CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE – INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 8
Introduction.......................................................................................................................................... 8
Research Aim and Questions: ........................................................................................................ 9
Rational ................................................................................................................................................ 10
structure of the dissertation ........................................................................................................ 10
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................... 12
introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 12
Contextual background .................................................................................................................. 12
Gender & Identity Explained ........................................................................................................ 12
Social influences................................................................................................................................ 14
Parents .................................................................................................................................................. 14
Siblings ................................................................................................................................................. 15
Cultural influences ........................................................................................................................... 15
Gender in schools ............................................................................................................................. 16
Gender and the curriculum........................................................................................................... 17
School experiences and ambitions ............................................................................................ 18
Social deprivation and attainment ............................................................................................ 19
Influences of the Media .................................................................................................................. 19
Gender and Feminism ..................................................................................................................... 20
Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 21
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY AND METHOD...................................................... 22
Theoretical Approach ..................................................................................................................... 23
Positionality ........................................................................................................................................ 24
Research Design ................................................................................................................................ 24
Sampling .............................................................................................................................................. 25
Data Collection................................................................................................................................... 25
Timeline ............................................................................................................................................... 25
Observations ...................................................................................................................................... 25
Interviews ........................................................................................................................................... 26
Focus group ........................................................................................................................................ 26
Data Analysis ...................................................................................................................................... 27
6
Research credibility ......................................................................................................................... 27
Ethical considerations .................................................................................................................... 28
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS, ANALYSIS & DISCUSSIONS............................................. 29
Findings ................................................................................................................................................ 29
Analysis & Discussion ..................................................................................................................... 30
Home life –Parents & Siblings ..................................................................................................... 31
School- A place for learning .......................................................................................................... 31
School Environments and Peers ................................................................................................. 32
Indoor Spaces ..................................................................................................................................... 32
Cultural values and Tradition ...................................................................................................... 33
Identity formation and ambitions .............................................................................................. 33
Capability ............................................................................................................................................. 34
ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................................................. 35
Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 36
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION ............................................................................................. 37
Strengths and Limitations ............................................................................................................. 38
Implications for further research ............................................................................................... 38
Appendices................................................................................................................................ 49
Appendix 1: Ethics Approval Letter .......................................................................................... 49
Appendix 2: Participant Information Sheet ........................................................................... 50
Appendix 3: Participant Consent Form................................................................................... 52
Appendix 4: Interview Questions ............................................................................................... 53
Appendix 5: focus group questions ........................................................................................... 54
appendix 6: Interview Transcript .............................................................................................. 55
Appendix 7: ‘self-portraits’ ........................................................................................................... 56
Chyna ..................................................................................................................................................... 56
Saba ........................................................................................................................................................ 57
Reyah ..................................................................................................................................................... 58
7
CHAPTER ONE – INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
Reflecting upon my life, as a teenager, I did not envision myself to be where I am today
(at 32 years old); I am still unsure if that is a positive aspect or not; however, but it has
been a ‘learning curve’ to say the least. As I evaluate my identity, I ponder upon my past,
how did my journey change, when were my ambitions were significant to me? Did I give
up, on my ambitions and who I wanted to become? Or was I not determined enough?
Comparing Positionality, to teenage girls today, I would like to explore how are gender
identities formed, scrutinizing what factors and life outcomes that shape girls’ identities,
and future aspirations.
The national union of teachers (NUT, 2013) has reported: although girls achieve good
GCSE results, and are likely to pursue further education there is still a requirement for
support systems to be in place, which “grant girls voice and agency in knowledge”
(Thorne, 1993, p.107). Particularly, around the transitional period between secondary and
tertiary education where the majority of students do not feel composed to ‘face the world’
(Bembenutty, 2009). During this transitional period its considered to be “a potentially
detrimental experience both in terms of self-esteem, motivation and achievement”
(Goddard et al., 2014, p. 176). The personal, social and health education (PSHE)
curriculum is designed to offer all students, practical assistance, and emotional support,
throughout the (GCSE) examination period. It also aims to support their future ambitions;
ensuring the transition between the school and college is carried out, with ease. However,
the Department of Education (DfE, 2013) expressed their concerns about the lack of
support for young people, and argue that, the existing policy and practice fails to provide
sufficient support, to strengthens the young girl’s confidence and career aspirations
(Ofsted, 2011).
More than ever, young people perceive gender and identity as a ‘shifting’ process that is
ever changing with time (Marotz & Kupzyk 2016). Recognising this shift, raises
questions concerning gender and identity and how these are formed, and what factors
determine the development process. Despite, the diversity of literature that aims to define
gender and related contexts. There is a lack of research relating to gender perceptions and
ambitions amongst girls from disadvantaged background. This outlines the ‘gaps’ in the
8
research field, which fail to address these issues. Recognising these ‘gaps’ I adopted the
social constructionist approach, conducting a qualitative research study, to obtain a
critical insight to girls’ gender identity formations and future perceptions. This
exploration aims to identify what shapes girls’ identities and how does this relate to their
future aspirations, identifying the various societal platforms that construct their identities
and aspirations.
Seventeen years ago, I was a fifteen year old girl filled with passion for the future. I was
hopeful and determined to acquire GCSE grades which would qualify for sixth-form, as I
knew quite well this would aid my journey towards a successful career. My dreams of a
better life and a good education were dashed when I realised that I would exchange those
ambitions to become a house wife. For twelve years, my life goals were on ‘pause’ due to
life outcomes. Seventeen years later, I returned to education, to pursue my ambitions that
I acquired when I was fifteen. My life outcomes drove me to focus my research on
identity formations of year 11 girls. Through their personal narratives, I believe their
stories can offer an insight into their past journeys, their current circumstances and future
aspirations with an emphasis on identity; examining how these girls understand their
‘personal journeys’ and ‘life outcome’ relate to the actual self, and ‘shape’ future
perspectives (Chodorow, 2012).
I understand the world is a different place in comparison to seventeen years ago. Thus, I
aim to scrutinize influential factors that shape these girls’ identities; and to comprehend
the transitional journeys of these girls from ‘being’ and child to ‘becoming’ an adult
(Bynner, & Parsons, 2002; James, 2013). The research focuses on the interlinks between
gender and ‘achievement’ with an emphasis on socialisation and its influences on gender
and identity formation. Therefore, I utilised three research questions to assist me with my
exploration.
RESEARCH AIM AND QUESTIONS:
1). What are year 11 girls’ perceptions of their identity, in relation to their future hopes
and career aspirations?
2). What factors contribute to the formation of these identities?
3). In what ways (if any) do school experiences shape these future aspirations?
9
RATIONAL
The study of literature, has identified a wealth of research comparing genders and
academic achievements. However, there is little literature which focuses on girls, as
individuals exploring their understanding of their personal journeys, and how this relates
to their gender identity conformities, that shape their future ambitions. Girls are more
educational focused and aspire further, compare to 20 years ago. Nevertheless, I believe
girl still lack support, that motivates them to aspire further, particularly girls who are
class deprived.
Academics argue that various educational policies including Every child matters, fail to
demonstrate a recognition, surrounding girls’ future ambitions and how this can be
supported. The government also recognised this; enforcing them to issue a parental
information pack which illustrates this idea (Cornish, 2013). Furthermore, Humphrey et
al (2010) details, the current PHSE curriculum fails to provide the underpinning
knowledge relating to genderism. Therefore, my research it is crucial to explore the
experiences and views and evaluate their perceptions of how (if at all) do school/
education enhance or restricts their identity development, in relation to future ambitions.
STRUCTURE OF THE DISSERTATION
I began my research by exploring a range of literature, that discussed the concepts of
gender and identity and all the various factors that contribute to their formation, in
relation to girls’ ambitions. The literature review identified ‘gaps’ in research surrounding
girls from ‘lower class’. This encouraged me to conduct my exploration in this specific
field. Throughout my research, I employed an interpretivist approach which focused on a
“subjective world of human experience” (Cohen et al., 2011, p. 17). I also adopted Sen's
Capability Approach (1980) as a theoretical lens, because this framework considers the
welfare of individuals.
The methodology chapter presents my research questions and the methods used,
providing justifications for selecting these methods, for my research. In term of analysing
my data, I employed a thematic approach (Ritchie, & Spencer, 2002) to categorise the
discussions and the overall findings. The topics are organised in relation to the ideas
which emerged from the literature. I concluded with the main findings, as well as
evaluating the objectives and research questions, outlining the ethical deliberations and
10
the limitations of the study. As well as providing suggestions for further research.
11
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
INTRODUCTION
Gender identity is a complex notion, composed of a range of factors, that cannot be
capsulized in one single definition. It requires an in-depth exploration surrounding the
platforms that construct gender recognitions and conformities, and how is this conveyed
in the individuals’ future ambitions (Addis & Cohane, 2005). This chapter will critically
evaluate the relevant literature, focusing on societal factors that shape gender identities,
and constructs future aspirations.
Firstly, I present a description of gender and identity, as recognised by some academics.
Secondly, I explore the various social platforms that influence gender and identity
structures. These factors include, family unit, cultural influences, exploring gender in
schools and the curriculum including ambitions, social class and it relation to attainment,
influences of the media, and lastly feminist perspectives on gender,
CONTEXTUAL BACKGROUND
There are two vital components in this exploration, ‘gender’ and ‘identity’ and their
relation to future aspirations. Grauer & Macadam (1998) implies, there is a confusion
between the individuals ‘gender’ and ‘sex’. Therefore, relying on social scientists to
define these terms. There is no agreement amongst scientist on how these two terms can
be appropriately used, as it’s a potentially interchangeably (Behm, 2009; Hust & Brown,
2010). Whereas, ‘identity’ is considered as a cultural trend, that is embodied through the
unique ‘life journeys’ (Sfard and Prusak, 2005). It is critical to explore the range of
definitions, in order to construct my knowledge and understanding.
GENDER & IDENTITY EXPLAINED
Adopting a social constructionist, non-essentialist approach, I perceive that gender is
socially constructed, as opposed to being a ‘natural process’ that is linked to the
individuals’ sex. I recognise there are curiosities concerning the formation of identities
and gendered behaviours (Leaper & Bigler, 2011). Therefore, it is crucial to examine the
perspectives which seek to explore the dissimilarity between these aspects. I begin, by
12
reviewing the concepts of gender binaries and identity formation, and the social factors
that are incorporated in this.
Some authors claim there is no precise definition of ‘gender’ which has become a social
phenomenon. Suggesting that ‘gender’ is ‘staged’ and is a process that is constantly
‘shifting’ with time. Illustrating that ‘gender’ is an act that is ‘done’ by people (West and
Zimmerman, 1987). Contrastingly, Chartschlaa (2004) states, from a young age children
learn gender typical behaviours, which is encouraged by their interactions with parents,
school environments and peers. Also, Perry et al (1992), identifies how the term ‘gender’
is defined by some academics, and its relevance to the matter, because it becomes “the
backdrop for people's perceptions and behaviours” (p. 3). Indirectly, encouraging
stereotypical behaviours and attitudes. Furthermore, Stryker, & Burke, (2000) describes
the sociological approach to ‘self-identity’ which is based on the existing relationship
between the individual and society, and how we [as individuals] represent ourselves [in
society] reflecting ‘our’ identities.
The singular and collective forms of identity are significantly intertwined with family
concepts, cultural norms, traditional histories, and life outcomes; “which create and
sustain who we are and where we come from” (Weeden & Grusky 2004, p.24). Like
‘gender’, identity is not a fixed concept, but a process that is constructed with time and
exposure; a developing process that is created through socialisation (Cote, & Levine,
2014). Whereas, Lee et al (2017) focuses on identity amongst teens, claiming, they tend
to ‘commit to the familiar’ domains of life, this can be associated with their rational
choices, education, religion or anything else, that is significant or relevant to the
individual, at that time.
Furthermore, Sfard and Prusak, (2005) examines gender and identity, using the narrative
lens of exploring three components of ‘past’, ‘present’ and ‘future’ gender identities’;
which examines the individuals’ perceptions through these narratives. I argue that
‘gender’ is socially constructed, but not necessarily linked to the individual’s sex.
However, there is a wide range of definitions that aim to illustrate an ‘accurate’
elucidation of gender and identity, which are explored in the following sections.
Exploring the construction of gender identities, there is an emerging pattern, that family,
schools and peers, are amongst the most influential factors that shape the individuals’
13
identity, and significantly influence their perceptions of their future. Therefore, in the
following section I examine literature related these issues.
SOCIAL INFLUENCES
The social constructivist claim there is a ‘self-fulfilling prophecy’ in which boys and girls
are treated differently and given different opportunities of development. This theory has
been constant for many generations, an emerged ideology which eventually produces
gender stereo-types. Academics claim, it is a “natural and impervious to change”
(Coltrane, & Adams, 2008, p. 175). However, James (2013) opposes this, arguing that
children should be recognised as “social actors and as people with agency” (p. 9). In the
following sections, I evaluate the different social factors and their relationship with
gender identity formation; examining whether these social factors, promote gender typical
behaviours or encourage individuals to be ‘people of agency’.
PARENTS
Strong and Cohen (2013) suggest, parents are a dominant factor in how their children
perceive gender. This is integrated in the physical environments in which they raise their
family, and their direct and indirect interactions. Subsequently, instilling their children’s
gender attitudes and behaviours (Hust and Brown, 2010). The ‘nuclear family’ unit, was
the ‘standard’ social unit for many years. However, over time, the family structure has
changed. The ‘nuclear family’ still exits alongside with single parent families and same
sex relationships. I recognise there is a range of family units, however, I have focused on
the main family structures and explored the different influential factors, it has on their
dependants.
Children raised in single-parent families, reside in a home that does not conform with
typical gender norms (Owen Blakemore et al., 2013). Proposing they [children] are likely
to participate in ‘border crossing’ (Thorne, 1993), enviably “crossing the line to disrupt
gender-appropriate behaviour” (Nayak & Kehily, 2013, p. 14). Equally, the rise of
working mothers, also influences children’s understanding of gender 1 . Kotrba, (2007)
claims that girls are encouraged to have a less gender stereotypical behaviours and
1
67.2% of women in the United Kingdom are now employed (Dugan, 2014).
14
attitudes, which a directly linked to working mothers taking a non-traditional stance in
society.
Moreover, children who are brought up (or living with) same sex families tend to be less
judgemental about stereo-typical roles; and usually have a “liberal and flexible attitudes
about gender” (Owen Blakemore et al., 2013). Which is an outcome of the countertraditional environment they live in. Contrastingly, families from lower-socioeconomic
status are likely to conform to traditional gender roles (Kotrba, 2007). Whereas, families
from higher- socioeconomic backgrounds tend to have “egalitarian roles” (Kotrba, 2007,
p.32). However, there is ‘mixed’ views amongst academics in relation to gender roles and
socioeconomic status, drawing on insignificant conclusions.
In addition to parents,
siblings are considered an influential element, in the family unit; in which I will explore
in the following section.
SIBLINGS
Farkas and Leaper, (2013) outlines that older siblings have more ‘apposite’ influence on
their younger siblings. This is supported by Stoneman et al (1986) and describes that
older siblings are likely to take the ‘teacher’ stance, while the younger siblings take a
‘learner’ stance. Suggesting that younger siblings are likely to imitate the behaviours and
attitudes of their older siblings (Galambos et al., 2009). Lippa (2005) states that same-sex
siblings engage in activities that conform with their sex. whereas, Farkas & Leaper (2013)
argue that older brothers are more likely to influence their younger sibling’s gender
beliefs, in comparison to having an older sister; because boys are associated with
obtaining ‘authority’ with their ‘masculinity’ which is incorporated, in how both sexes
portrait the stereo-typical characteristic (of a male). When having an older brother, using
‘feminine’ characteristics are less likely to be ‘taken seriously’ or ‘respected’. Suggesting
that females are portrayed to be the ‘weaker sex’.
As well as examining the family unit and its influences, I believe it vital to explore the
family’s culture norms and its relation to gender identity formation, which will discussed
in the following section.
CULTURAL INFLUENCES
Taking into consideration the cultural diversity of the school, in which I will be
conducting my research. I have explored Hofstede’s cultural dimensions’ theory which
15
outlines the importance of ingraining cultural and traditional values, and describes the
effects of these norms, on gender identity formation.
For those who have immigrated into the country, cultural values are significant facet that
contributes to the scaffolding of the individuals’ gender and identity (Taras, Kirkman, &
Steel, 2010). Having deeply embedded cultural values, not only effects how people
behave, but how they present themselves and ‘connect’ with others. However, culture is
not always related to ethnicity; it’s the range of ideas, customs and social behaviours that
are associated with specific areas or groups in society. Therefore, gendered behaviours
are related to different type of socialisation, and how we familiarise ourselves with the
geographies and “learn what is appropriate and improper for both genders” (Crespi, 2003,
p. 2) which is a component of gender polarisation. Additionally, academics claim that,
gender is a routine that individuals practice, a notion that dictated by social and cultural
ideas; therefore, individuals will behave and present themselves, in a way that is socially
and culturally accepted (West & Zimmerman, 1987; NUT, 2013).
In addition, to the family and its cultural values; school settings, educational curriculum
and peer groups are perceived as influential elements, in shaping identities, and
constructing future aspirations, which will be discussed in the following section.
GENDER IN SCHOOLS
There is a wealth of research that compares girls’ and boys’ educational achievements
and behaviours (Thorne, 1993; Maccoby,1998; NUT, 2013). However, there is lack of
attention paid to young girls, examining issues and concerns, that potentially shape their
identities and aspirations. Suggesting, this is an underdeveloped research area
2
.
Nevertheless, recent literature has offered an insight to how gender is influenced by
educational setting; demonstrating, that students develop supposition about the
behaviours they implement and the activities they should, or should not engage in (Ekins,
ND, p. 94). Schools are perceived to be significant channel for socialising youths (Spade,
2
A search of the British Education Index via EBSCO of the terms “’identity’, ‘girls’, ‘gender’” yielded
only three results
16
2002). This accounts for all aspects of schooling and the educational curriculum itself.
For example, Hafferty, et al (2015) states, through the ‘hidden curriculum’ students learn
behaviour traits, values, moral and opinons from their teachers. Moreover, the
implications of the language used in the classroom, such as: "boys and girls" are [indirect]
gendered labels (Thorne,1993. p.34).
Friendship circles in school settings are a significant factor of gender socialisation that
needs to be scrutinized because it contributes to how youths demonstrate gender
correlation. Because “children employ gendered membership categories in the midst of
their everyday talk” (Harness Goodwin, 2011, p. 250). This is widely notable among peer
groups (particularly boys) who tend to exclude girls from activities, due to ‘gender
norms’ (Bancroft, 2009) which reinforces conformity of gender. A young persons’
gendered choices are directly influenced by their peers and varied environments and
spaces surrounding them. Thorne (1993) claims that peers have ‘fixed’ gendered
territories in the playground, where gender and identity perceptions “are embodied as
they move through and negotiate space and place” (Procter, 2014. p. 53). Insinuating that
the playground has gendered boundaries, despite it being ‘free space’ with equally
opportunities for everyone to use. Until recently, the playground and its phenomena were
not evaluated in education theory. Suggesting, there is a requirement for contemporary
research, in this field (Kenway & Youdell, 2011).
In relation to future aspirations, girls are considered more educationally focused and
ambitious, compared to 20 years ago (Fuller, 2011). However, Tinklin et al., (2005)
argued that low attaining girls, tend to be affected by the gendered stereo-typical stances.
Effectuating them to settle for ‘standard’ employment role, rather than aspire for a
‘successful’ career. Nonetheless, possessing an ‘ambition’ is an initial stride; whilst there
is some ‘freedom’ for females to pursue stable ‘careers’, there are limitations to accessing
non-gendered opportunities. Which emphasises the importance of supporting young girls
and with their future ambitions.
GENDER AND THE CURRICULUM
Povey (Nd) argues that educational settings have a significant impact on shaping gender
identities. Besides the notions discussed above. School settings are perceived to have
neoliberal concepts that encourage gendered inequalities. This is demonstrated in aspects,
17
such as ‘teaching to the test’ proposing that gender identities are rooted to government
decisions and policies. Despite promoting gender equality, and providing ‘equal
opportunities’. Gender binaries are still existing in schools. Youdell states that schools
have a gendered ‘hidden curricula’ (Thorne, 1993). She also argues that education
system, resembles the white, elite and upper-middles class males as the ‘normalised’
integrant. Feminist advocates adopt this to argue that girls are at a disbenefit in the
current education system, particularly, girls from disadvantage back grounds. However,
this has been contested, claiming that “girls’ educational performance reflects a
‘feminization’ of the curriculum, pedagogy and assessment” (Youdell, 2011. p.63).
Insinuating, the curriculum can be described as ‘over-feminised’ (Arnot & Mac An
Ghaill, 2006).
SCHOOL EXPERIENCES AND AMBITIONS
Education plays a crucial role in identity formation, as school settings aim to develop,
individuals who critically think, by instilling their minds with ‘knowledge’ which is
perceived as an “identity production process" (Wyn, 2008, p.24). Equally, individual
aspirations are consequential because they impact on key decisions the individual makes,
concerning their educational attainment and career ambitions. Goodman and Gregg
(2010) reported that aspirations of higher education and future ambitions are formed by
the age of 14. Additionally, their report also outlined that ambitions acquired at young
age, were likely to be achieved; and ambitions shared between youths and their parents,
are linked with adequate educational achievements (Blaver,2010). Suggesting, that
potential ‘future decisions’ are made in key stage two (age 14 and above) and with family
‘in-put’, are fundamental notions, to structuring their potential future.
When considering the role of schools and education, there is an assumption that
educational expectations and achievements are significantly linked (Duncan et al., 1972;
Reynolds and Burge, 2008). However, research indicates that, youths who have high
aspirations, obtain a greater motivation and better educational achievements in
comparison to their peers who do not (Desforges and Abouchaar, 2003; Flouri, 2006;
Jacob and Wilder, 2010). Nonetheless, it is argued the relationship between educational
expectations, and the actual outcomes do not always correspond. In fact, academics such
as Turok et al., (2008); McKendrick et al., (2007); Calder and Cope, (2005) reported
some emerging ‘patterns’ of career aspiration amongst the different social classes, despite
18
the level of attainment. Proposing that, some lower-class students have a high level of
aspiration, but their academic achievement do not always symbolise this.
SOCIAL DEPRIVATION AND ATTAINMENT
There are three main external aspects that affect achievement in education; cultural
capital, cultural deprivation, and material deprivation. Cultural deprivation theorists
report, that we acquire ‘our’ basic skills, attitudes, and the value of education through
primary socialisation (the family). This includes concepts of developing adequate
language skills and self-discipline. However, Grant & Ray, (2018) argues that, families
from poorer backgrounds fail to appropriately, socialise with their children, inevitably
causing them to be ‘culturally deprived’. The under achievement of these children, is
linked to not being ‘culturally equipped’. Furthermore, Parents ‘input’ or lack of it, is
vital concept that affects education attainments. It is proposed that, Lower-class parents
lack the skills to intellectually engage and challenge their children; and fail to provide
educational resources, such as books, toys, and activities that enhance the child’s
intellect. As well as financial difficulties, it is suggested that education is devalued
amongst working class families, who tend to be less ambitious for their children’s future.
Therefore, they also lack to effectively interact with their child’s school, to discuss their
child’s progress and performance; Consequently, leaving the child to motivate themselves
(McCartney et al, 2017). However, material deprivation theorists argue, that poverty and
the lack of necessities, such as adequate housing, aspects relating to over-crowded homes,
and temporary accommodation; moving around from one place to another effects the
child’s mental, and emotional well-being and their inability to make secure friendships, as
well as significantly affecting children’s performance and attainments in schools.
(Lawson, & Kearns, 2016). Statistics indicate that under-achieving students and poverty
are significantly intertwined (Howard,2001). In addition, Biddle (2014) argues that
children who are in ‘border line’ poverty are deprived from a healthy balanced diet; the
lack of nutrients and vitamins effect their concentration levels and overall performances.
INFLUENCES OF THE MEDIA
The internet and emerging technological developments, such as smart-phones, tablets and
computers are described as a source of modern time, and considered to be a powerful
19
singularity that shape society (Prensky, 2001). Through social networking sites (SNS),
youths are regularly interacting with friends, associates and even strangers; sharing
pictures, personal data, and engaging in discussions (Kosut,2012). There is a wide range
of SNS that are popular amongst young people which include Twitter, Facebook,
Instagram and Pinterest (Herring & Kapidzic, 2015). It is claimed that young people are
obsessed with SNS and have become dependent on the daily feeds, which ultimately
influences their attitudes, behaviours and perceptions. More worryingly, Williams et al
(2012) describes that young people openly admit to these ‘obsessions’, when analysing
the time spent of these SNS. Furthermore, Allen & Mendick, (2013), emphasises, the
significant influences that celebrities have over youths, particularly the “hyperheterosexual femininities” (Marsh & Bishop, 2013, p. 140), that are presented by these
celebrities, implicating youth (particularly girls), to behave and present themselves in the
same way as these icons.
GENDER AND FEMINISM
The advocates of feminism recognise strengths in their research claiming that “feminist
researchers view celebratory lens of girls’ capacity for sharing, caring and mutual
support” (Kehily, 2009, p.12). However, this statement is contended by academics,
arguing the feminist approach focused on the ‘white’ and ‘class privileged’ females and
has failed to recognise perspectives and experiences of females in different countries,
cultures and ‘disadvantaged backgrounds’ (Catterall, Maclaran, & Stevens, 2013; Thomas
2011). This implies there is a significant gap in the research field. Therefore, I am
conducting my exploration in socioeconomically deprived area, which occupies a
significant number of ethnic minority residence, obtaining data that considers cultural
diversity.
Furthermore, some authors state, there is contextual expressions that characterise females,
which “produces new forms of hierarchy and exclusion” (Butler, 1999, p.viii).
Unwittingly, reinforcing the stereotypical notions, by creating terms and expressions
focused exclusively on women. This movement initiates the political, social and
economic equality of the sexes, which is supported by post-feminism that argue “if a girl
works hard enough, she can achieve anything she desires” (Roberts, 2001, p. 315).
However, Thomas (2011) states this approach “leaves young women responsible for
fixing the same disempowering structures of difference that also give them their
20
identities” (p.5).
SUMMARY
Reviewing this literature, has demonstrated the extent of various social concepts, that
shape the individual perception, regarding gender and identity. The review, also outlined
the implications of ‘people’ and ‘cultural norms’ and the implications it has on gender
identity. Furthermore, Lee et al (2017) discussed the impacts of ‘age’ on identity,
claiming that teenagers ‘commit to the familiar’ domains of life, that considered to be
‘important’ to them. This is a crucial statement, considering that I will be conducting my
exploration with girls in that age range.
Adopting a social constructivist, non-essentialist approach, I recognise gender as a notion
which is significantly shaped by socialisation. This exploration focuses on obtaining the
perceptions of participants regarding, who they are, and who they aspire to be, exploring
the societal factors that shape these views. Therefore, it is vital to examine societal
concepts which may impact on how girls perceive themselves and how this shapes their
performances. Therefore, I modelled Sfard and Prusak (2005) three research components
‘past’, ‘present’ and ‘future’; using unique narratives, to explore their perspectives of
themselves and their ambitions.
Additionally, I focus on the identified gaps in research surrounding girls’ identity
trajectories in secondary schools, and the factors that shape their developing identities;
focusing on girls from underprivileged and multicultural backgrounds. It also highlighted
the need to scrutinise how girls identify themselves. Questioning how identities are
socially constructed and outlining implications that cause this. The literature review also
illustrated an emphasis on equality among gender; in this study, I adopted Sen’s (1980)
Capability theoretical lens, as an alternative, because I believe that not everyone benefits
from equality, however, everyone can benefit from opportunity.
21
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY AND METHOD
As outlined in the previous chapter, there is a wealth of literature on gender and identity
formation, that analyse these concepts from a range of perspectives and considering
different influential factors. Aiming to ‘manage’ the research ‘gaps’ identified in the
literature review. I explored girls’ perceptions on gender and identity formation; and
examined what (rather who) do they perceive as influential platforms. Consequently,
determining ‘how’ these factors shaped their identities, perceptions and performances.
The overall aim of this exploration is to determine what social factors and figures shape
gender, identity developments and future ambitions.
Considering the lack of research conducted in areas of economic deprivation, I recruited
participants from a range of cultural diversity, which are concepts that were highlighted
in my literature review; this has motivated me to conduct my research in setting which
possessed these characteristics. Additionally, these ‘gaps’ have led me to the to create the
following research questions:
1). What are year 11 girls’ perceptions of their identity, in relation to their future hopes
and career aspirations?
2). What factors contribute to the formation of these identities?
3). In what ways (if any) do school experiences shape these future aspirations?
Methodology refers to how the researcher obtains answers to their questions. The
concepts of subjectivities, assumptions and reflexive considerations can influence the
research methods.
This research focused on four, key stage four girls recruited in a school setting that is
based in the North of Sheffield; an area that is economically-deprived, and culturally
diverse. I examined the four girls, during the school day, to comprehend their perceptions
of identities, and how this relates to the construction of their ambitions (Sfard & Prusak,
2005). Additionally, I outlined my stance in my exploration and justified the procedural
selection for data collection methods used to answer my research questions. Additionally,
I provided the reasons for the implementation, and specified the concerns I encountered.
22
THEORETICAL APPROACH
The research employed an interpretivist approach which focused on a “subjective world
of human experience” (Cohen et al., 2011, p. 17). I adopted Sen's Capability Approach
(1980) as a theoretical lens, because this framework considers the welfare of individuals,
encouraging them to achieve their actual potential. This theory regards the concepts of
‘capability’ and ‘capacity’ to achieve the anticipated objectives; irrespective of equal
opportunities. I believe this approach was fundamental concept to my research because it
shared the same contextual values. From Sens viewpoint, equality is not always
appropriate, and instigated capability and capacity as an alternative. In my research, I
believe that girls do not benefit from ‘equality’ – without the implementation of the
capability approach; therefore, the girls will be responsible for dealing with issues of
misogyny, which devalues the concept of equality.
I utilised the narrative element as a core concept for this research study because it is a
“neglected area in educational research” (Cohen et al., 2011, p.454) and it provided an
insight to the participants’ life events, and cultural contexts. This approach also illustrated
girls’ identity and future perceptions, and examined what social aspects encouraged or
restricted the construction of girls’ identity and ambitions. Despite the criticism of the
feminist approach, from academics such as Harding (2004) and Gunew (2013). I strongly
believe it offers a value of empowerment to women; I used this approach to examine
girls’ perceptions, who are not white and ‘class privileged’ to evaluate the ‘gaps’ of
feminist research, that were discussed in the literature review. I believe, this approach
could influence the participants’ views and perceptions, in term of encouraging them to
‘aspire further’ and therefore will be considered in my research.
Furthermore, I employed qualitative research, because my exploration aims to
comprehend the diverse subjective perceptions relating to the phenomena that shapes
gender, identity, and ambitions. Qualitative research is often criticised due to its
subjective nature; critics argue that qualitative researchers comprehend their data based
on their positionality (Bryman, 2012). I understand that qualitative research cannot be
entirely value free; Thus, I recognised my positionality, and aim to minimise interactions
or propose leading discussions, to overcome complications which may rise due to my
stance (Bourke, 2014). Following, I outlined my positionality, and identified my
epistemological approach in my exploration.
23
POSITIONALITY
I adopted narratives as a core concept for this study because, I believe narratives provide
an insight to subjective experiences and identified the emerging patterns from the
participants’ social interactions in the school environments. Furthermore, it offered an
insight into why these participants’ aspirations are restricted or enabled, by considering
the narratives as a “social, psychic and spatial phenomena” (Thomas, 2011,
p.14). Additionally, I utilised a social constructionist, non-essentialist approach because I
believe that gender, identity and future aspirations are created via social interactions
(Burr, 1995) opposed to being ‘factual’ aspect that exist independently (Denzin &
Lincoln, 2005). This approach assisted my research, in terms of how girls perceive
themselves, regarding their identities and ambitions (Cater & Fuller, 2015). Qualitative
research has encountered some criticism regarding the ingrained imbalances and
asymmetric roles between the participants and the researcher (Raheim et al, 2016).
Recognising these implications, this can have on my data, has encouraged me to
minimising my interferences and unnecessary interactions with the participants
(Mauthner & Doucet, 2003).
RESEARCH DESIGN
I selected the specific setting based on the characteristics it possessed, a secondary school
in an area of cultural diversity and economically-deprived; to recruit candidates that are
not ‘class privileged’, to obtain in-valuable data from an under-researched area. I utilised
three types of research methods: observations, semi- structured interviews and a focus
group. These methods aided me to understand a complex, multivariate aspects of
phenomena (Zainal, 2012) and gained an understanding of the girls’ perceptions, and
acquired significant attributes to gender, identity formation, and future ambitions (Yin,
2012). These methods are considered “the most suitable [interview format]” (Gill et al.,
2008, p. 372) and “an ideal technique for exploring issues around people’s relationship
with space" (Jones et al., 2008).
Crowther and Lancaster (2008) claimed, using recording gadgets, incurs further
restrictions because it “might inhibit some interviewees in terms of being more guarded
about what they say, thereby affecting the quality of the data collected” (p. 82). Having,
considered these viewpoint, I concluded that, a recorder would aid me to obtain an
24
accurate transcription of all the collected data, which can be revisited; and therefore, I
used audio device throughout my research.
In the following sections, I outline my
research design and processes of sampling and data gathering, I provided justifications for
the chosen methods, and analysed the aspects of ethics, generalisability and relatability.
SAMPLING
The school’s documentations specified, there is a considerable amount’ of students who
have English as an additional language; this needed to be considered when selecting the
participants, to ensure they [the participants] fully understood the questions they were
being asked. I discussed my aims and the intended exploration, with the allocated class
teacher. The candidates sample consisted of number of girls who volunteered to
participate in this research study. The names were recorded on a list and were selected by
the class teacher. The selected participants were from a range of contextual backgrounds
to offer a representative selection; and to avoid periodicity issues (Calder, 1979).
DATA COLLECTION
TIMELINE
For organisational purposes, I assigned one day to each participant, in which I conducted
the observations; during break and lunchtimes. During the observations, I examined their
interactions with their peers, their activities and the spaces they occupied, taking notes as
form of data gathering. Later that day, I conducted a semi-structured interview with that
participant. I used the utilized interview questions (appendix 4), and I referred to my
notes to initiate further discussions about school spaces. At the end of the week, I
conducted the focus group with all four participants, in which I asked the group the
utilised questions (appendix 5) to form a group discussion.
OBSERVATIONS
The observations, were adopted from Thorne’s (1993) theory that “the metaphor of play
goes a long way in helping one grasp the social construction of gender” (p.6). This
outlined how gender tendencies are expressed in the ‘free’ environments (Ray, 2008).
The observations consisted of fifteen minutes during break and half-hour during
lunchtime, in which, I recorded the varied spaces they occupied and the activities they
engaged in. Throughout the observations, I ‘asked questions’ to obtain clarity for their
25
actions and discussed this further, in the interviews.
INTERVIEWS
I Adopted a semi-structured interview, in-which I asked the utilised questions (appendix
4) and initiated discussions related to aspects of their perceptions of who they are and
what they aspire to be; I offered the girls ‘freedom’ to express their ideas (Silva et al,
2015). I aimed to Analyse whether school environments shape girls’ identities, and
whether their academic capabilities (or lack of it), influenced their perceptions of
themselves, and their aspirations. Amongst the questions, I asked was “how well do you
think you are doing in school?” I aimed to comprehend whether the girls perceived
‘personal’ achievements (other than academic) were significant contribution to their
identity formation and ambitions, or not. Following the data from the observations, which
outlined the spaces and activities each participant engaged in. I used this information, to
guide discussions in the interviews and gain further clarity for their actions (Stewart &
Shamdasani, 2015).
FOCUS GROUP
In the focus group, I also adopted a semi-structured approach, using open-ended
questions to direct the discussions (appendix 5).
I provided the participant’s the
‘freedom’ to share their ideas and perceptions (Silva et al 2015). I acknowledged the
possibility, of some participants may intentionally sabotage the exploration or some may
feel pressured to concur with dominant speakers (Thomas, 2013). To minimise this, I
encouraged all the participants to contribute and share their ideas. Additionally, I
recognised my positionality and status, when I conducted this exploration; subsequently,
this impacted on how I assigned myself throughout my research.
I aimed to create a ‘relaxed’ environment, therefore I asked the girls to draw portraits in
three different stages of their lives: drawings that symbolised the ‘past’, ‘present’ and
‘future’ identities (Appendix 7). Through this method, I sought to obtain non-verbal
identity narratives. This was adopted from Tanaka, (2006) who stated “self-figure
drawing is... one way internal body image can be externally represented” (p. 245). This
task revealed the perceptions of their ‘actual’ identities and the transformation that has
occurred over their personal ‘timelines’ (Sfard and Prusak, 2005). The task instigated
discussions among the girls, which initiated a ‘form of direction’ (Gilbert, 1993). In the
26
focus group, I avoided to impose my opinions through asking leading questions, or
initiating specific discussions. Rather, I moderated a ‘flow’ of discussions which enabled
all the participants to effectively contribute. Overall, I was pleased with the outcomes of
all the methods used. The portraits offered significant details of narratives; that provided
me with invaluable data. On the completion of my data collection, I analysed and
transcribed the data, adding “context [and] nonverbal information” (Amos Hatch, 2002, p.
113).
DATA ANALYSIS
I analysed my data by conducting a thematic analysis to identify recurring themes and
trends from the gathered data. When I conducted this analysis, I implemented the concept
of mapping; this helped me establish the connections between the reoccurring trends and
themes (Thomas, 2013). The general themes identified were: home life (parents and
siblings), school: a place of learning, school environments and peers, culture values and
traditions, identity formations and ambitions, and capability. The analysed data was
revised to distinguish the intended meaning (Flick, 2014).
RESEARCH CREDIBILITY
In quantitative research, there is an emphasis on reliability, validity and generalisability,
of the exploration. However, when conducting qualitative research these aspects cannot
be applied, due to the subjective and exclusive nature, of the collected data. Nicholas
(2008) stated, generalising data from a non-probabilistic sample, can be difficult.
Although this exploration, it was not my aim to collect representative or generalizable
data, to represent a wider community; thus, transferability is not explored in this research.
Rather, I aimed to comprehensively transcribe the collected data, to represent diverse
perspectives and a range of positions (King & Horrock, 2010). Nevertheless, it is
important to consider the concept of relatability of my research, which aids others to learn
from, and relate to the exploration and its data (Coles &McGrath, 2010). My exploration
provided an insight to perceptions relating to girls’ gender identity formations and future
aspirations. Whilst, I appreciate the findings may not be admissible for other studies; I
believe it provides insightful context to research in a similar field.
27
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
It is vital to consider ethical guidelines, in all aspects of research, but there is an emphasis
on the ethical procedures when conducting research with young people (Alderson &
Morrow, 2011). Referring to BERA (2011) 3 guidelines stated, that all children are
considered a ‘vulnerable’, and have the right to withdraw their participation and consent
at any time. Additionally, I followed the ethical guidelines produced by the University of
Sheffield that requires the researcher to obtain the ‘en bloc’ ethical approval (appendix 1)
before their research commences, which was issued from the school of education
committee. The participants were recruited through an introductory session to one class. I
assessed the interest and gave them the relevant information sheets and the opportunity to
‘op-out’, [form]; this gave the (potential) participants an opportunity to document their
interests. I also provided information sheets that briefed the potential participants and
other authoritative individuals (i.e. teachers, parents) on my thesis and reasoning behind
it, with a consent section, which the students and their parents needed to sign, to give
their informed consent to participate (Appendix 3).
I used pseudonyms throughout the study, in order to protect the identities of the
participants and to maintain the confidentialities of the information they have shared.
Furthermore, I asked the participants to choose their own pseudonyms, because I believe
they have “a right to decide how they would be identified when research was reported”
(Macnaughton et al., 2013, p. 174). For further protection, the name and the exact
location of the school is unidentified throughout this research project.
3
British Educational Research Association
28
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS, ANALYSIS & DISCUSSIONS
This chapter outlines the research findings from the observations, interviews and the
focus group. I analysed and briefly summarized each participant, stating the main points
from the data gathered and presented it in relation to my research questions. I employed a
thematic analysis on all the data obtained, representing a range of participants, has
strengthened the credibility of repeated themes, which I have interpretively outlined
(Flicker, 2014). I presented my findings related to the girls’ identity formations and
ambitions of each of my participants, looking at ways in which they have come to
understand their ‘past’, present’’ and future identities relating my findings the issues
outlined in my literature review.
FINDINGS
Participant 1: Chyna is the oldest child of three siblings, who lives with her single
mother. She comes across as a determined young person, who is passionate for expressive
arts and desire to do well in school and after. Chyna shared a lot of home (family) related
issues that significantly shaped her behaviours, attitude and future ambitions. She
expressed that she ‘needs to look after her siblings, when mum works the late shift’. She
further stated that she wanted to be a ‘good’ example for her siblings and ‘make mum
proud’. Foremost, directing her desires of ‘becoming famous’ to a more ‘realistic’
ambition of becoming an expressive arts teacher and ‘combining passion, with
profession’. She described that education was a significant concept in her life and she
understood, its role in scaffolding a ‘good’ future. Additionally, she described her
pleasure of being in school, and describes it as a place she can ‘freely express herself’.
During the observation, she spent a considerable amount of time in the art studio, where
she practiced her routines for her drama lessons, and explained it is a place “where they
[her and peers] chill”. Chyna has strong views on the lack of gender equalities; reflecting
on her mother’s position, who ‘put on hold’ her ambition of being a bespoke dress maker,
when she became a single-mother. Chyna perceives ‘the potential of empowering
women’, although not always foreseeable.
Participant 2: Saba is a Muslim, who lives with both parents, and four siblings. Saba’s
family are seeking refuge in this country, and has been living in Sheffield for the past 3
29
years. Saba, describes her relationship with her older sister, as ‘good’, whom she looks up
to and aspires to work in the medical field like her. She understands that education is a
vital component for developing herself as an individual, as well as structuring her future.
Being a ‘new’ in the country, Saba outlined the difficulties she experienced, particularly
‘fitting in’ and forming new friendships; for this reason, she spends the majority of her
time in the library reading and improving her language skills.
Saba stated, the importance of traditional norms and cultural values has, on her family.
This emerged, when Saba expressed her passion for acquiring a career in the medicine.
However, she outlined this might not be possible, as she is due to be married at end of
year 11. Which is directly linked to the family cultural values.
Participant 3: Reyah, lives in ‘nuclear family’ unit. Reyah described her parents as
‘strict’ because they limit her access on mobile phone and is not allowed on SNS for
various reasons. During the observation Reyah spent most of her recess in the library with
two other friends whom she shared a passion of reading with. Reyah also detailed the
importance of education to get a ‘good job’ and surprisingly added: “knowledge shapes
the way we see the world around us”. She also identified that she is ‘academically
capable’ and above her targets but this is due to the ‘extra work’ she does. In relation to
the future, Reyah aspires to be vet, and this has developed through her volunteering at the
animal shelter, with her brother.
Participant 4: Jen explained that she experienced a ‘family breakdown’ that resulted in
her being taken care. She described how these circumstances affected her attachments
with friends, leaving her somewhat detached from everyone and feeling lonely.
Consequently, distracting her from her studies, and causing her to be ‘unfocused’. She
expressed ‘I don’t have a purpose in life anymore. Everything that mattered to me has
been taken away, I’m not bothered about me anymore”. This has caused her to not
consider further education, and settle for a ‘standard job’ after leaving school. During the
observation Jen spent most time in the basketball court, practising her ‘shots’ and other
related techniques. She further described, it was an activity they used to play as family, ‘it
reminds me of the good days’.
ANALYSIS & DISCUSSION
30
Following, I discussed the main themes that emerged from the findings. Which
significantly influenced the participants, and drawing these, on the explored literature.
HOME LIFE –PARENTS & SIBLINGS
The home environment has significantly ‘played a role’ in shaping all the participants’
identities, and aspirations (Ivy, 2012). However, the different family structures,
stimulated the participants in different ways. Chyna who is brought up by a single mother
demonstrated her willingness to aspire for a successful career, after observing her mother
struggle with a standard job. The concept of coming from single parent family, and
having secure ambitions, is referred to ‘border crossing’ which means not conforming to
the traditional gender norms, which is an expected outcome, according to (Owen
Blakemore et al., 2013). Contrasting, the breakdown of Jen’s family unit has caused her
to be dysfunctional and unfocused in her education; impacting on her feelings, emotions,
and her perception of her present and future identities (Wall, Covell, & Macintyre, 1999).
Furthermore, older siblings appear to have a significant impression on their young
siblings and this is reflected with two of my participants. Firstly, Lippa (2005) stated that
same-sex siblings are likely to engage in gender typical behaviours, which is reflected in
Saba scenario, aspires for a career the medical field, just like her older sister who is
currently a nurse. Contrastingly, Farkas and Leapers (2013) propose an alternative
viewpoint, suggesting that male siblings have a significant impression on their young
siblings, promoting masculine gender typicalities. Whilst, Reyahs’ ambition to become a
vet, is influenced by her step brother who volunteers for an animal shelter; this
occupation is not considered to be ‘masculine’ but is more ‘gender neutral’.
SCHOOL- A PLACE FOR LEARNING
Three out of the four participants described their school education was a vital component
for a ‘good’ careers and considers education as a vital role for bettering themselves as
individuals. All participants had a positive outlook on academic attainment and overall
progress; and considered they’re academic achievements to be a crucial concept for the
future. Moreover, all three participants described schooling is part of their intellectual
growth, self-development, and a place where they can express their views, ideas and
beliefs. Ultimately, constructing who they are and is ‘stepping stone’ to who they will
become in the future. Diversely, due to the nature of Jen’s circumstances, she describes
31
her schooling experiences as ‘pointless’ and further details she is ‘unfocused’ in her
academic education. From the observations, Jen is a skilled basketball competitor;
however, this skill is no accounted for in the Physical education curriculum. Suggesting,
the curriculum does not respond to the interest of the students (White & Musgrave, 2011).
In-essence, the schools favours a specific pathway of defining the ‘academically able
students’, singularly to achieving the ‘five A-C GCSE’s’ in core subjects (McMullin, &
Kulic, 2016).
SCHOOL ENVIRONMENTS AND PEERS
There was a correlation between the participants, the activities they engaged in and the
spaces they occupied. Three out of four girls occupied indoors spaces and engaged in
academic related activities during lunch times. Chyna, Saba, and Reyah shared a similar
viewpoint, regarding ‘school’, in which they perceive that, an education contributes to
‘better futures’. However, it’s a place where they can express themselves with their peers.
Which is a crucial concept of identity formation, as James (1993) stated “children’s
experience of both having and being friends plays a critical part in their acquisition of
social identity and selfhood” (p. 2001). Despite the positive attributes of schooling, both
Reyah and Saba encountered some ‘difficulties’ with ‘fitting in’ with peer groups
(Bullock, 2002; Boer, et al 2013). Contrastingly, the nature of Jen’s home circumstances,
in-which she described ‘constantly moving schools’ inevitably affected her relationships
with her teachers and her peers. Jens avoids any form of attachment with anyone to avoid
torment of separation, ultimately having a ‘knock-on effect’ on her confidence (Dwyer, et
al, 2010).
INDOOR SPACES
Siraj-Blatchford & Sylva, (2004) describe indoor spaces as ‘limiting’. However,
according to Chyna, the art studio is a place to “chill” and practice their routines for
drama; combining learning and socialising. Both Saba and Reyah spent almost all their
‘free’ time either in the library. Suggesting their lack to effectively engage and interact
with their peers, or perhaps indoors spaces offer the ‘comfort zone’ in which they can
express and develop themselves; as Halldén, (2003) described “the importance of
material space for belonging and identity" (p. 41). All three participants used indoor
spaces in a positive way, contributing to learning and identity formation in environments
they feel comfortable in. This opposes to Procter’s study, which states that spending ‘free
32
time’ indoors, is associated to “those who misbehave” (Procter, ND, np).
CULTURAL VALUES AND TRADITION
Cultural norms and traditions are vital concept for many; specifically, ethnic minorities.
Immigrating from their home countries to the ‘western world’ which does not share these
values, can understandably be difficult. However, the culture crossing can have both a
positive and negative effects on the people in question; and this notion emerged from
Saba. Whilst she understood that religion, cultural norms and traditional values are a key
concept of her family structure; in which she considered as a positive contribution to her
identity and who she is. Nevertheless, she also perceived this as a barrier, because it
prevented her from ‘fitting in’ school and make friends, and the more major (negative)
aspect of these cultural norms, is that she is expected to get married to her first cousin
when she completes secondary school. Despite her high aspirations and ambitions, her
future depends on whether her future husband allows her to pursue this or not.
IDENTITY FORMATION AND AMBITIONS
NUT (2013) stated that children are likely to make their own informed decisions about
their future. However, this is not reflected in the findings because the participants have
already learnt what is expected of them, and aspiring for careers that ‘suitable’ for them
and their circumstances. Three of out the four participants are able to give clear
indications of their future ambitions and where they perceive themselves to be in
adulthood (Ofsted 2011). Chyna who aspire to become a teacher, this is an inspiration
from her mother’s situation reinforcing Marmion and Lundberg-Love's work that claims,
that children convey “model gendered behaviour” (2004, p.1) from their parents. Saba has
her ambitions of becoming a professional in the medical instilled in her; however, due the
family cultural traditions, her future is uncertain. Reyah who aspires to become a vet, not
only is she influenced by her step brother but the ‘strict’ home environment in which she
is brought up in, which is shaping and constructing her identity, as suggested by Strong
and Cohen (2013). Meanwhile, Jen who had no ambitions and claimed she will end in a
‘substandard retail role’, because she is not engaged in her education and anticipates
33
leaving school with no GCSE’s. This statement reinforces Tinklin et al., (2005) view
point, that low attaining girls, tend to be affected by the gendered stereo-typical stances.
CAPABILITY AND EQUALITY
In relation to Sen’s Capability (1980), all the participants are exponents of equality.
While the curriculum and the educational setting seems to be ‘feminised’ (Arnot & Mac
An Ghaill, 2006), both genders have the same access to equipment and spaces in the
school setting. Nevertheless, it emerged that the majority of participants occupied indoor
spaces, while boys explore the outside spaces. However, Jen ‘made the choice’ of
spending her time in the basket-ball court ‘shooting hoops’; and despite Saba’s desires to
play football, she was reluctant in participating in games. Sens’s capability approach
suggests that sports are (historically) male dominated (Magee et al., 2008), leading the
participants to focus on other activities. Furthermore, identity trajectories from Sen’s
capability (1980). The participants are required to take the appropriate steps into tertiary
and further education, in order to construct their career paths, and overcome gender
barriers in these professions (Beck, 1992).
In regards to equality, three out of four participants shared a similar point of view on the
potentials of females and their ability to ‘achieve anything they want’. This indicates that,
these girls share the feminist ideology. However, each participant outlined a different
reason, on equality. Chyna stated that “men get away with murder”, referred to her father,
and his lack of commitment with Chyna and her siblings. Suggesting, that her mother is
“stereotyped and devalued” (Thorne, 1993, p.107). Whilst, Saba described that “boys
have so much freedom and not enough responsibilities because they are boys!” referred
to her brothers. Again, supporting Thorne (1993) view on ‘gender binaries’ and how girls
and boys have "different cultures" (p.84) and reinforcing Youdell (2011) claim that “sexgender regime... is not only irrefutable, but also heavily invested in and rigorously
patrolled” (p.96). Nonetheless, Reyah provided a more intellectual explanation for some
of the ‘difficulties’ that adult females encounter; such as sexism, and the gender gap in
employment. Corroborating Roberson, (2013) who argues that women “are often paid
less than those with concentrations of men, suggesting a societal devaluation of femaledominated fields” (p. 304). Despite being in the modern times, in the situation of gender
socialisation, enforces “males to associate... submissiveness, passivity, weakness, and
inferiority with femininity” (Scully & Marolla, 2005, p. 17). Contrastingly, Jen has a
34
different outlook and claimed that “men have it harder…coz it’s their duty to provide for
the women”. Which is outlined by Kotrba, (2007) that males are considered to be the
‘bread-winners’.
ANALYSIS
From the analysed data, I present the answers, in relation to my research questions. Q14:
All the participant discussed aspects of the home and school life, and recognise particular
‘life outcomes’ shapes who they are, and how this effects their future. Chyna discussed
how she aspires to be a teacher, in order to make her ‘mum proud’ after seeing her
‘struggle’. She specified to be a teacher, in her preferred subject of expressive arts and
‘combing passion, with profession’. Additionally, Reyah, expressed her desire to become
a vet, and again this was a direct link to home environment (of ‘strict’ parents), her
personal ‘love for animals’ which she shared with her brother.
Q2 5 : There are various factors that contribute to the ‘shaping’ of their identities.
However, education and the home life environments are amongst the reoccurring factors
that emerged from the analysis. Saba’s identity is rooted to her family’s cultural and
traditional norms, which is potentially restricting her from ambition of acquiring a
profession in the medical field. Whereas, the breakdown of Jen’s family has caused her to
be ‘detached’ and ‘unfocused’ in her education, and future ambitions.
Q36: Three out of the four participants described how school experiences shaped their
aspirations. Chyna, Reyha, and Saba outlined the important role of education has, on
scaffolding their future aspiration. All three participants detailed how they perceived
education as a form self-development, and that was significant concept the shaped their
4
What are year 11 girls’ perceptions of their identity, in relation to their future hopes and career aspirations?
5
What factors contribute to the formation of these identities?
6
In what ways (if any) do school experiences shape these future aspirations?
35
present selves. Moreover, all participants acknowledged their academic achievements are
a vital contribution to their future and is considered as a ‘stepping stone’ for their
ambitions.
SUMMARY
As outlined by many theorist and academics, the findings reflected a significant concept
of traditional gender socialisation from parents as well as siblings, (Ivy, 2012). All the
participants’ identities were shaped by the family (or home) life. Despite being a singular
aspect, it effected the participants in different ways. For example, Chyna was motivated
by her ‘difficult’ circumstances, whilst Jen was restricted by hers. In terms of identity
formations, there is a variation between the participants, whilst three out of four
participants aspired for ‘better futures’, the reasoning behind this varied. Reyah’s ‘strict’
family upbringing, has as a positive and a negative impact on Reyah identity. The
negative aspects are, that Reyah feels she cannot form friendships because she feels that
she has ‘nothing in common’ with her peers making her feel secluded. On the other hand,
the positives concepts are, the encouragement of her intellectual growth by motivating her
to read, allowing her to volunteer in the animal shelter, and restricting her from
technological gadgets etc, has shaped how she presents herself, and constructed her to
aspire for a stable career.
Chyna and Saba, have potentially strong ambitions (Katriel, 2008). Although they have
different home circumstances; both participants ‘present identities’ are shaped their
family situations. Chyna witnessing her single mother struggles has motivated her to
combine her passion for expressive art with a more ‘realistic’ ambition of becoming a
teacher rather than become famous. Whereas, Saba aspires for a career in the medical
field, but her future identity is restricted due family’s cultural values. Contrastingly, Jen’s
past aspirations have been dramatically changed due to the breakdown of her family unit.
This shift has negatively affected her emotional wellbeing, and her focus in school,
almost forcing to settles for a ‘substandard’ future, in comparison to her peers.
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CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION
The research project has explored girls’ perception of their identity in regards to their
future aspiration; investigating what factors shapes their identities and ambitions. This
exploration specifically examined the identities and ambitions of four secondary school
girls who live in an area of multi-cultural diversity and socio-economically deprived. I
believe this exploration answered the research questions and provided in-valuable data
relating to what social factors construct young girls’ gender identities and ambitions. The
findings revealed, the initiation of identity formation and future ambitions, (or lack of it)
is rooted to the family structure; and, the other crucial concept that contributed to the
developments of their identities and aspirations was all aspects of schooling and
education.
The family units have influenced the participants in a range of ways; Chyna’s identity
formation and future aspiration are shaped by her ‘difficult’ home environment, that
motivated her to ‘become better that her circumstances’. Saba explained that her cultural
norms and traditional values has a significant ‘in-put’ to who she is and who she will
become. Despite aspiring for a career path in the medical field; pursuing this aspiration is
determined by her cultural values. Whereas, Reyah’s strict family routines ultimately
shape who she is, and her positive interactions with her step-brother, as constructed her
future ambitions and career choices. Additionally, all three participants expressed the
importance of education, which played a vital role for bettering themselves as individuals,
as well as being a ‘path’ for future careers and good jobs. On the other hand, Jen’s
disadvantaged circumstances had negatively impacted on all aspects of Jen’s educational
experiences, and lacks self-esteem and confidence due to this. Furthermore, this has
distracted her from education and consequently, ‘shattering’ her pervious ambitions;
enforcing her to settle for ‘substandard’ future perception, compared to her peers.
Reflecting back on my research questions, I strongly believe that each participant openly
shared their personal experiences and views and answered the questions appropriately.
Each research question was answered in detail, and each participant gave a unique
answer.
Referring to the literature review, it was suggested that it was anticipated, the findings
37
would offer a correlation between the lower-class participant, and limited (or gendered)
future aspirations (Ofsted, 2011, Bartlett and Burton, 2012). However, this was not the
case, the majority of candidates possessed ‘adequate’ ambitions, all of ‘gender neutral’
professions, and one did not have any. Ofsted (2011) report raises some aspects of the
findings, regarding the lack of support for individuals like Jen. However, for more
accurate, richer data to scrutinize whether these ambitions are fulfilled; a longitude
research exploration into their adolescent and adulthood, would be required.
STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS
The strengths of this exploration lays in the research methods used. Utilising qualitative
research methods of observations, semi structured interviews and a focus group, granted
me to obtain rich data of unique narratives from the participants. Distinguishing what
factors shape their identities and construct their future aspirations. Having shared my
findings with the class teacher, she recognised the severity of Jen’s emotional well-being,
and I was pleased to hear that Jen and would be allocated to a member the inclusion team,
who would provide Jen with support, to boost herself esteem, and assist her to regain her
academic achievements. Moreover, another strength of this exploration, was it
demonstrated the behaviours and attitudes that us [as humans], which is a concept that is
not easily understood, that cannot be limited to the ‘simple’ definitions outlined by
theories or policies (Starman, 2013).
However, due to the nature of my exploration which related to personal perceptions of
identity formations and future ambitions, which included a range of demographic of race,
culture and ethnicity. Thus, the findings were considerably diverse and individualised. As
the candidates’ perceptions are constructed from their life events and experiences; thus,
making it difficult to generate straight forward answer(s) of this particular exploration.
Moreover, due to conducting a small-scale study, the findings are not representation of all
year eleven girls, because the participants were selected from a single class.
IMPLICATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
Thorne, (1993) outlines some concepts of the teaching styles, influence gender formation.
in order to get a generalizable data, it would be advised to explore this concept in
different schools, located in different socio-economical areas, recruiting more participants
38
over longer period of time. therefore, I would suggest further research, to examine this
area.
FINAL THOUGHTS
My final thoughts on my research regarding girls’ identity formations and its relation to
future aspirations; and what social factors shape the construction of the identities; are as
followed. The girls had a clear understanding of their personal life journeys, and they are
able to make ‘connections’ between their life outcome or circumstances, and its impact
on who they are, and who they aspire to be. It appeared that the family structure and the
school environment (including education), were the most influential factors that shapes
these girls’ identities and aspiration. Despite this outcome, it emerged that each
influential factor, effected the participants in different ways, shaping their identities in
different manners. Therefore, I believe that girls that class deprived, and come from areas
that are culturally diverse, have the potential to aspire further, and do better. In terms of
their circumstances, whilst they cannot change their environments, they can try to change
how it affects them. Therefore, through this explorations and the girls’ narrative I believe
my research has captured the essence of girls’ identity formation, and its relation to future
aspirations.
39
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