Comparative
Case
(this
Study
document|)
report
Analyses
Report
the
Analyses
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ocial/policy
if
sing
data
the
available)
policy
and
Gathering
objectives
chieving
rowth
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-&
Modifying
the
nterfacing
Figure 1.
Scotland case study activities and deliverables.
3. Results
Within this paper it is only possible to present examples of the key types of outputs used in
communications with stakeholders at CNPA, not to summarise all the outputs generated 2.
1
2
www.macaulay.ac.uk/SMILE
See www.macaulay.ac.uk/SMILE for more comprehensive examples.
23
3.1. SUMMA examples
Emissions are a key issue for land use in Scotland. The extent of emissions tonnages for ScotAG and
CNPAG relative to the baseline year (1991) is presented in Figure. Note that to assess the GHG potential
for each of the tonnages presented they need to be converted to tonnes of CO2 equivalent. In terms of
CO2 it can be seen that for both the CNP and Scotland there is an increase in the emissions from 1991 to
2001 followed by a decrease to below 1991 values by 2007. This reflects a process of intensification
based on the structure of agricultural subsidies that was reversed after 2003. For methane and nitrous
oxide the pattern is of a reduction from 1991 but with less reduction after 2001.
1.10
CO2
1.10
1.00
CH4
0.90
1.00
CH4
CO
0.80
0.70
0.70
N2O
NOx
PM10
Figure 2.
CO
0.90
0.80
CNP1991
CO2
N2O
PM10
SO2
CNP2001
NOx
CNP2007
Sco1991
SO2
Sco2001
Sco2007
Total Emissions from ScotAG and CNPAG 1991-2007
The relative pattern of emissions for CNPAG and ScotAG have strong similarities in terms of the
overall shape of the spider plots. Scotland has a stronger increase by 2001 in CO2, NOx, SO2 and PM10’s
associated with more mechanised sectors of agriculture, but also a greater reduction (by 2007), perhaps
reflecting a greater reduction in intensity in more remote rural areas pulling down the overall Scotland
totals.
Comparing CNPAG and ScotAG also provides useful information about the different nature of their
production systems. Figure presents the relative emissions intensities for CNPAG and ScotAG for each of
the indicators for 2007 (earlier patterns are consistent but with minor variations). The emissions per ha
shows the CNPAG as a very low intensity system (less so in terms of CO2 but still low) compared with an
overall ScotAG average. In terms of emissions per kg of dry matter and per Mj of embodied energy the
CNPAG system can be seen to be relatively inefficient since it requires up to six times emissions to
generate a comparable output. This reflects the marginal nature of the bio-physical resource available to
land managers within the park (in terms of production). This lack of efficiency, is though, offset by the
higher value per unit of production so that emission per € are three rather than six times the ScotAG
average.
24
Emissions per ha - 2007
CH4
N2O
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
-
Emissions per kg dry matter - 2007
CO2
6.00
CO
NOx
CNP2007
Figure 3.
SO2
CNP2007
Sco2007
Sco2007
Emissions per € - 2007
CO2
PM10
NOx
PM10
Emissions per Mj - 2007
N2O
CO
-
N2O
SO2
CNP2007
CH4
4.00
CH4
2.00
PM10
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
-
CO2
3.00
CO
CO2
2.00
CH4
CO
1.00
NOx
SO2
Sco2007
-
N2O
PM10
CNP2007
NOx
SO2
Sco2007
Emissions intensities for CNPAG relative to ScotAG in 2007
3.2. MuSIASEM examples
The combination of Exosomatic Metabolic Rate (mj/hr of activity, EMR) and Economic Labour
Productivity (£/hr of activity, ELP) is a particularly useful compound indicator of the sustainability
trajectory. This combined analysis reveals complex systems behaviour in terms of trajectories and
groups of the regions that can be considered together. Two versions are presented: the societal average
and paid work.
Figure presents the societal average EMR/ELP trajectories. Overall there is a pattern of increasing
ELPSA with (in nearly all cases) no increase in EMRSA. There is a distinctive pattern to the trajectories,
with increases in ELPSA between 2005 and 2007 followed by stagnation (or even decline). For EMRSA
the pattern is of either consistent reduction or fairly constant values (2005 to 2007) followed by
reductions (2007 to 2009). For regions with lower values for ELPSA the increases in ELP are smaller and
in some cases the reductions in EMR are significant (e.g. Clackmannanshire and Fife perhaps reflecting
further deindustrialisation). Contrast this with the main population centres (Edinburgh, Glasgow and
Aberdeen with its hinterland) where there is significant increase in ELPSA combined with reductions in
EMRSA. An overall interpretation from Figure could be that at a societal average level there is a trend to
more sustainable growth (albeit to a limited extent). Societal average indicators, however, contain both
paid work and household sectors that are behaving quite differently.
For the paid work sector the analysis of EMR/ELP has distinct features. It is clear that for some
regions the improved performance for EMR at societal average level is an improvement in the household
25
sector not in the paid work sector as the EMRPW value is near constant (e.g. Edinburgh and Glasgow).
Note that for both these cities despite near static EMR values there has continued to be apparent growth
in ELPPW. also shows the value of combining EMRPW and ELPPW in terms of distinguishing distinctive
clusters of regions with common sustainability characteristics. These clusters include the main cities as
noted above, the Scottish Islands (Orkney, Shetland and Western Isles), city regions (Aberdeen and
Dundee but also the Greater Glasgow area) and regions that retain industry or intensive agriculture
(East and Mid Lothian, Clackmannanshire and Fife, Perth, Kinross and Stirling and Dumfries and
Galloway).
The MuSIASEM fund-flow (FF) diagram is a means of simultaneously presenting the relationship
between a fund (e.g. human activity) and a flow (e.g. energy throughput) and at two scales (e.g. societal
average and paid work, or paid work and sectors of the economy). The FF diagram is helpful in
presenting both the extent (on the axes) and the intensity (on the diagonals) of resource use. Figure
compares the CNP and Scotland for each sector using THA, GVA and ELP. Within each FF figure it is
possible to assess the relative importance of each sector (by size) and the relative efficiency as defined by
the ELP. Comparing FF diagrams the balance of sectors within both regions is apparent. Note that all
the FF diagrams are scaled in both THA and GVA relative to the largest sectors present. This allows
structural comparisons. Note that the shape of the quadrants provides a visual representation of the
balance between THA and GVA. Where the proportions are equivalent the quadrant is a square (e.g.
construction), where longer in the x-axis the sector generates more GVA than its proportion of THA
would predict (e.g. Business, Services and Finance), where longer in the y-axis the sector generates less
GVA than the THA would predict (e.g. Pubic Administration and Services and Retail, Recreation and
Transport).
4. Discussion and Conclusions
The SUMMA analysis found that there have been significant changes in the extent and intensity of
agricultural production and its environmental impacts. Our conclusion is that for the agricultural sector
as a whole there are unavoidable trade-offs between production and environmental impacts and little or
no evidence of synergies, win-wins, dematerialisation or sustainable growth. There is a pattern of
increasing resource use and impact from 1991 to 2001 and a subsequent reduction back to 1991 levels by
2007. This fits well with agricultural policy over the period 1991 to 2007. The high water mark of
intensification was pre the 2003 CAP reforms with subsequent reduction in production on the least
intensive areas. There is little to suggest fundamental changes in the relationships between resource
inputs, the outputs from the system and the environmental load.
The MuSIASEM analysis has shown that there is a complex relationship between economic growth
and the other indicators of sustainability. This complexity is in terms of the distribution (spatial, sectoral
and between social groups) but also in terms of the nature of the growth. In some cases growth simply
means increasing extent with more people supported at the same standard of living. In other cases there
are changes in the intensity (productivity of labour and energy). From within this complexity it has been
possible to begin to identify groupings of regions, their trajectories in terms of growth and the other
indicators and to use these to better understand the overall Scotland level assessment and to
contextualise the CNP.
26
The MuSIASEM results for the CNP are significantly different from the a priori expectations of the
research team. That the CNP has features in common with the cities of Scotland was unexpected. The
importance within the area of tourism and recreation means that the CNP has a significant retail and
recreation sector. The attractiveness of the area (physical environment) also means that there is a larger
than expected business sector with businesses located in the CNP but providing services beyond the park
boundary. That the CNP has a more city-like population distribution, retaining young adults, could
indicate a successful and sustainable rural economy. It could also mean that the CNP supports a
minimum-wage based service economy based on migrant labour. The CNP GVA figure are noted by the
CNPA as being inflated by the distilling industry with the income “leaking” from the Park.
From the MuSIASEM analysis there is little or no evidence of ongoing dematerialisation, that is a
break in the fundamental relationship between energy use and wealth (or at least GVA) generation.
Lower values of EMR simply reflect a post-industrial sectoral mix that has the net effect of exporting the
energy and environmental footprint elsewhere. Given Scotland’s commitment to an 80% cut in
greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 it is difficult to see how this can be achieved with the current
population and/or standard of living, without fundamentally rethinking and reorganising patterns of
production and expectations of consumption.
4.1. Strengths and weaknesses of the tools
SUMMA looks both upstream at the effect of inputs drawn into the system and downstream to the
outputs and wastes. It is thus possible to make explicit judgements on the costs and benefits of a system.
Emergy analysis, particularly the intensity ratios, is effective in providing a high level summary of the
nature of resource use. Time series of SUMMA outputs identify trends and the impacts of key drivers.
Comparison between systems or scales provides an external referent against which to objectively judge
system performance. Where there is an existing SUMMA application the process of use is simpler than
for MuSIASEM. If, however, modifications need to be made, these cannot be easily undertaken by nonexperts. This implies a dependence on the SUMMA developers that can be difficult for them to service.
Consideration should be given to investing in the development of a more modular and reusable SUMMA
tool that is suited to supporting the development of new applications by third parties.
MuSIASEM provides a systematic evaluation of sustainability, linking evaluations of economic
growth to population, energy and land use. The use of a decomposition approach is effective in ensuring
that “average” values are fully understood as being the outcomes of mixes at regional or sectoral level.
The approach is also effective in demonstrating the dependencies between productive and consumptive
sectors. The strongly empirical nature of the MuSIASEM analysis means it is grounded in reality as
perceived by stakeholders. This is effective in making it accessible to stakeholders but MuSIASEM’s
more challenging conceptual basis can be a barrier to credibility. There were significant challenges in
sourcing adequate data to support some of the MuSIASEM analysis despite experience and expertise in
data integration and manipulation. This can lead to undesirable compromise the indicators used (data
shaping the modelling).
Both SUMMA and MuSIASEM are strongest in analysing the links between environment and
economics. They make these analyses in a scientifically coherent fashion, rather than through the use of
ad hoc indicators. Where they perform less well is in including the social and cultural dimension of
27
sustainability. While non-use and existence values have been debated within the SMILE consortium
there still remains a significant intellectual challenge in defining analyses that are salient, credible and
legitimate. Indeed it may be that such social aspects are inherently unsuitable for computer-based
modelling and quantification and need to use mixed methods (incorporating qualitative analysis and
participatory research processes).
4.2. Implications for mainstreaming the use of SUMMA and MuSIASEM
Both SUMMA and MuSIASEM face an implementation gap in terms of being used for policy-making or
management. There are challenges in how to communicate the outputs of the research in a form that is
succinct and accessible but does not lose rigour or oversimplify. Issues raised by stakeholders include
making transparent the assumptions within the input data, demonstrating how the calculations of the
indicators are made and the unfamiliarity of concepts such as emergy. These challenges are doubly
difficult when they question established orthodoxy, both in what is important in policy terms (growth)
and how it is measured and interpreted. There are significant and powerful vested interests that would
be undermined by a more holistic view of sustainability and a more nuanced view of the benefits and
detriments of growth. Mainstreaming will require the undertaking of transdisciplinary research,
including both academics and stakeholders, with the stakeholders having a more formal role in shaping
of research. Such projects ensure the salience of the research and build credibility for the methods and
data through processes of stakeholder peer-review. The authors conclude that SUMMA and MuSIASEM
have significant utility in conducting theoretically coherent, practical for implementation and policy
relevant assessments of sustainability trade-offs but that “walking in others shoes” is not always
comfortable.
References
Giampietro, M. 2004. Multi-scale integrated analysis of agroecosystems Boca Raton, Florida., CRC
Press.
Giampietro, M. & Mayumi, K. 2000. Multiple-scales integrated assessments of societal metabolism:
Integrating biophysical and economic representations across scales. Population and Environment,
22, (2) 155-210
Giampietro, M., Serrano, T., & Sorman, A. 2009, Tool Manual, DECOIN: Development and Comparison
of Sustainability Indicators, Project No 044428, FP6-2005-SSP-5A, Deliverable D4.4 of WP4.
Ulgiati, S., Zucaro, A., Bargigli, S., Franzese, P., Raugei, M., Vehmas, J., Luukkanen, J., Pihaljamaki, M.,
Giampietro, M., Gamboa, G., Lobo, A., Sorman, A., & Waldron, T. 2008, Documentation - User
and client documentation for the DECOIN tools, SMILE: Synergies in Multi-scale Inter-Linkages
of Eco-social systems, Project No 217213, FP7-SSH-2007-1, Deliverable 3 of WP2.
Acknowledgments
This research was funded by EU FP7 SSH project SMILE (Project No. 217213) and by the Scottish
Goverment research programme “Environment: Land Use and Rural Stewardship”.
28
Figure 4.
ELPSA vs. EMRSA for Scotland, CNP & NUTS3 (omitting Falkirk)
29
Figure 5.
30
Fund-Flow analysis of Scotland and CNP by sector using GVA and THA
SUSTAINABILITY CRITERIA AND INDICATORS – A TOOL
FOR STRATEGIC URBAN PLANNING
Tarja Söderman1, Leena Kopperoinen1, Sanna-Riikka Saarela1, Vesa Yli-Pelkonen2,
Adriaan Perrels3, Juhana Rautiainen4 and Mirka Härkönen4
1Finnish
Environment Institute SYKE, Built Environment Unit, Helsinki, Finland
email: firstname.surname@ymparisto.fi
2University of Helsinki, Department of Environmental Sciences, Finland
email: firstname.surname@helsinki.fi
3Government Institute for Economic Research, Helsinki, Finland
email: firstname.surname@vatt.fi
4Sito Group, Espoo, Finland
email: firstname.surname@sito.fi
ABSTRACT – Urban planners work in the midst of many requirements and expectations,
compounded in the need to promote sustainable environment. The process of planning is often hectic,
while the planner lacks tools to assess sustainability of different planning options. To enable this
assessment sustainability criteria and indicators were developed in an inter-disciplinary research
project. Sustainability criteria comprise ecological, social, and economic criteria. The three sets of
criteria together include 85 indicators. The criteria were designed for strategic decision making,
impact assessment, and monitoring in medium sized urban regions in Finland. The indicators have
been tested in two urban regions, Lahti and Oulu.
1. Introduction and Background
Urban planning entails complex compromising between different expectations and challenges. These
include the laws and strategies, which guide and control the planning, the objectives set at different
jurisdictional levels, the requirements of different stakeholders and special challenges related e.g. to
urban sprawl, ageing population, and climate change. The need for sustainable communities and
sustainable development in general has been an important issue in academic forums and environmental
policies for long.
According to the Finnish national strategy on sustainable development (Finnish National
Commission on Sustainable Development, 2006) sustainable communities mean balanced regional
structure, dynamic development rising from individual strengths, functionally diverse and structurally
coherent communities and good living environment, availability of public services, functional transport
system and prevention of social exclusion. Strategies and plans of actions have been made to enhance
sustainable development in numerous municipalities, companies and associations.
A special challenge, however, is to connect sustainable development to regional level planning and
find regional level solutions for the promotion of sustainability. Planning problems demanding regional
31
examination concern e.g. dispersal of urban structure, growing amount of transport, car dependence,
fragmentation of green areas, and competition for tax payers between municipalities. To enable this
assessment sustainability criteria and indicators were developed in an inter-disciplinary research project
called "Sustainable urban land use and transport" (Seutukeke), running from 2008 to 2011. In this
project all three pillars of sustainability – ecological, social, and economic – were examined in functional
urban regions, each containing various municipalities. Sustainability in urban regions implies that
growth and development will not endanger even in a long run biodiversity and ecosystem services
(ecological dimension), well-being of people and social justice (social dimension), and economic
progress (economic dimension).
The criteria were designed to be used for setting of objectives, impact assessment, and monitoring of
land use and transport planning in medium sized urban regions of about 80 000 - 200 000 inhabitants
in Finland. In addition, the indicators can also be used in strategic level planning and decision making.
Another target of the project was to enhance the use of data and analysis methods in planning. A lot of
different datasets, registers and systems with readily usable analysis methods exist in public state and
municipal sources, but little is used because of ignorance, lack of skills, or lack of time. In this project
criteria and indicators were developed according to the best available scientific knowledge connected to
easily available data and methods to enable planning departments in urban regions to carry out the
analyses and calculate the indicators by themselves. Because of the regional perspective spatial GIS data
was used as much as possible to overcome the problem of administrative borders. Examined phenomena
are seldom restricted to administrative borders but form different kind of functional areas. In addition,
functional areas are of different shape and size for different phenomena. In order to compare different
urban regions to each other, the urban region in the Seutukeke project was formed using a uniform
method, according to which it consists of a functional urban region (densely populated areas belonging
to one commuting area) (Ristimäki et al., 2003) and surrounding 10 and 15 km distance zones. These
buffer zones were selected on the basis of the distance from which urban dwellers in Finland mainly
consume cultural ecosystem services in a form of outdoor recreation (Pouta and Heikkilä, 1998).
2. Material and Methods
The work for developing sustainability criteria and indicators for urban regions was started with putting
up an interdisciplinary research team of several research institutes. Leader of the project is the Finnish
Environment Institute which mainly contributed to the ecological criteria and indicators together with
the University of Helsinki/Department of Environmental Sciences, Sito Group, and VTT Technical
Research Centre of Finland. Economic criteria and indicators were developed by Government Institute
for Economic Research and social criteria and indicators by Sito Group and National Institute for Health
and Welfare.
Planning for the criteria was initiated in big workshops where all researchers co-operated to find a
common understanding on the targets and working methods of the project and after that to adjust the
different dimensions of sustainability together to form a concise and unified set of criteria and
indicators. The research group consulted also other researchers and experts when needed to find the
best scientific knowledge for the research. The consulted experts include e.g. landscape planners, ground
and surface water researchers, transport experts, and GIS experts. The project outline and later a draft
32
set of criteria and indicators were presented to stakeholders in seminars. The feedback received in these
was taken into account in further work.
At the beginning of the actual research work the most important criteria for each dimension of
sustainability were formulated. The criteria are expressed as statements describing a desirable state of
affairs. The more general main criteria were further split into sub-criteria expressing more detailed
statements. Finally, exact indicators describing the criteria and sub-criteria were developed. The
development work was based on literature reviews to find out what kind of sustainability indicators have
already been recommended for different levels of administration and what is seen important in scientific
literature. The most promising indicators were collected or new ones developed and their suitability for
urban regions was examined. Suitable ones were thereafter further studied on the basis of available data.
Even very descriptive and good indicators had to be rejected if no data was available or if the data was
very difficult to obtain. During the course of the research work about 200 suitable indicators were
collected but about half of them were later rejected or set aside for the time being because of the
previously mentioned reasons. As a result a set of 15 main criteria, 44 second order criteria, and 85
indicators was formed. Because the different dimensions of sustainability are often linked there
appeared to be a need to include same kind of indicators in two or even in all three sets – economic,
social, and ecological. The preliminary set of criteria was screened so as to remove duplicate indicators,
whereas indicators representing more than one dimension of sustainability were marked. About half of
the indicators appeared to represent more than one dimension, e.g. describe both social and economic
sustainability. Indicators were also marked according to representing climate change or urban structure
related issues.
3. Results
Ecological sustainability
Ecological sustainability has been described and defined in many different ways nationally and
internationally (e.g. Ministry of the Environment, 1999, Secretariat of the Convention on Biological
Diversity, 2000, Euroopan unionin neuvosto, 2006, Commission of the European communities, 2009,
Finnish National Commission on Sustainable Development, 2006) but all definitions of the concept
emphasize the capability of ecosystems of (a) maintaining central functions and processes and (b)
conserving biological diversity in all its forms to present and future generations. The concept is often
connected also to sustainable use of natural resources and diminishing the carbon footprint of
humankind. The Seutukeke perspective on ecological sustainability is strongly linked to land use of
urban regions. Such growth and development of an urban region, which does not endanger biological
diversity and ecosystem services even in the long run, can be regarded as sustainable. Sustainability is
addressed at the scale of an ecologically functional urban region, which is not limited inside the
boundaries of densely populated urban areas, but consists of a continuum of different areas and
functions at wider urban region.
Discussion on dispersing community structure and consolidation as its counterforce, and climate
change mitigation and adaptation, are topical perspectives related to ecologically sustainable land-use.
33
These interlinked themes strongly affect land-use planning and at the same time land-use decisions have
an impact on climate change, although it is more widely also linked to other areas in the society.
In the Seutukeke project, different dimensions of ecological sustainability related to land-use are
being concretized with the ecosystem service approach. Ecosystem services (benefits humans get from
nature) have become a significant topic of discussion and application beside traditional nature
conservation (Millenium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005, Hiedanpää et al., 2010b, Kniivilä et al., 2011),
because such a fresh approach is for instance in Finland seen better in enabling a discussion between
nature conservation and use and management of natural resources (Hiedanpää et al., 2010a). Ecosystem
services are usually classified in provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural services. In the
Seutukeke project, regulating and supporting services are emphasized, because they represent the
central mechanisms and processes for ecosystems to function (Kolström, 2010). An example of such
regulating services is storm water absorption (and via it flood peaks moderation), which is enabled by
vegetation, pervious surface, and soil (Niemelä et al., 2010).
Moreover, cultural ecosystem services, especially recreational services providing possibilities for
outdoor recreation and nature experiences, are significant in urban regions. Cultural services are
produced by natural environments with varying modification levels, built urban parks and rural areas
surrounding cities (Niemelä et al., 2010).
Livelihood in cities is not often directly dependent on ecosystem services as in rural agricultural and
forestry areas, but they significantly affect the living of urban inhabitants and the function of a city as a
physical body of biotic and abiotic environmental factors. Land-use changes in urban regions can
deteriorate ecosystem services by worsening their quality or endangering their very existence in certain
areas. This may have an impact on how urban nature can resist or mitigate adverse phenomena, such as
heat waves, floods and pollution (Colding, 2011). Thus it is essential to preserve enough different kinds
of nature areas in urban regions and cities in order to maintain ecosystem services. In today’s urban
planning and research related to it, the concept Green Infrastructure has been considered as one way to
preserve green areas and ecosystem services.
Although most of the Seutukeke ecological criteria and indicators describe ecosystem services
directly or indirectly, some also refer to other aspects of ecological sustainability. A number of indicators
represent urban structure which is connected e.g. to the use of natural resources and energy for building,
infrastructure, and transport, emissions of air pollutants and carbon dioxide and, by implication, impact
on climate change, and loss of peri-urban productive land. Also the load caused by human activities in
urban region to e.g. surface and groundwater is examined through parameters indicating the quality of
water and risk assessment of groundwater areas.
Ecological criteria and indicators
1.
Land use: Land use of the urban region supports maintenance of biodiversity and safeguarding
of ecosystem services
•
Community structure is consolidated (proportion of dwellings built outside local master
plan areas, proportion of apartments, jobs and large shopping units located in different
urban zones,
proportion of inhabitants living in densely and sparsely built areas,
proportion of families with two or no cars, commuting travels and commuted distances per
34
day, proportion of people living in peri-urban villages of all inhabitants living in sparsely
populated area)
•
Important nature areas are safeguarded (proportion of protected areas of all green areas)
•
There are noiseless and silent areas in the urban region (proportion of noiseless and silent
areas of the whole land area)
•
There are carbon sinks in the urban region (total area and proportion of forests and mires
in the urban region)
•
Culturally valuable areas are preserved (culturally valuable sites identified on all plan
levels)
2.
Green infrastructure: The urban region hosts large and ecologically functional contiguous
nature areas and ecological connections
•
There are large and contiguous forest areas in the urban region (proportion of large and
contiguous forest areas of total land area)
•
There are core nature areas in the urban region (proportion of core nature areas of all forest
areas)
•
There are functional ecological connections in the urban region (proportion of core nature
areas having several ecological connections with other core nature areas)
•
There is as little fragmentation as possible (proportion of forest edge zones of the whole
forest area and proportion of forest areas larger than 5 hectares of all green and forested
areas inside the densely populated area)
3.
Recreation: All inhabitants have a possibility for recreation in nature
•
Recreational green areas are preserved (proportion of areas suitable for recreation)
•
Recreational green areas are close-to-home (proportion of inhabitants living max. 300 m
distance from area suitable for recreation)
•
Shores are accessible for recreation (proportion of free shore line)
•
Recreation does not threaten conservation of biodiversity (proportion of inhabitants to
areas suitable for recreation)
4.
Water: Functional water cycle enables use of water and good living environment
•
Surface waters produce ecosystem services (water visibility, amount of chlorophyll a, and
microbiological quality)
•
Clean ground waters are not threatened (proportion of groundwater areas under risk)
•
Land use supports water cycle and carbon sequestration (proportion of impervious land
area in ground water areas)
5.
Transport: Transport system does not endanger biodiversity
•
Traffic amounts do not threaten biodiversity (traffic amounts in proportion to inhabitants)
•
Traffic network does not prevent animal movements or cause fragmentation (road density,
area of roads in proportion to inhabitants)
35
Social sustainability
Social sustainability is an integral part of sustainable development. According to Kautto and Metso
(Kautto and Metso, 2008) sustainability considers over generational effects and coherence of politics.
There is no universal definition of social sustainability. Several definitions of social sustainability include
justice and equality, possibility to affect one’s life, and strengthening communal identity.
The national sustainability strategy of Finland determines social sustainability goals (Ministry of the
Environment, 2009). These include 1) cohesion between different generations, 2) functionally diverse
and structurally sound communities, 3) a good living environment promoting healthy lifestyles,
functional capacity, and preventing health threats, 4) preventing social exclusion and poverty, 5) quality
of working life, 6) ensuring the availability of services, 7) citizen’s satisfaction of service quality, and 8)
promoting civil activity.
Finland’s National Land Use Guidelines also require the safeguarding of peoples’ well-being and the
promotion of social justice (Ministry of the Environment, 2002). Often, the social sustainability in urban
planning is taken into account by providing participation in planning. This does not, however,
systematically take into account all required social sustainability that can be done with social criteria and
indicators (Juslén, 1995 cited in
STAKES, 2006). There is a need to recognize the effects of
transportation and land-use plans on different groups on a regional and local scale.
The Seutukeke social criteria and indicators have been drafted by taking into account the top-down
approach of the EU and national context of social sustainability as well as bottom-up approach of
individual needs. An important factor has been to consider the basic needs of individuals as defined by
Maslow (Maslow, 1973) and Allardt (Allardt, 1973). The provision of basic needs better necessitates the
fulfilment of higher level needs. Culture, which is often seen as the fourth element of sustainability, is
taken into account in the Seutukeke definition of social sustainability. The spatial scope of criteria
chosen is based on the everyday actions of individuals within the region. Land-use and transport affect
the everyday life and possibilities of individuals, which in turn affect how individuals can fulfil their
needs.
The emphasis of social equality and justice sets some guidelines on forming the criteria. Firstly, it
requires considering average indicators that measure the general well-being of the public as well as the
differences between different genders, generations, residences, or socioeconomic groups. Secondly, the
goals of social sustainability have to be constantly reconfigured. Indicators do not have a certain fixed
threshold and must be adjusted to local conditions and aims. Indicators vary subjectively through time
between individuals and different demographic and sociocultural groups. Thirdly, social indicators vary
spatially significantly. I.e. the same level of services cannot be guaranteed equally throughout the region
to all individuals. Services conglomerate naturally which leads to emphasising the accessibility of
services to different groups.
It is challenging to determine social indicators at a regional scale. Most social sustainability
measures are drafted at a national scale through strategies and policies. Local planning (including
master plans and local plans) has a greater effect on social sustainability than regional plans. Land use
policy has mostly indirect effect on social sustainability through the changes in land-use. A significant
part of social sustainability, along with land-use planning, is affected through the policies of other
municipal institutions, such as health services.
36
The chosen indicators aim to consider differences between different demographic and
socioeconomic groups, take into consideration national strategy and individual needs, as well as work
through space and time. Also other criteria and indicators were considered but discarded due to lack of
data. Social impacts constitute parts of a larger entity and should not be studied detached from other
environmental impacts (Välimäki and Kauppinen, 2000). When dealing with social data, individual
privacy must be considered. Because of this some of the indicators were generalized to a municipality
scale although they could also be calculated to a grid of adequate square size to generalize individual
data.
Social criteria and indicators
1.
The region has a diverse and vibrant social community
•
Age structure is balanced (age groups by municipality)
•
Socioeconomic structure is balanced (long-time low income, linguistic division)
•
Culture and sports facilities are accessible (built culture and sports facilities, culture and
sports facilities in public transport zones)
•
2.
Citizens are active (voting turnout, civic organisations)
The region has diverse employment and education opportunities
•
Diverse and sufficient provision of employment (unemployment by municipality, income
groups by municipality)
•
Workplaces are accessible (commuting distance)
•
Diverse and sufficient provision of education (proportion of vocational graduates,
enrolments, enrolments by sector)
3.
The environment is healthy and safe
•
Harmful effects of land-use are allocated fairly (facilities causing disturbance)
•
The environment does not harm health (citizens affected by noise pollution, air-quality,
transport emissions)
•
4.
The environment is safe (injuries caused by traffic accidents, violent and property crimes)
The region has a diverse residential supply
•
Sufficient occupancy rate (occupancy rate, overcrowding)
•
Residential supply is sufficient and diverse (residential zoning types, home ownership
types)
5.
Basic services are accessible for all
•
6.
Daily local services are accessible (daily local services)
Easily accessible public and pedestrian transport services are provided
•
Service quality of public transport encourages use (bus stops, train stops)
37
Economic sustainability
The existence of cities is based on concentration and agglomeration advantages. This means that the
proximity of various producers and consumers creates common advantages in comparison to a dispersed
settlement pattern. The advantages can be born at the input side, in the form of shared cost of common
facilities (e.g. harbour), as well as at the output side in the form of scale effects in markets (more nearby
clients, and less search cost for clients). For business it is also advantageous to have sufficient choice in
labour supply (diversity, no scarcity) and vice versa for workers it is advantageous to have more choice in
jobs and careers. In turn a large employment base means also a concentration of purchasing power,
which attracts an expanding scope of consumer oriented services (retail, education, entertainment, etc.).
With all these factors present a more dynamic set of agglomeration advantages emerges, which can lead
to further accumulation of population and economic activity. As a consequence at least in some parts of
the urban area the productivity per acre gets so high that it also significantly pushes up land prices and
hence real estate prices. Consequently, a process of selective expulsion (from economic core areas) starts
up. In turn this implies that, in absence of further measures, the city starts to expand over an ever larger
area and to show more spatial segregation in functions. Both expansion and segregation stimulate
transport demand, while motorised private road transport gains market share over non-motorised
modes and public transport. Depending on landscape, climate, hydrology, economic structure, and
urban form all kinds of environmental external effects may occur in such an expanding city, e.g.
pollution of the air, soils, and water, as well as noise and degradation of natural habitats.
There is an ongoing discourse in spatial economics about what constitutes optimal city size (e.g.
Arnott, 2004, Capello, 2000, Kanemoto et al., 1996). The number of theoretical and conceptual
contributions is much larger than actual applications to cities (Kanemoto et al., 1996, is a rare example).
Furthermore, for a long living system such as a city static optimality is of little value, instead the best
possible resilient pathway over time is more important.
Next to existing economic and geographic models there are also approaches based on physical
concepts such as material flow analysis (MFA), in which the city is described as a metabolic system (Moll
et al., 2005), and entropy models of urban systems (Zhang et al., 2006). These studies indicate that a
fully fledged treatment of sustainability will probably change the assessment and judgement for many
cities, but they stop short of providing an alternative assessment system. Furthermore, these studies
often focus on one particular aspect, e.g. transport.
Since spatial dynamics embodies very complicated processes neither consumers nor producers can
fully grasp the longer term consequences of their location choices. When cities start to attain larger sizes
and external effects start to become noticeable, a spatial development which is mostly based on
individual private decisions (and interests) has a very high risk to acquire ever more features that
weaken the social and environmental realm of sustainability. In turn the degradation of these realms
eventually undermines the economic sustainability, either because problems arise at the input side (lack
of natural resources, extra cleaning cost, lack of skilled labour) or at the output side (new emerging
sectors choose other cities, skilled workers migrate to better paying regions). In other words the
maintenance of agglomeration effects requires also sufficient sustainability in the social and
environmental realm.
38
All in all sustainable urban economics, which also accounts for the interaction with the social and
environmental realm, would imply in this context that a city or city region succeeds in
• keeping up already strong sectors for considerable time by facilitating cost efficiency and
innovativeness, but prevent that the city’s resources get wound up in once strong activities with
structurally low productivity,
• fostering new sectors with substantial growth potential so as to promote diversification, to
facilitate cross-fertilisation in innovations, and to prepare for shifts out of declining sectors,
• devising funding structures for adequate public services and infrastructures that sustain the
changes in economic, demographic and spatial structure, and suffice to create attractive, healthy,
and safe living and working environments with minimal environmental footprints.
Economic criteria and indicators
The proposed set is preliminary, limited by data availability and lack of use experience. In a learning-bydoing-process, including generation of new data, the set will evolve over time. The indicator sets are subdivided in four sections, which typically represent the key dimensions that drive economic sustainability.
The first two dimensions, productivity and regeneration, deal with economic core elements. The next
two dimensions, public infrastructure and environmental effects deal with important facilitating and
conditioning elements for promoting economic prosperity and overall sustainability.
1.
The economic life and the development of it´s sectors is productive and profitable
•
Economic growth supports sustainable development (region’s GDP development, degree of
concentration in few sectors)
•
Supply of employment is diverse (employment by sector, employment by sector by
municipality)
•
Purchasing power grows in all sectors (purchasing power of households, purchasing power
of households per municipality)
•
Housing market is in balance (housing prices and rents per m2, share of rental apartments
of all apartments, available rental apartments)
•
Municipal tax rates and indebtedness of the urban region is moderate (region’s municipal
tax rates for income and real estate tax, municipal indebtedness and it´s growth)
2.
Economic life of the urban region is capable of regeneration
•
Development of labour meets the demand (municipal self-sufficiency rate of employment,
labour population by age category, rate of unemployed and people outside labour to
employed in municipalities)
•
Labour is mobile and enterprise structure is dynamic (job vacancies, new company
establishments and company closures)
•
Productive capacity of the urban region regenerates (private investment’s share in GDP,
region’s research and development effort)
3.
Infrastructure and other public services in the urban region are adequate and working
39
•
Public transport is efficient (supply (frequency) of public transport connections, public
subsidy of public transport/trip)
4.
Environmental impacts of economy are as small as possible
•
Energy efficiency of the urban region is getting better (energy consumption in public
buildings, region’s electricity consumption per capita)
•
Climate impacts of the urban regions and environmental load of industries are small or
getting smaller (region’s greenhouse gas emissions, region’s production of renewable
energy, industrial energy consumption)
•
Basic material flows are ecologically sustainable (recycling rate of municipal waste, landfill
waste)
Pilots
Two urban regions, Lahti in southern Finland and Oulu in northern Finland were involved in the
development of the sustainability criteria and indicators. All indicators were tested in these two pilot
regions which differ remarkably from each other both physically and functionally. The results were
presented to urban planners and decision-makers and discussed with them. Local knowledge was
valuable in the development work for assessing the validity and usability of analyses and results. All
results will be presented in the forthcoming final report of the project with map representations together
with tables and graphs.
4. Discussion and Conclusions
The criteria and indicators developed in the Seutukeke project describe sustainability and sustainable
communities from different angles. They can be used at different phases of land use planning ranging
from objective setting to impact assessment and further to monitoring. The large amount of indicators
does not mean that all of them should be applied in every planning case. Instead of that, a suitable set of
indicators can be selected and further analyzed, or the whole set of indicators can be used as a check list
in impact assessment scoping phase.
However, there are certain challenges related to the use of indicators: adequate and valid data,
proper scale of an analysis and suitable and right use of results as a part of the planning case. These
challenges, as well as further development of criteria and indicators, are in the core of our future
research activities. Some of the criteria and indicators have been used in a real world planning case in
the city of Lahti in early 2011 and an assessment of Päijät-Häme regional plan and strategy with
Seutukeke indicators is also under preparation. In the future the development of indicators is heavily
dependent on planners' experiences. The criteria and indicators will be published in Finnish as a final
report in late 2011. The report can be used as a guidance book in concrete land use and transport
planning. Detailed information on GIS analysis and ecological criteria will be presented in separate
special guidance reports.
40
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42
BIOREFINERY IMPLEMENTATION IN MARGINAL LANDA FOCUS ON THE MULTIFUNCTIONAL USE OF
REGIONAL AGRICULTURE.
Sandra Fahd, Gabriella Fiorentino1, Salvatore Mellino, Maddalena Ripa and
Sergio Ulgiati
Department of Sciences for the Environment, Parthenope University of Naples, Italy
ABSTRACT − In times of depletion of fossil resources and increasing environmental concerns, more
focus needs to be placed on energy and materials co-production patterns. The search for new sources
of energy is often leading to intensified use of available land for energy cropping in competition with
food production, although recent studies show that land conversion from forest, savannah and
grassland into biofuels crops causes significant increases of CO2 emissions. Within the EU funded
SMILE project, an alternative design for marginal land use in central-southern Italy was hypothesized
by assuming marginal lands to be cropped with Brassica carinata, a non-food crop, for biodiesel
production from seeds and, at the same time, biochemicals extraction from residues. The actual
potential of the biorefinery concept applied to marginal or abandoned lands was deeply investigated.
The effectiveness of an expanded LCA approach, named SUMMA (SUstainability Multimethod
Multiscale Assessment), based on the consistent application of different assessment methods to the
input and output inventory of local processes, was tested by means of the comparison of two different
scenarios (bioenergy approach versus biorefinery approach). A further integration within the SUMMA
method consisted in a specific spatial parameterisation by means of Geographic Information System
(GIS) procedures. Results achieved show that the energy and environmental performance of biodiesel
and heat generation from Brassica residues is unlikely to be profitable and desirable at the level of
Campania regional agriculture, due to the fact that the economic cost of the whole process largely
exceeds the value of the saved fossil fuels. If straw and oilseed cake meals are accounted for, in
addition to the biodiesel production, the performance results to be higher from an energetic point of
view, but the process is still not fully satisfactory in economic and environmental terms. Instead, if
agricultural residues are exploited for the extraction of chemical building blocks, through the so-called
Biofine process or other biorefinery patterns, the performance is improved, thanks to the high added
value of generated biochemicals.
1
Corresponding Author. Email: gabriella.fiorentino@uniparthenope.it.
43
1. Introduction and Background
The development of large scale industrial production systems based on renewable resources, rather than
non-renewable ones, is a crucial item on the international agenda, in times of increasing depletion of
fossil reservoirs. In such a framework, biomass and, in particular, plant-based raw materials are of great
interest from both economic and ecological standpoints as alternative feedstocks for industrial
production, addressing both the energy and non-energy sectors including chemicals and materials (EC,
2004).
The search for new sources of energy and materials gave rise to an intensified exploitation of
available land for energy cropping: energy cropping is however constrained by the large amount of soil
required for the production of raw materials. Soil use as well as other related environmental resources
(water, topsoil, biodiversity etc.) aff...
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