Lesson No: 1 Author : Dr. Jawahar Lesson Name : Overview of System Analysis & Design Vetter: Prof. Dharminder Kumar 1.0 Objectives: 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Over View of System Analysis and Design 1.3 Business System Concepts 1.4 Characteristics of a System 1.5 Elements of a System 1.6 Types of Systems 1.7 Systems Models 1.8 Categories of Information 1.9 Summary 1.10 Questions 1.0 Objectives • Defining a system • The role of computer in information systems • What are the characteristic and element of information system • What are the various types of information system and models • What are the different types of specialised information system 1.1 Introduction In business, System Analysis and Design refers to the process of examining a business situation with the intent of improving it through better procedures and methods. System analysis and design relates to shaping organizations, improving performance and achieving objectives for profitability and growth. The emphasis is on systems in action, the relationships among subsystems and their contribution to meeting a common goal. Looking at a system and determining how adequately it functions, the changes to be made and the quality of the output are parts of system analysis. Organizations are complex systems that consist of interrelated and interlocking subsystems. Changes in one part of the system have both anticipated and unanticipated consequences in other parts of the system. The systems approval is a way of thinking about the analysis and design of computer based applications. It provides a framework for visualizing the organizational and environmental factors that operate on a system. When a computer is introduced into an organization, various functions’ and dysfunction’s operate on the user as well as on the organization. Among the positive consequences are improved performance and a feeling of achievement with quality information. Among the unanticipated consequences might be a possible threat to employees job, a decreased morale of personnel due to back of involvement and a feeling of intimidation by users due to computer illiteracy. The analyst’s role is to remove such fears and make the system a success. System analysis and design focus on systems, processes and technology. 1.2 Over View of System Analysis and Design Systems development can generally be thought of as having two major components: Systems analysis and Systems design. System design is the process of planning a new business system or one to replace or complement an existing system. But before this planning can be done, we must thoroughly understand the old system and determine how computers can best be used to make its operation more effective. System analysis, then, is the process of gathering and interpreting facts, diagnosing problems, and using the information to recommend improvements to the system. This is the job of the systems analyst. Consider, for example, the stockroom operation of a clothing store. To better control its inventory and gain access to more up – to – date information about stock levels and reordering, the store asks a system analyst, to “computerize” its stockroom operations. Before one can design a system to capture data, update files, and produce reports, one needs to know more about the store operations: what forms are being used to store information manually, such as requisitions, purchase orders, and invoices and what reports are being produced and how they are being used. To proceed, you then seek out information about lists of reorder notices, outstanding purchase orders, records of stock on hand, and other reports. You also need to find out where this information originates, whether in the purchasing department, stockroom, or accounting department. In other words, you must understand how the existing system works and, more specifically, what the flow of information through the system looks like. You also must know why the store wants to change its current operations. Does the business have problems tracking orders, merchandise, or money? Does it seem to fall behind in handling inventory records? Does it need a more efficient system before it can expand operations? Only after you have collected these facts can you being to determine how and where a computer information system can benefit all the users of the system. This accumulation of information, called a systems study, must precede all other analysis activities. Systems analysts do more than solve current problems. They are frequently called upon to help handle the planned expansion of a business. In the case of the clothing store, the systems study is future oriented, since no system currently exists. Analysts assess as carefully as possible what the future needs of the business will be and what changes should be considered to meet these needs. In this instance and in most others, analysts may recommend alternatives for improving the situation. Usually more than one strategy is possible. Working with managers and employees in the organization, systems analysts recommend which alternative to adopt, based on such concerns as the suitability of the solution to the particular organization and setting, as well as the employee support the solution is likely to have. Sometimes the time required to develop one alternative, compared with others, is the most critical issue. Costs and benefits are also important determinants. In the end, management, which will pay for and use the result, actually decides which alternative to accept. Once this decision is made, a plan is developed to implement the recommendation. The plan includes all systems design features, such as new data capture needs, file specifications, operating procedures, equipment and personnel needs. The systems design is like the blueprint for a building: it specifies all the features that are to be in the finished product. Designs for the stockroom will provide ways to capture data about orders and sales to customers and specify the way the data will be stored, whether on paper forms or on a computer – readable medium, such as magnetic tape or disk. The designs will also designate work to be performed by people and by computers. Designs vary in their division of human and computer tasks. The stockroom personnel will also need information about the business. Each design describes output to be produced by the system, such as inventory reports, sales analyses, purchasing summaries, and invoices. The systems analysts will actually decide which outputs to use, as well as how to produce them. Analysis specifies what the system should do. Design states how to accomplish the objective. Notice that each of the processes mentioned involves people. Managers and employees have good ideas about what works and what does not, about what flows smoothly and what causes problems, about where change is needed and where it is not, and especially about where change will be accepted and where it will not. Despite technology, people are still the keys that make the organizations work. Thus, communicating and dealing with people are very important parts of the systems analyst’s job. 1.3 Business System Concepts The word system is widely used. It has become fashionable to attach the word system to add a contemporary flair when referring to things or processes. People speak of exercise system, investment system, delivery system, information system, education system, computer system etc. System may be referred to any set of components, which function in interrelated manner for a common cause or objective. 1.3.1Definition: The term system is derived form the Greek word systema, which means an organized relationship among functioning units or components. A system exists because it is designed to achieve one or more objectives. We come into daily contact with the transportation system, the telephone system, the accounting system, the production system, and, for over two decades, the computer system. Similarly, we talk of the business system and of the organization as a system consisting of interrelated departments (subsystems) such as production, sales, personnel, and an information system. None of these subsystems is of much use as a single, independent unit. When they are properly coordinated, however, the firm can function effectively and profitably. There are more than a hundred definitions of the word system, but most seem to have a common thread that suggests that a system is an orderly grouping of interdependent components linked together according to a plan to achieve a specific objective. The word component may refer to physical parts (engines, wings of aircraft, car), managerial steps (planning, organizing and controlling), or a system in a multi level structure. The component may be simple or complex, basic or advanced. They may be single computer with a keyboard, memory, and printer or a series of intelligent terminals linked to a mainframe. In either case, each component is part of the total system and has to do its share of work for the system to achieve the intended goal. This orientation requires an orderly grouping of the components for the design of a successful system. The study of systems concepts, then, has three basic implications: 1. A system must be designed to achieve a predetermined objective. 2. Interrelationships and interdependence must exist among the components. 3. The objectives of the organization as a whole have a higher priority than the objectives of its subsystems. For example, computerizing personnel applications must conform to the organization’s policy on privacy, confidentiality and security, as will as making selected data (e.g. payroll) available to the accounting division on request. 1.4 Characteristics of a System Our definition of a system suggests some characteristics that are present in all systems: organization (order), interaction, interdependence, integration and a central objective. 1.4.1 Organization Organization implies structure and order. It is the arrangement of components that helps to achieve objectives. In the design of a business system, for example, the hierarchical relationships starting with the president on top and leading downward to the blue – collar workers represents the organization structure. Such an arrangement portrays a system – subsystem relationship, defines the authority structure, specifies the formal flow of communication and formalizes the chain of command. Like – wise, a computer system is designed around an input device, a central processing unit, an output device and one or more storage units. When linked together they work as a whole system for producing information. 1.4.2 Interaction Interaction refers to the manner in which each component functions with other components of the system. In an organization, for example, purchasing must interact with production, advertising with sales and payroll with personnel. In a computer system, the central processing unit must interact with the input device to solve a problem. In turn, the main memory holds programs and data that the arithmetic unit uses for computation. The interrelationship between these components enables the computer to perform. 1.4.3 Interdependence Interdependence means that parts of the organization or computer system depend on one another. They are coordinated and linked together according to a plan. One subsystem depends on the input of another subsystem for proper functioning: that is, the output of one subsystem is the required input for another subsystem. This interdependence is crucial in systems work. An integrated information system is designed to serve the needs of authorized users (department heads, managers, etc.) for quick access and retrieval via remote terminals. The interdependence between the personnel subsystem and the organization’s users is obvious. In summary, no subsystem can function in isolation because it is dependent on the data (inputs) it receives from other subsystems to perform its required tasks. Interdependence is further illustrated by the activities and support of systems analysts, programmers, and the operations staff in a computer centre. A decision to computerize an application is initiated by the user, analyzed and designed by the analyst, programmed and tested by the programmer, and run by the computer operator. None of these persons can perform property without the required input from others in the computer center subsystem. Figure 1-1: Organization Structure – An Example Formal Organizational positions President Vice- President Sales Vice- President Production Department Head Assembly Workers Vice- President Accounting Departing Head Painting Lines of Authority Workers 1.4.4 Integration Integration refers to the holism of systems. Synthesis follows analysis to achieve the central objective of the organization. Integration is concerned with how a system is tied together. It is more than sharing a physical part or location. It means that parts of the system work together within the system even though each part performs a unique function. Successful integration will typically produce a synergistic effect and greater total impact than if each component works separately. 1.4.5 Central objective The last characteristic of a system is its central objective. Objectives may be real or stated. Although a stated objective may be the real objective, it is not uncommon for an organization to state one objective and operate to achieve another. The important point is that users must know the central objective of a computer application early in the analysis for a successful design and conversion. Political as well as organizational considerations often cloud the real objective. This means that the analyst must work around such obstacles to identify the real objective of the proposed change. 1.5 Elements of a System In most cases, systems analysts operate in a dynamic environment where change is a way of life. The environment may be a business firm, a business application, or a computer system. To reconstruct a system, the following key elements must be considered: 1. Outputs and inputs. 2. Processor(s). 3. Control. 4. Feedback. 5. Environment. 6. Boundaries and interface. 1.5.1 Outputs and Inputs A major objective of a system is to produce an output that has value to its user. Whatever the nature of the output (goods, services, or information), it must be in line with the expectations of the intended user. Inputs are the elements (material, human resources, and information) that enter the system for processing. Output is the outcome of processing. A system feeds on input to produce output in much the same way that a business brings in human, financial, and material resources to produce goods and services. It is important to point out here that determining the output is a first step in specifying the nature, amount, and regularity of the input needed to operate a system. For example, in systems analysis, the first concern is to determine the user’s requirements of a proposed computer system – that is, specification of the output that the computer is expected to provide for meeting user requirements. 1.5.2 Processor(s) The processor is the element of a system that involves the actual transformation of input into output. It is the operational component of a system. Processors may modify the input totally or partially, depending on the specifications of the output. This means that as the output specifications change so does the processing. In some cases, input is also modified to enable the processor to handle the transformation. 1.5.3 Control The control element guides the system. It is the decision – making subsystem that controls the pattern of activities governing input, processing, and output. In an organizational context, management as a decision – making body controls the inflow, handling and outflow of activities that affect the welfare of the business. In a computer system, the operating system and accompanying software influence the behaviour of the system. Output specifications determine what and how much input is needed to keep the system in balance. In systems analysis, knowing the attitudes of the individual who controls the area for which a computer is being considered can make a difference between the success and failure of the installation. Management support is required for securing control and supporting the objective of the proposed change. 1.5.4 Feedback Control in a dynamic system is achieved by feedback. Feedback measures output against a standard in some form of cybernetic procedure that includes communication and control. Output information is fed back to the input and / or to management (Controller) for deliberation. After the output is compared against performance standards, changes can result in the input or processing and consequently, the output. Feedback may be positive or negative, routing or informational. Positive feedback reinforces the performance of the system. It is routine in nature. Negative feedback generally provides the controller with information for action. In systems analysis, feedback is important in different ways. During analysis, the user may be told that the problems in a given application verify the initial concerns and justify the need for change. Another form of feedback comes after the system is implemented. The user informs the analyst about the performance of the new installation. This feedback often results in enhancements to meet the user’s requirements. 1.5.5 Environment The environment is the “suprasystem” within which an organization operates. It is the source of external elements that impinge on the system. In fact, it often determines how a system must function. For example, the organization’s environment, consisting of vendors, competitors, and others, may provide constraints and, consequently, influence the actual performance of the business. 1.5.6 Boundaries and interface A system should be defined by its boundaries – the limits that identify its components, processes and interrelationship when it interfaces with another system. For example, a teller system in a commercial bank is restricted to the deposits, withdrawals and related activities of customers checking and savings accounts. It may exclude mortgage foreclosures, trust activities, and the like. Each system has boundaries that determine its sphere of influence and control. For example, in an integrated banking – wide computer system design, a customer who has a mortgage and a checking account with the same bank may write a check through the “teller system” to pay the premium that is later processed by the “mortgage loan system.” Recently, system design has been successful in allowing the automatic transfer of funds form a bank account to pay bills and other obligations to creditors, regardless of distance or location. This means that in systems analysis, knowledge of the boundaries of a given system is crucial in determining the nature of its interface with other systems for successful design. 1.6 Types of systems The frame of reference within which one views a system is related to the use of the systems approach for analysis. Systems have been classified in different ways. Common classifications are: (1) physical or abstract, (2) open or closed, and (3) “man – made” information systems. 1.6.1 Physical or abstract systems Physical systems are tangible entities that may be static or dynamic in operation. For example, the physical parts of the computer center are the officers, desks, and chairs that facilitate operation of the computer. They can be seen and counted; they are static. In contrast, a programmed computer is a dynamic system. Data, programs, output, and applications change as the user’s demands or the priority of the information requested changes. Abstract systems are conceptual or non-physical entities. They may be as straightforward as formulas of relationships among sets of variables or models – the abstract conceptualization of physical situations. A model is a representation of a real or a planned system. The use of models makes it easier for the analyst to visualize relationships in the system under study. The objective is to point out the significant elements and the key interrelationships of a complex system. 1.6.2 Open or Closed Systems Another classification of systems is based on their degree of independence. An open system has many interfaces with its environment. It permits interaction across its boundary; it receives inputs from and delivers outputs to the outside. An information system falls into this category, since it must adapt to the changing demands of the user. In contrast, a closed system is isolated from environmental influences. In reality, a completely closed system is rare. In systems analysis, organizations, applications and computers are invariably open, dynamic systems influenced by their environment. Figure: 1.3 Gantt Chart – An Example Gantt Chart Departments Number or workers Capacity per week May 5 25 Stamping Sanding Assembly Painting 75 3,000 10 400 60 2,400 8 320 6 28 22 21 25 19 13 12 20 1 4 29 A focus on the characteristics of an open system is particularly timely in the light of present – day business concerns with computer fraud, invasion of privacy, security controls, and ethics in computing. Whereas the technical aspects of systems analysis deal with internal routines within the user’s application area, systems analysis as an open system tends to expand the scope of analysis to relationships between the user area and other users and to environmental factor that must be considered before a new system is finally approved. Furthermore, being open to suggestions implies that the analyst has to be flexible and the system being designed has to be responsive to the changing needs of the user and the environment. Five important characteristics of open systems can be identified. 1. Input from outside: Open systems are self – adjusting and self-regulating. When functioning properly, an open system reaches a steady state or equilibrium. In a retail firm, for example, a steady state exists when goods are purchased and sold without being either out of stock or overstocked. An increase in the cost of goods forces a comparable increase in prices or decrease in operating costs. This response gives the firm its steady state. 2. Entropy: All dynamic systems tend to run down over time, resulting in entropy or loss of energy. Open systems resist entropy by seeking new inputs or modifying the processes to return to a steady state. In our example, no reaction to increase in cost of merchandise makes the business unprofitable which could force it into insolvency – a state of disorganization. 3. Process, output and cycles: Open systems produce useful output and operate in cycles, following a continuous flow path. 4. Differentiation: Open systems have a tendency toward an increasing specialization of functions and a greater differentiation of their components. In business, the roles of people and machines tend toward greater specialization and greater interaction. This characteristic offers a compelling reason for the increasing value of the concept of systems in the systems analyst’s thinking. 5. Equifinality: The term implies that goals are achieved through differing courses of action and a variety of paths. In most systems, there is more of a consensus on goals than on paths to reach the goals. Understanding system characteristics helps analysts to identify their role and relate their activities to the attainment of the firm’s objectives as they undertake a system project. Analysts are themselves part of the organization. They have opportunities to adapt the organization to changes through computerized application so that the system does not “run down.” A key to this process is information feedback from the prime user of the new system as well as from top management. The theme of the process of designing information systems borrows heavily from a general knowledge of systems theory. The objective is to make a system more efficient by modifying its goals or changing the outputs. 1.6.3 Man – Made Information Systems Ideally, information reduces uncertainty about a state or event. For example, information that the wind is calm reduces the uncertainty that the boat trip will be pleasant. An information system is the basis for interaction between the user and the analyst. It provides instruction, commands and feedback. It determines the nature of the relationships among decision-makers. In fact, it may be viewed as a decision center for personnel at all levels. From this basis, an information system may be defined as a set of devices, procedures and operating systems designed around user based criteria to produce information and communicate it to the user for planning, control and performance. In systems analysis, it is important to keep in mind that considering an alternative system means improving one or more of these criteria. Many practitioners fail to recognize that a business has several information systems; each is designed for a purpose and works to accommodate data flow, communications, decision making, control and effectiveness. The major information systems are formal, informal and computer based. Formal Information system A formal information system is based on the organization represented by the organization chart. The chart is a map of positions and their authority relationships, indicated by boxes and connected by straight lines. It is concerned with the pattern of authority, communication and workflow. Information is formally disseminated in instructions, memos, or reports from top management to the intended user in the organization. This structure also allows feedback up the chain of command for follow – up. In Figure 1-1 input form the environment provides impetus for policy decision by top management. Policies are generalizations that specify what an organization ought to do. Policies are translated into directives, rules and regulations and transmitted to lower-level management for implementation. The output represents employee performance. 1.7 Systems Models In no field are models used more widely and with greater variety than in systems analysis. The analyst beings by creating a model of the reality (facts, relationships, procedures, etc.) with which the system is concerned. Every computer system deals with the real world, a problem area, or a reality outside itself. For examples, a telephone switching system is made up of subscribers, telephone handsets, dialing, conference calls, and the like. The analyst beings by modeling this reality before considering the functions that the system is to perform. Various business system models are used to show the benefits of abstracting complex system to model form. The major models are schematic, flow, static and dynamic system models. 1.7.1 Schematic Models. A schematic model is a two – dimensional chart depicting system elements and their linkages. Different arrows are used to depict information flow, material flow and information feedback. Various elements of the system are depicted in boxes. 1.7.2 Flow system Models. A flow system model shows the flow of the material, energy and information that hold the system together. There is an orderly flow of logic in such models. A widely known example is PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique). It is used to abstract a real world system in model form, manipulate specific values to determine the critical path, interpret the relationships and relay them back as a control. The probability of completion within a time period is considered in connection with time, resources and performance specifications as shown in the figure1.2. Figure 1.2 PERT an example 4 E 1 B 5 A D 1.7.3 Static system models. This type of model exhibits one pair of relationships such as activity – time or cost – quantity. The Gantt chart, for example, gives a static picture of an activity- time relationship. Planned activities (stamping, sanding etc.) are plotted in relation to time are shown in figure 1.3. The date column has light lines that indicate the amount of time it takes to complete a given activity. The heavy line represents the cumulative time schedule for each activity. The stamping department, for example, is scheduled to start working on order number 25 Wednesday morning and complete the job by the same evening. One day is also scheduled for order number 28, two days for order number 28, two days for order number 22 and two days (May 10-11) for order number 29. The heavy line opposite the stamping department represents the total of six days. The broken line indicates that the department is two days behind schedule. The arrowhead indicates the date when the chart is to be in effect. 1.7.4 Dynamic System Models. Business organizations are dynamic systems. A dynamic model approximates the type of organization or application that analysts deal with. It depicts an ongoing, constantly changing system. It consists of (1) inputs that enter the system, (2) the processor through which transformation takes place, (3) the program(s) required for processing and (4) the output(s) that result from processing. 1.8 Categories of Information There are three categories of information related to managerial levels and the decision managers make. The first level is strategic information, which relates to long – range planning policies that are of direct interest to upper management. Information such as population growth, trends in financial investment and human resources changes would be of interest to top company officials who are responsible for developing policies and determining long-range goals. This type of information is achieved with the aid of Decision Support System (DSS). The second level of information is managerial information. It is of direct use to middle management and department heads for implementation and control. Examples are sales analysis, cash flow projection and annual financial statements. This information is of use in short – and intermediate -range planning – that is months rather than years. It is maintained with the aid of management information systems (MIS). The third information level is operational information, which is short-term, daily information used to operate departments and enforce the day-to-day rules and regulations of the business. Examples are daily employee absent sheets, overdue purchase orders and current stocks available. Operational information is established by data processing systems (DPS). Figure 1.4 shows the same. The nature of the information and managerial levels is also related to the major types of decision making: structured and unstructured decision making. An organizational process that is closed, stable and mechanistic tends to be more structured, computational and relies on routine decision making for planning and control. Such decision making is related to lower-level management and is readily supported with computer systems. In contrast, open, adaptive, dynamic processes increase the uncertainty associated with decision making and are generally evidenced by a lack of structure in the decision – making process. Lack of structure as well as extraorganizational and incomplete information makes it difficult to secure computer support. Table 1-2 summarizes the characteristics of decision making and the information required at different managerial levels. Figure 1-4: Management Level Management and Information Levels in a Typical Organization. Information Level System Support Upper Strategic Planning Information Middle Management control information Lower Operational Information Therefore, in designing an information system, the analyst needs to determine the type of information needed, the level of the information, how it is structured and in what format it is before deciding on the system needed to produce it. This is another reason for having a background in systems theory and organizations. 1.8.1 Informal Information Systems The formal information system is a power structure designed to achieve company goals. An organization’s emphasis on control to ensure performance tends to restrict the communication flow among employees. As a result, an informal information system develops. It is an employee based system designed to meet personnel and vocational needs and to help solve work – related problems. It also funnels information upward through indirect channels. In this respect, it is a useful system because it works within the framework of the business and it’s stated policies. In doing a systems study, the analyst should have a knowledge of the chain of command, the power-authority-influence network, and how decisions are made to get a feel for how much support can be expected for a prospective installation. Furthermore, knowledge about the inner workings of the employee- based system is useful during the exploratory phase of analysis. Employee cooperation and participation are crucial in preventing sabotage and training users. Since computers cannot provide reliable information without user staff support, a proper interface with the informal communication channels could mean the difference between the success and failure of new systems. 1.8.2 Computer – Based Information Systems A third class of information system relies on the computer for handling business applications. The computer is now a required source of information. Systems analysis relies heavily on computers for problem solving. This suggests that the analyst must be familiar with computer technology and have experience in handling people in an organizational context. 1.8.2.1 Management Information Systems (MIS) The computer has had a significant impact on the techniques used by management to operate a business. The level of the manager in the organization is also a factor in determining the kind of information needed to solve a problem. Lower – level management needs detailed internal information to make day – to – day, relatively structured control decisions. Higher – level management, for whom long – range objectives are the primary concerns, requires summarized information from a variety of sources to attain goals. In either case, management action is based on information that is accurate, relevant, complete, concise, and timely. MIS has been successful in meeting these information criteria quickly and responsively. MIS is a person – machine system and a highly integrated grouping of information – processing functions designed to provide management with a comprehensive picture of specific operations. It is actually a combination of information systems. To do the job, it should operate in real time, handling inquires as quickly as they are received. Management information must also be available early enough to affect a decision. Operationally, MIS should provide for file definition, file maintenance and updating, transaction and inquiry processing and one or more databases linked to an organizational database. Within a MIS, a single transaction can simultaneously update all related data files in the system. In so doing, data redundancy (duplication) and the time it takes to duplicate data are kept to a minimum, thus insuring that data are kept current at all times. A key element of MIS is the database – a non-redundant collection of interrelated data items that can be processed through application programs and available to many users. All records must be related in some way. Sharing common data means that many programs can use the same files or records. Information is accessed through a data base management system (DBMS). It is a part of the software that handles virtually every activity involving the physical database. There are several advantages to a data base system: 1. Processing time and the number of programs written are substantially reduced. 2. All applications share centralized files. 3. Storage space duplication is eliminated. 4. Data are stored once in the database and are easily accessible when needed. The two primary drawbacks of a database are the cost of specialized personnel and the need to protect sensitive data from unauthorized access. The primary users of MIS are middle and top management, operational managers and support staff. Middle and top management use MIS for preparing forecasts, special requests for analysis, long – range plans and periodic reports. Operational managers use MIS primarily for short- range planning, periodic and exception reports. The support staff finds MIS useful for the special analysis of information and reports to help management in planning and control. Providing data for use in MIS is the function of most levels of personnel in the organization. Once entered into the system, the information is no longer owned by the initiating user but becomes available to all authorized users. Today’s typical MIS poses several problems. Most MIS reports are historical and tend to be dated. Another problem is that many installations have databases that are not in line with user requirements. This means that many MIS environments have not been congruent with the real world of the user. Finally, an inadequate or incomplete update of the database jeopardizes the reliability for all users. A major problem encountered in MIS design is obtaining the acceptance and support of those who will interface with the system. Personnel who perceive that their jobs are threatened may resist the implementation of MIS. In understanding both technology and human behavior, the analyst faces the challenge of selling change to the right people for a successful installation. 1.8.2.1 Decision Support Systems (DSS) One reason cited in the literature of management’s frustration with MIS is the limited support it provides top management for decision making. DSS advances the capabilities of MIS. It assists management in making decisions. It is actually a continually evolving model that relies heavily on operations research. Gorry and Morton Coined the term decision support system (DSS). The origin of the term is simple: Decision – emphasizes decision making in problem situations, not information processing, retrieval, or reporting. Support – requires computer-aided decision situations with enough “structure” to permit computer support. System – accentuates the integrated nature of problem solving, suggesting a combined “man”, machine, and decision environment. Beginning with management decision systems in the early 1970’s the concept of interactive computer – based systems supporting unstructured decision making has been expanded to include everything but transaction processing systems. A typical early definition required an interactive computer – based system to help users use data and models to solve unstructured problems. There are authors today who view DSS as an extension of MIS, DSS as independent of MIS, or MIS as a subset of DSS. The commonly accepted view in the literature views DSS as a second – generation MIS. MIS is generated when we add predefined managerial reports that are spun out of the transaction processing, report generation and online inquiry capabilities – all integrated with a given functional area such as production MIS or personnel MIS. DSS result from adding external data sources, accounting and statistical models and interactive query capabilities. The outcome is a system designed to serve all levels of management and top management in particular, in dealing with “what if” unstructured problem situations. It is a system with the intrinsic capability to support ad hoc data analysis as well as decision – modeling activities. The intelligence phase of decision making involves the awareness of a problem at a symptomatic level; it requires a closer look at the problem and a through evaluation of the variables and their relationships. The more intelligence management has about the cause of a problem, the better is the likelihood of designing a good decision. A DSS can provide intelligence through information retrieval and statistical packages. The design phase of decision making focuses on the evaluation of decision alternatives. During this phase, computer – based deterministic or stochastic models may be used for decision design. DSS plays a major role in decision design under uncertainty. The output of the model(s) is the basis of the choice phase of decision-making. 1.10 Summary: A system is orderly grouping of interdependent components linked together according to a plan to achieve a specific objective. Its main characteristic are organization, interaction, interdependence, integration and a central objective. To construct a system, system analyst must consider its elements- input and output, processors, control, feedback, and environment. System are classified as physical or abstract, open or closed, and man-made information systems. A system may be schematic, static or dynamic. An information system is an open system that allows inputs and facilitates interaction with the user. The main characteristic of an open system are input from outside, processing, output, operation in cycles through feedback, differentiation, and equifinality. Three level of information in organization that require a special type of information system. Strategic information system for long range planning policies and upper management. Managerial information system helps middle management and department heads in policy implementation and control. Operational information system helps the daily information needed to operate the business. Future emphasises on the decision support system not on information processing, it requires a computer aided environment and accentuates a combined man and machine and decision environment. 1.9 Questions: 1. Define system. Give examples. 2. What is man made information system. 3. Explain the features of a system. 4. Elaborate the different types of systems. 5. A system leads to a lot of planning and less of implementation. Do you agree, justify your answer. Lesson No: 2 Author : Dr. Jawahar Lesson Name : System Development Life Cycle CHAPTER 2 Vetter: Dr. Pradeep K. Bhatia System Development Life Cycle 2.0 Objectives: 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Stages of system development Life cycle 2.2.1 Project Selection 2.2.2 Feasibility Study 2.2.3 Analysis 2.2.4 Design 2.2.5 Implementation 2.2.5.1 Post – Implementation and Maintenance 2.3 Considerations for candidate system 2.3.1 Political considerations 2.4 Planning and control for system success 2.5 Summary 2.6 Questions 2.0 Objectives • • How to build the computer based information system What are the different steps in system development life cycle • What prompts users to change their request • What are the various components of feasibility study • What are the factors to consider in a candidate system • How to plan and control for the system success 2.1 Introduction The system analyst gives a system development project meaning & direction. A candidate system is approached after the analyst has a through understanding of user needs & problems. A viable solution is worked out and then communicates the same. Candidate systems often cut across the boundaries of users in the organization. For example, a billing system may involve users in the sales order department, the credit department, the warehouse and the accounting department. To make sure that all users’ needs are met, a project from that represents each user works with the analysis to carry out a system development project. 2.2 Stages of system development Life cycle The system development life cycle method is classically thought of as the set of activities that analysts, designers and users carry out to develop and implement an information system. The various stages in the business are closely related to each other, even the order of the steps in these activities is difficult to determine. 2.2.1 Project Selection One must know what the problem is before it can be solved. The basis for a candidate system is recognition of a need for improving an information system or a procedure. For example, a supervisor may want to investigate the system flow in purchasing, or a bank president has been getting complaints about the long lines in the drive – in. This need leads to a preliminary survey or an initial investigation to determine whether an alternative system can solve the problem. It entails looking into the duplication of effort, bottlenecks, inefficient existing procedures, or whether parts of the existing system would be candidates for computerization. If the problem is serious enough, management may want to have an analyst look at it. Such an assignment implies a commitment, especially if the analyst is hired from the outside. In larger environments, where formal procedures are the norm, the analyst’s first task is to prepare a statement specifying the scope and objective of the problem. He/She then reviews it with user for accuracy. At this stage, only a rough “ ball park” estimate of the development cost of the project may be reached. However, an accurate cost of the next phase- the feasibility study – can be produced. Impetus for system Change The idea for change originates in the environment or from within the firm (see Figure 2-1). Environment-based ideas originate from customers, vendors, government sources, and the like. For example, new unemployment compensation regulations may make it necessary to change the restructures. Customer complaints about the delivery of orders may prompt an investigation of the delivery schedule, the experience of truck drivers, or the volume of orders to be delivered. When investigated, each of these ideas may lead to a problem definition as a first step in the system life cycle process. Ideas for change may also come from within the organization- top management, the user, and the analyst. As an organization changes its operations or faces advances in computer technology, someone within the organization may feel the need to update existing applications or improve procedures. Here are some examples: • An organization acquires another organization. • A local bank branches into the suburbs. • A department spends 80 percent of its budget in one month. • Two departments are doing essentially the same work, and each department head insists the other department should be eliminated. • A request for a new form discloses the use of bootleg (unauthorized) forms. Serious problems in operations, a high rate of labor turnover, labor intensive activities, and high reject rates of finished goods, also prompt top management to initiate an investigation. Other examples are: • A report reaches a senior vice president and she suspects the figures. • The company comptroller reads an IRS audit report and starts thinking. • An executive read about decision support systems for sales forecasting and it gives him an idea. Many of these ideas lead to further studies by management request, often funneled downward and carried out by lower management. User- originated ideas also prompt initial investigations. For example, a bank’s head teller has been noticing long customer lines in the lobby. She wants to know whether they are due to the computers slow response to inquires, the new teller’s limited training or just a sudden increase in bank business. To what extent and how quickly a user- originated idea is converted to a feasibility study depend on several factors: • The risks and potential returns. • Management’s bias toward the user. • Financial costs, and the funds, available for system work. • Priorities of other projects in the firm. • The persuasive ability of the user. All these factors are crucial for a prompt response to a user request for change. A systems analyst is in a unique position to detect and even area of operations make him/ her a convenient resource for ideas. The role and status of the analyst as a professional add credibility to the suggestions made. Organization based Sources of system ideas Environment based Organizatio Govt. Top Management User System Analyst Moving force for Consumers Union Competition Figure 2.1 Major Sources of Change 2.2.2 Feasibility Study Depending on the results of the initial investigation, the survey is expanded to a more detailed feasibility study. A feasibility study is a test of a system proposal according to its workability. Impact on the organization, ability to meet user needs, and effective use of resources. It focuses on three major questions: 1. What are the user’s demonstrable needs and how does a candidate system meet them? 2. What resources are available for given candidate systems? Is the problem worth solving? 3. What is the likely impact of the candidate system on the organization? How well does it fit within the organization’s master MIS plan? Each of these questions must be answered carefully. They revolve around investigation and evaluation of the problem, identification and description of candidate systems, specification or performance and the cost of each system and final selection of the best system. The objective of feasibility study is not to solve the problem but to acquire a sense of its scope. During the study the problem definition is crystallized and aspects of the problem to be included in the system are determined. Consequently, costs and benefits are estimated with greater accuracy at this stage. The result of the feasibility study is a formal proposal. This is simply a report- a formal document detailing the nature and scope of the proposed solution. The proposal summarizes what is known and what is going to be done. It consists of the following: 1. Statement of the problem – a carefully worded statement of the problem that led to analysis. 2. Summary of findings and recommendations- a list of the major findings and recommendations of the study. It is ideal for the user who requires quick access to the results of the analysis of the system under study. Conclusions are stated followed by a list of the recommendations and a justification for them. 3. Details of findings- an outline of the methods and procedures undertaken by the existing system followed by coverage of the objectives and procedures of the candidate system. Included are also discussions of output reports, file structures, and costs and benefits of the candidate system. 4.Recommendations and conclusions- specific recommendations regarding the candidate system including personnel assignments, costs, project schedules, and target dates. After management reviews the proposal, it becomes a formal agreement that paves the way for actual design and implementations. This is a crucial decision point in the life cycle. Many project die here, whereas the more promising ones continue through implementations. Changes in the proposal are made in writing, depending on the complexity size, and cost of the project. It is simply common sense to verify changes before committing the project design. 2.2.3 Analysis Analysis is a detailed study of the various operations performed by a system and their relationships within and outside of the system. A key question is, what must be done to solve the problem? One aspect of analysis is defining the boundaries of the system and determining whether or not a candidate system should consider other related systems. During analysis, data are collected on the available files, decision points, and transactions handled by the present system. Data flow diagrams interviews, on – site observations, and questionnaires are examples of the analysis tools. The interviews is a commonly used tool in analysis, it requires special skills and sensitivity to the subjects being interviewed. Bias in data collection and interpretation can be a problem. Training, experience, and common sense are required for collection of the information needed to do the analysis. Once analysis is completed the analyst has a firm understanding of what is to be done. The next step is to decide how the problem might be solved. Thus, in systems, design we move from the logical to the physical aspects of the life cycle. 2.2.4 Design The most creative and challenging phase of the system life cycle is system design. The term design describes a final system and the process by which it is developed. It refers to the technical specifications (analogous to the engineer’s blueprints) that will be applied in implementing the candidate system. It also includes the construction of programs and program testing. The key questions here is: How should the problem be solved? The major steps in design are shown in Figure 2.2. The first step is to determine how the output is to be produced and in what format. Samples of the output (and input) are also presented. Second, input data and master files (database) have to be designed to meet the requirements of the proposed output. The operational (processing) phases are handled through program construction and testing including a list of the programs needed to meet the system’s objectives and complete documentation. Finally, details related to justification of the system and an estimate of the impact of the candidate system on the user and the organization are documented and evaluated by management as a step toward implementation. The final report prior to the implementation phase includes procedural flowcharts, record layouts, report layouts, and a workable plan for implementing the candidate system. Information on personnel, money, hardware, facilities, and their-estimated cost must also be available. At this point, projected costs must be close to actual costs of implementation. In some firms, separate groups of programmers do the programming, whereas other firms employ analyst- programmers who do analysis and design as well as code programs. For this discussion, we assume that two separate persons carry out analysis and programming. There are certain functions, though, that the analyst must perform while programs are being written. Operating procedures must also be developed. 2.2.5 Implementation The implementation phase is less creative than system design. It is primarily concerned with user training site preparation, and file conversion. When the candidate system is linked to terminals or remote sites, the telecommunication network and tests of the network along with the system are also included under implementation. During the final testing, user acceptance is tested, followed by user training. Depending on the nature of the system, extensive user training may be required. Conversion usually takes place at about the same time the user is being trained or later. In the extreme, the programmer is falsely viewed as someone who ought to be isolated from other aspects of system development. Programming is itself design work, however. The initial parameters of the candidate system should be modified as a result of programming efforts. Programming provides a “ reality test” for the assumptions made by the analyst. It is therefore a mistake to exclude programmers from the initial system design. Figure 2.2 Steps in systems design Detailed Outpu t Design Input System documentation Design submit for approval Design File Design Design Processing accepted Design Test Implementatio programs n phase System testing checks the readiness and accuracy of the system to access, update and retrieve data from new files. Once the programs become available, test data are read into the computer and processed against the file(s) provided for testing. If successful, the program(s) is then run with “ live” data. Otherwise, a diagnostic procedure is used to locate and correct errors in the program. In most conversions, parallel run is conducted where the new system runs simultaneously with the “old” system. This method, though costly, provides added assurance against errors in the candidate system and also gives the user staff an opportunity to gain experience through operation. In some cases, however, parallel processing in not practical. For example, it is not plausible to run parallel two online point-of-sale (POS) systems for a retail chain. In any case, after the candidate system proves itself, the old system is phased out. 2.2.5.1 Post – Implementation and Maintenance After the installation phase is completed and the user staff is adjusted to the changes created by the candidate system, evaluation and maintenance begin. Like any system there is an aging process that requires periodic maintenance of hardware and software. If the new information is inconsistent with the design specifications, then changes have to be made. Hardware also requires periodic maintenance to keep in tune with design specifications. The importance of maintenance is to continue to bring the new system to standards. User priorities, changes in organizational requirements, or environmental factors also call for system enhancements. To contrast maintenance with enhancement, if a bank decided to increase its service charges on checking accounts from Rs 3.00 to Rs 4.50 for a minimum balance of Rs 300, it is maintenance. However, if the same bank decided to create a personal loan on negative balances when customers overdraw their account, it is enhancement. This change requires evaluation program modifications, and further testing. Project Termination A system project may be dropped at any time prior to implementation although it becomes more difficult (and costly) when it goes past the design phase. Generally, projects are dropped if, after a review process, it is learned that: • Changing objectives or requirements of the user cannot be met by the existing design. • Benefits realized from the candidate system do not justify commitment to implementation. • There is a sudden change in the user’s budget or an increase in design costs beyond the estimate made during the feasibility study. • The project greatly exceeds the time and cost schedule. In each case, a system project may be terminated at the user’s request. In contrast project termination is new system failure. There are many reasons a new system does not meet user requirements: • User requirements were not clearly defined or understood. • The user was not directly involved in the crucial phases of system development. • The analyst, programmer, or both were inexperienced. • The systems analyst (or the project team) had to do the work under stringent time constraints. Consequently not enough thought went into the feasibility study and system design. • User training was poor. • Existing hardware proved deficient to handle the new application. • The new system left users in other departments out of touch with information that the old system had provided. • The new system was not user-friendly. • Users changed their requirements. • The user staff was hostile. The list can be expanded to include many more causes. The important point is that although advances in computer systems and software make life easier for the analyst, the success of a system project depends on the experience, creative ability, and knowledge of the analyst and the support from the user staff. This suggests that the analyst be skilled in the state of the art (hardware and software) as well as in dealing with people. 2.3 Considerations for candidate system In today’s business, there is more demand for computer services than there are resources available to meet the demand. The demand is made up of the following: 1. Operations of existing system. 2. Maintenance that focuses on “patching” programs – often representing over 50 percent of maintenance. 3. Enhancements that involve major modifications in program structure or equipment. 4. Requests for candidate systems. All these demands require resource – human, financial, and technological. On the human side, the computer department has to provide the following: Computer operators to run equipment. Data entry personnel. Systems analysts to define and design specifications. Application programmers to convert system specifications to computer programs Maintenance programmers to repair errors. Supervisors, project leaders, and managers to coordinate the jobs with the users. Thus, the basic problem is to match the demands for service with the available resources. How much one project is favored over another depends on technical, behavioral, and economic factors. The technical factor involves the system department’s ability to handle a project. Much depends on the availability of qualified analysts, designers, and software specialists to do the work. This is especially true in designing databases and implementing complex systems for large concerns. The alternative to abandoning a project because of limited talent on the inside is free – lancing it to an outside consulting firm. The cost of developing the project has to be weighed against the total benefits expected. The behavioral factor involves (1) the user’s past experience with an existing system (2) the success record of the analyst, and (3) the influence the user can exert on upper management to finance a candidate system. Political considerations that subjectively favor one project over another, the status of the department, and its performance record are additional factors that bear on funding a candidate system. Perhaps the most important criterion in selecting a project is the economic factor. It focuses on the system’s potential return on investment. What is considered an acceptable rate varies with different formulas, the variables chosen, and the like. System consultants suggest an annual rate of return of just over 20 percent. 2.3.1 Political considerations In conjunction with the preceding considerations is the political factor, which is partly behavioral. Imagine this setting: managers in a production firm are considering two office automation proposals: proposal A – a teleconferencing system designed to reduce travels costs, and proposal B- a sales support system. Proposal B (poorly presented and justified) was sponsored by an influential executive and had the support of the committee. It passed because the right people were convinced it should. Politics is the art of using influence and building coalitions when routine procedures do not achieve the right results. When system projects are developed, a collaborative relationship with the end user is helpful. A user who participated in building a system rarely criticizes it. If such a participative relationship comes too late, resistance can crop up and politics comes into play. The trick is to anticipate resistance early and turn it into support. 2.4 Planing and control for system success What can the analyst do to ensure the success of a system? First, a plan must be devised, detailing the procedure, some methodology, activities, resources, costs, and timetable for completing the system. Second, in larger projects, a project team must be formed of analysts, programmers, a system consultant, and user representatives. Shared knowledge, interaction, and the coordination realized through team effort can be extremely effective in contrast with individual analysts doing the same work. Finally, the project should be divided into manageable modules to reflect the phases of system development – analysis, design, and implementation. Most of this work falls under project management and control. The main idea behind the system development life cycle is to formalize a means structured at three major levels for effective control of the project. At the lowest level, work assignments are broken down into small manageable tasks. A task is usually a well – defined, structured work unit that can be carried out by one individual. The task can be easily budgeted and scheduled and its quality measured. It can be easily completed independent of other tasks and other project team members. If rework is necessary, there is minimal loss or impact on other tasks, except where time is critical. The second level at which work units are structured involves activities that have larger scope and are designed to produce substantial results. An activity is a group of logically related tasks that serve one phase of the system development life cycle. A phase, a third level of control, is a set of activities that bring the project to a critical milestone. Milestones are steppingstones that make up the entire project. In planning a project, the following steps should be taken: 1. Identify the activities in each phase and the tasks within each activity. 2. Calculate the budget for each phase and obtain agreement to proceed. 3. Review, record, and summarize progress on activities periodically. 4. Prepare a project progress report at the end of a reporting month. In summary, system development should not be regarded merely as some procedure that deals with hardware and software. The original assumptions upon which system specifications were based should be tested and re-evaluated with the user in mind. Managing system projects includes the important responsibility of seeing to it that all features of the candidate system – technological, logical, and behavioural – are considered before implementation and maintenance. 2.6 Summary: System analysis and design are keyed to the system development life cycle(SDLC). The stages are project selection, feasibility, analysis, Design, implementation, and post implementation stages. t he idea for the project is originates in the environment or from within the organization. Once the problem is verified an initial investigation is conducted to determines whether change is feasible. If the answer is yes, a feasibility study is conducted. Analysis is a detailed study of the various operation performed by a system. System design refer to the technical specifications that will be applied in implementing the candidate system. Implementation is concerned with details of the candidate system. After implementation, maintenance begins includes enhancements, modifications, or any changes from the original specifications. To ensure the success of the system, careful and often extensive planning is required. The overall management process is crucial to the successful completion of system. 2.7 Questions: 1. Why is a system proposal so crucial for system design. 2. What is System Development Life Cycle. 3. What is the difference between analysis and design. Explain. 4. How would an analysis determine the users’ needs for a system. Explain. 5. Distinguish between initial investigation and feasibility study. In what way are they related.6. How does system design simplify implementation. 7. What is testing. 8. How is testing different from evaluation. 9. There are several considerations in deciding on a candidate system. What are they. Why are they important. Lesson No: 3 Author : Dr. Jawahar Lesson Name : Project Selection Vetter: Dr. Pradeep K. Bhatia 3.0 Objectives: 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Sources of project requests 3.2.1 Department Managers 3.2.2 Senior Executives 3.2.3 Systems analysts 3.2.4 Outside Groups 3.3 Determining the user’s Information Requirements 3.4 Strategies for Determining Information Requirements 3.5 Getting Information from the Existing Information System 3.6 Prototyping 3.7 Managing Project Review and Selection 3.7.1 Steering committee method 3.7.2 Information System Committee Method. 3.7.3 User-group committee method 3.7.4 Other methods 3.8 Preliminary investigation 3.8.1 Scope of study 3.9 Conducting the Investigation 3.9.1 Reviewing Organization Documents 3.9.2 Conducting Interviews 3.10 Testing Project Feasibility 3.10.1 Operational Feasibility 3.10.2 Technical Feasibility 3.10.3 Financial and Economic Feasibility 3.11 Handling Infeasible Projects 3.12 Summary 3.13 Questions 3.0 Objectives: • How the project selection will be done initially • What are the different sources of the project request within and outside the organizarion • How the user information is gathered and what are the various strategies to gather that information • How the information is gathered from the existing system • How the project selection and reviewing will be done by different committee • How preliminary investigation and interview will be conducted • How the different types of feasibility will be done 3.1 Introduction: The first step in the system development life cycle is the identification of a need. This is a user’s request to change, improve or enhance an existing system. Because there is likely to be a stream of such requests, standard procedures must be established to deal with them. The objective of project selection is to determine whether the request is valid and feasible before a recommendation is reached to do nothing, improve or modify the existing system or build a new one. The user’s request form should specify the following: 1. User – assigned title of work requested. 2. Nature of work requested 3. Problem definition 4. Date request was submitted 5. Date job should be completed 6. Job objectives – purpose of job requested 7. Expected benefits to be derived from proposed change 8. Input / output description – quantity and frequency of inputs and outputs of proposed change. 9. Requester’s signature, title, department etc. 10. Signature, title, department etc, of person approving the request. The user request identifies the need for change and authorizes the initial investigation. It may undergo several modifications before it becomes final. The success of a system depends largely on how accurately a problem is defined. The user’s request must be communicated if the organization’s personnel and other resources are to be successfully mobilized to build and maintain a viable information system plan. 3.2 Sources of project requests There are four primary sources of project requests. The requesters inside the organization are department managers, senior executives, and systems analysts. In addition, government agencies outside the organization may request information systems projects. Depending on the origin of the request and the reason for it, requesters may seek either completely new applications or changes in existing ones. 3.2.1 Department Managers Frequently, persons who deal with day-to-day business activities, whether employees or managers, are looking for assistance within their departments. For example, a business manager in a large medical clinic supervises the preparation of patient claim forms submitted to insurance companies, which reimburse the clinic for medical care. Even though the business manager knows that preparing insurance claims is necessary to aid the patient and ensure that the clinic is reimbursed, he or she may be dissatisfied with the amount of time the staff devotes to the task, especially when much insurance information (such as patient name, address, age, and the name of the attending physician) is already available in the patient’s records. Pointing out the duplication of work, the bookkeepers express their desire to be free of the clerical tasks involved in processing claims. After discussing the insurance problem with administrators in other clinics, the business manager asks the clinic’s management com-preparing insurance forms and maintaining patient records about insurance payments. This example is typical of cases where managers ask for systems projects. An ongoing activity needs improvement, either to solve a problem (for example, too many errors, excessive costs, or inconsistent work) or to improve the efficiency of job. The department manager requesting a systems project many not consider the interaction between departments, even though the potential for such interaction can be high. For example, the manager who requests an inventory forecasting system for ordering materials and supplies may be looking primarily at ways to eliminate out – of – stock conditions. The request may not discuss the implications in other areas, such as fewer production problems due to material shortages, lower carrying costs for materials stored, or better process through quantity purchasing. Yet, on an organization – wide basis, these may be even more important reasons to consider the project. The point here is that project requests submitted by department managers seeking specific operating assistance may actually have wider implications that can affect other departments. 3.2.2 Senior Executives Senior executives, such as presidents, board chairpersons, and vice presidents, usually have information about the organization that is not available to department managers. That information, coupled with the broader responsibilities these executives assume (they manage entire organizations rather than individual departments), influences the systems project requests they make. For example, the vice-president for manufacturing who knows that an additional production planning system one that will enable management to plan manufacturing at both plants at the same time. This project spans several departments (including manufacturing inventory control and purchasing) at two locations and involves many other managers. The project requests submitted by senior executives are generally broader in scope than those prepared by department managers. Consider how many departments and divisions of an organization are included within the scope of a system request to design and implement a new corporate – wide budget system or a financial planning model. Such projects tend to cut across more of the organization than does an inventory control system. Multi-department projects are also more difficult to manage and control, however, departmental projects, in contrast, are more likely to be successful, especially if the actual users take an active role early in the project. 3.2.3 Systems analysts Sometimes systems analysts see areas where projects should be developed and either write a systems proposal themselves or encourage a manager to allow the writing of a proposal on their behalf. For instance, an analyst who sees that a university’s course – registration procedure is slow, error-prone, and generally inefficient may prepare a project proposal for a new registration system. The request prescribes the development of a system that takes advantage of new easy – to – use data entry terminals to speed registration. Normally, department managers prepare proposals for operating systems, such as those for course registration. However, in this case the analyst has information about new equipment and technology that makes a more efficient registration system possible. The department manager, who is not responsible for researching computer technology, may not take the initiative for developing a systems proposal to facilitate registration procedures. Do not forget that system analysts and developers can also be users themselves. Project management systems, file-monitoring packages, or programming library projects are typical of the application projects that systems personnel might request. 3.2.4 Outside Groups Developments outside the organization also lead to project requests. For example, government contractors are required to use special cost accounting systems with government – stipulated features. The internal Revenue Service requires organizations to keep careful payroll records and to account for employee income tax withheld. The internal Revenue Service also specifies the format for many of the tax documents that must be prepared; the employer has no choice in the matter. Quite often, new demands from external groups bring about project requests, either for new systems or changes in current ones. Projects originating from this source are just as important as those from within the organization. Ins some cases, such as when there are strict deadlines imposed by the outside agency, these projects take on a higher priority than ones from, say, department managers. 3.3 Determining the user’s Information Requirements Shared, complete and accurate information requirements are essential in building computer – based information systems. Unfortunately, determining the information each user needs is particularly difficult task. In fact, it is recognized as one of the most difficult tasks in system development. The Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) Curriculum Committee on Computing Education for Management recognized this by suggesting two distinct job titles for systems developments: “ information analyst” and “ systems designer” rather than the more general term “ systems analyst”. The information analyst determines the needs of the user and the information flow that will satisfy those needs. The usual approach is to ask the user what information is currently available and what other information is required. Interaction between the analyst and the user usually leads to an agreement about what information will be provided by the candidate system. There are several reasons why it is difficult to determine user requirements: 1. Systems requirements change and user requirements must be modified to account for those these changes. 2. The articulation of requirements is difficult, except for experienced users. Functions and processes are not easily described. 3. Heavy user involvement and motivation are difficult. Reinforcement for their work is usually not realized until the implementation phase – too long to wait. 4. The pattern of interaction between users and analysts in designing information requirements is complex. Users and analysts traditionally do not share a common orientation toward problem definition. For example, in the analyst’s view the problem definition must be translatable into a system design expressed quantitatively in terms of outputs, inputs, processes and data structures. This is the best of situations, and within time constraints. In contrast, the user seems to be satisfied with a qualitative definition that specifies the system in generalities. Flexibility is a key consideration. System specifications must change with their needs, as must the system after implementation. Based on these contrasting views, users who try to define their information requirements with the analyst’s views find themselves in a predicament. According to Scharer, they defend themselves by producing strategies that will satisfy the analyst. 1. In the kitchen sink strategy the user throws everything into the requirement definition- overstatement of needs such as an overabundance of reports, exception processing and the like. This approach usually reflects the user’s lack of experience in the area. 2. The smoking strategy sets up a smoke screen by requesting several system features when only one or two are needed. The extra requests are used as bargaining power. This strategy usually reflects the user’s experience in knowing what he/ she wants. Requests have to be reduced to one that is realistic, manageable, and achievable. 3. The same thing strategy indicates the user’s laziness, lack of knowledge, or both. “Give me the same thing but in a better format through the computer” is a typical statement. Here the analyst has little chance of succeeding because only the usr can fully discover the real needs and problems. 3.4 Strategies for Determining Information Requirements There are three key strategies or general approaches for eliciting information regarding the user’s requirements: (1) asking, (2) getting information form the existing information system, and prototyping. Asking: This strategy obtains information from users by simply asking them about the requirements. It assumes a stable system where users are well informed and can overcome biases in defining their problems. There are three key asking methods: 1. Questions may be open-ended or closed. An open-ended question allows the respondent to formulate a response. It is used when feeling or opinions are important. For example, “How do you evaluate the latest addition to your hardware?” In contrast, a closed question requests one answer from a specific set or responses. It is used when factual responses are known. For example, “How long have you been manager of the computer centre?” 2. Brainstorming is a technique used for generating new ideas and obtaining general information requirements. This method is approach to brainstorming asks each participant to define ideal solutions and then select the best feasible one. It works well for users who have system knowledge but have difficulty accepting new ideas. 3. Group consensus asks participants for their expectations regarding specific variables. In a Delphi inquiry, for example, each participant fills out a questionnaire. The results are summarized and given to participants along with a follow- up questionnaire. Participants are invite to change their responses. The results are again summarized and fed back to the participants. This debate by questionnaire continues until participants’ responses have converged enough. This method is an advantage over brainstorming in that participants are not subjected to psychological pressure from others with presumed authority or influence. 3.5 Getting Information from the Existing Information System. Determining information from an existing application has been called the data analysis approach. It simply asks the user what information is currently received and what other information is required. It relies heavily on the user to articulate information needs. The analyst examines all reports, discusses with the user each piece of information examined, and determines unfulfilled information needs by interviewing the user. The analyst is primarily involved in improving the existing flow of data to the user. In contrast to this method is decision analysis. This breaks down a problem into parts, which allows the user to focus separately on the critical issues. It also determines policy and organizational objectives relevant to the decision areas identified and the specific steps required to complete each major decision. Then the analyst and the user refine the decision process and the information requirements for a final statement of information requirements. The data analysis method is ideal for making structured decisions, although it requires that users articulate their information requirements. A major drawback is a lack of established rules for obtaining and validating information needs that are not linked to organizational objectives. In the decision analysis method, information needs are clearly linked to decision and organizational objectives. It is useful for unstructured decisions and information tailored to the user’s decision-making style. The major drawback, though, is that information requirements may change when the user is promoted or replaced. 3.6 Prototyping: The third strategy for determining user information requirements is used when the user cannot establish information needs accurately before the information system is built. The reason could be the lack of an existing model n which to base requirements or a difficulty in visualizing candidate systems. In this case, the user needs to anchor on reallife systems from which adjustments can be made. Therefore, the iterative discovery approach captures an initial set of information requirements and builds a system to meet these requirements. As user gain experience in its use, they request additional requirements or modifications (iterations), in the system in essence, information requirements are discovered by using the system. Prototyping is suitable in environments where it is difficult to formulate a concrete model for defining information requirements and where the information needs of the usr are evolving, such as in DSS. Which of the three strategies is selected depends on uncertainties in the process of determining information requirements – that is, uncertainly with respect to the stability of information requirements, the user’s ability to articulate information requirements, and the ability of the analyst to elicit requirements and evaluate their accuracy. Thus, the asking strategy is appropriate for low- uncertainty information requirements determinations, whereas the prototyping strategy is appropriate for high uncertainty information requirements determination 3.7 Managing Project Review and Selection Many more request for systems development are generated than most firms can pursue. Someone must decide which requests to pursue and which to reject (or perhaps solve by other means). The decision to accept or reject a request can be made in a number of different ways and by various members of the organization. The systems analysts are not the final arbiters. One of the more common methods or reviewing and selecting projects for development is by committee. 3.7.1 Steering committee method In many organizations, steering (also called operating committees, operating councils, or project selection boards) supervise the review of project proposal. The steering committee typically consists of key managers from various departments of the organization, as well as members of the information systems group. However, systems specialists do not dominate the committee. The information systems steering committee referred to in “The Good Old Days of Information Systems” at the beginning of this chapter included only two information systems specialists among its ten members. A typical seven to ten – person committee would consist of the following membership: 1. Upper – management members: Executive Vice president Vice President for manufacturing 2. Departmental management: Manager of retail marketing Credit manager 3. Technical managers: Manager of research and development Quality control coordinator 4. Information system group: Data processing manager Senior systems analyst The committee receives proposals and evaluated them. The major responsibility of the committee is to make a decision, which often requires more information than the proposal provides, therefore, a preliminary investigation, is often requested to gather those details. The steering – committee method brings high respectability and visibility to the review of project proposals. The committee consists of managers with the responsibility and the authority to decide which projects are in the best interest of the entire firm. Because several levels of management are included on the committee, members can have informed discussions on matters relating to day – to – day operations (treating patients, ordering materials, or hiring staff members) and long – range plans (new facilities, new programs) that many have a bearing on the project request. The managers provide practical information and insight about operations and long – term development. Systems specialists on the committee provide technical and developmental information that is useful in reaching decisions about project management. The steering committee approach is often favored because systems projects are business investments. Management, not systems analysts or designers, selects projects for development, decisions are made on the basis of the cost of the project, its benefit to the organization, and the feasibility of accomplishing the development within the limits of information systems technology in the organization. This is the method used by Peter Wallington’s employer in “The Good Old Days of Information systems”. 3.7.2 Information System Committee Method. In some organizations, the responsibility for reviewing project requests is assigned to a committee of managers and analysts in the information systems department. Under this method, all request for service and development are submitted directly to a review committee within the information systems department. The information system committee approved or disapproved projects and sets priorities, indicating which projects are most important and should receive immediate attention. This method can be used when many requests are for routine service or maintenance on existing applications. For these projects, information systems staff members can offer good insight into project requirements. In addition, by working with other projects (and by coordinating their efforts with the organization’s business planning committee) systems developers can have access to information about where the firm is moving overall – an important consideration for effective project selection. Sometimes, such as when major equipment decision must be made or when long – term development commitment are needed to undertake a project, the decision authority is shared with senior executives who determine whether a project should proceed. However, sharing project decision authority may confuse users who want to know how the committee will make the decision about a request. In addition, if top managers and systems- committee members disagree about the merit or priority of a request, the potential for conflict can disrupt the handling of future project proposals. In still other cases, users may attempt to submit a request directly to senior executives after it has been disapproved by the information systems committee. If upper management approves the request, the authority of the information systems committee is undermined. 3.7.3 User-group committee method In some organizations, the responsibility for project decisions is delegated to the user themselves. Individual department or divisions hire their own analysts and designers, who handle project selection and carry out development. In effect, departments form their own selection committees – user – group committees – controlling what is developed and when it is implemented. Although the practice of having user committees both choose and develop systems does take some of the burden from the systems development group, it can have disadvantages for the users. For example, a number of small departments working independently toward the same goal could unknowingly waste resources and miss the opportunity to coordinate planning of a shared and integrated information system that could benefit the entire firm. A company’s computer facilities can be unduly strained if the systems development team is not made aware of the future demands on the facilities that are being planned throughout the firm some user groups may find are being planned throughout the firm. Some user groups may find themselves with defective or poorly designed systems that require additional time and effort to undo any damage caused by the misinformation that such systems could generate. Although users groups may find the decision of steering committees and information systems committees disappointing at times, the success rate for who take on the development job is not very encouraging. Membership often rotates under each of these committee formats, with individuals serving for, say six – or twelve – month periods. Membership changes are staggered to avoid changing the entire membership at one time. The chairperson of each committee should have experience in serving as a committee member and in reviewing systems proposals and making decisions about project requests. 3.7.4 Other methods Other approaches are also tried from time to time, although usually with much less success than the methods already discussed. Some organization have management planning committees that propose new projects, which are in turn evaluated by the systems department staff members. This method suffers form lack of user involvement, as well as limited insight into technology. In still other cases, department managers are able to bypass the organizations information systems departments to contract with independent systems companies, which handle all analysis and design work for projects. A disadvantage of this approach is the possibility that a department can sponsor the development of a system while the information system group or upper management is completely unaware that a project is in the making. 3.8 Preliminary investigation Whether a system will be developed by means of the systems development life cycle method (SDLC) prototyping strategy, or the structured analysis method, or a combination of these methods, a project request should first be reviewed. The choice of development strategy is secondary to whether a request merits the investment of organization’s resources in an information system project. It is advisable for all proposals to be submitted to the selection committee for evaluation to identify those projects that are most beneficial to the organization. The preliminary investigation is then carried out by systems analysts, working under the direction of the selection committee. 3.8.1 Scope of study The purpose of the preliminary investigation is to evaluate project requests. It is not a design study, nor does it include the collection of details to completely describe the business system. Rather, it is the collecting of information that permits committee members to evaluate the merits of the project request and make an informed judgement about the feasibility of the proposed project. Analysts working on the preliminary investigation should accomplish the following objectives: 1. Clarify and understand the project request. What is being done? What is required? Why? Is there an underlying reason different form the one the requester identifies? Example: The user justifies a request for developing an accounts receivable system on the basis of wanting faster processing. However, the preliminary investigation may reveal that the need for better control of cash handling outweighs the need for sped. Lost checks, not speed of processing, are the real problem, but the requester has not described this specific need clearly. 2. Determine the size of the project. Example: Does a request for a course-registration project call for new development or for modification of the existing system? The investigation to answer this question will also gather the details useful in estimating the project. Since many enhancements of existing systems are costly, they are treated in the same way as new projects by the project selection committee. 3. Assess costs and benefits of alternative approaches. Example: What are the estimated costs for developing a patient information system, as requested by the hospital’s chief of staff? What expenses will be incurred to train medical and nursing personnel and install the system? Will the proposed system reduce operating costs? Is it likely that the cost of errors will decrease? 4. Determine the technical and operational feasibility of alternative approaches. Example: Does the necessary technology to link office word processing systems to the main computer exist or can it be acquired? How workable is the request to enable administrative assistants to retrieve sales information form the main system and insert it directly into typewritten reports prepared on a word processor? 5. Report the findings to management, with recommendations outlining the acceptance or rejection of the proposal. Example: A proposal for the installation of an order entry system should be modified to allow all salespersons to submit their orders through ordinary telephone connections directly into the computer. The modification will improve the usefulness of the system and increase the financial benefits to the organization. 3.9 Conducting the Investigation The data that the analysts collect during preliminary investigations are gathered through two primary methods: reviewing documents and interviewing selected company personnel. 3.9.1 Reviewing Organization Documents The analysts conducting the investigation first learn about the organization involved in, or affected by, the project. For example, to review an inventory systems proposal means knowing first how the inventory department operates and who the managers and supervisors are Analysts can usually learn these details by examining organization charts and studying written operating procedures. The procedures describe how the inventory process should operate and identify the most important steps involved in receiving, managing, and dispensing stock. 3.9.2 Conducting Interviews Written documents tell the analysts how the systems should operate, but they may not include enough detail to allow a decision to be made about the merits of a systems proposal, nor do they present user views about current operations. To learn these details, analysts use interviews. Interviews allow analysts to learn more about the nature of the project request and the reason for submitting it. To accomplish the purpose of the interviews, analysts must be sure to emphasize the request and the problem it addresses. In other words, interviews should provide details that further explain the project and show whether assistance is merited economically, operationally, and technically. Working out a solution to the situation comes later, during the detailed investigation. Usually, preliminary investigation interviews involve only management and supervisory personnel. 3.10 Testing Project Feasibility Preliminary investigations examine project feasibility, the likelihood the system will be useful to the organization. Three tests of feasibility-all equally important-are studied: operational, technical and financial. 3.10.1 Operational Feasibility Proposed projects are beneficial only if they can be turned into information systems that will meet the organization’s operating requirements. Simply stated, this test of feasibility asks if the system will work when it is developed and installed. Are there major barriers to implementation? Here are questions that will help test the operational feasibility of project: • Is there sufficient support for the project from management? From users? If the current system is well liked and used to the extent that persons will not be able to see reasons for a change, there may be resistance. • Are current business methods acceptable to the users? If they are not, users may welcome a change that will bring about a more operational and useful system. • Have the users been involved in the planning and development of the project? Early involvement reduces the chances of resistance to the system and change in general and increases the likelihood of successful projects. • Will the proposed system cause harm? Will it produce poorer result in any respect or area? Will loss of control result in any area? Will accessibility of information be lost? Will individual performance be poorer after implementation than before? Will customers be affected in an undesirable way? Will the system slow performance in any areas? Issues that appear to be relatively minor in the beginning have ways of growing into major problems after implementation. Therefore, all operational aspects must be considered carefully. 3.10.2 Technical Feasibility The technical issues usually raised during the feasibility stage of the investigation include these: 1. Does the necessary technology exist ...
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