Fostering High-Leverage Family Engagement by Teresita Galarza and Sheldon Watson The Home-School Connection to Language and Literacy Development The nature of home literacy practices can be drastically different depending on a variety of home and family characteristics, including sociolinguistic context. Variation in home literacy practices may have even more impact on children when the language spoken at home differs from the language of instruction at school. Students learning English have additional needs when it comes to support of language and literacy development in the home. Given that a child’s oral language development and literacy interest increases when literacy support is a mutual effort between family and school (Frijters, Barron, & Brunello, 2000) it is vital to build mutually-supportive relationships with families. This can be achieved when educators make family literacy a priority in their curricular models and pay careful attention to the needs of both students and families. The hallway workshop is an example of one strategy for family literacy that is consistent with this vision. Family Literacy Most parents are very interested in supporting their children’s skills in reading and writing at home. If parents know the advantages of particular activities for their children, they may be more likely to facilitate those experiences (Edwards, 1995). The significance of home literacy practices cannot be understated (Payne, Whitehurst, & Angell, 1994). One study of Mexican American preschoolers found that the home literacy environment had a greater impact on literacy skills than many other factors, such as the home-school relationship, family composition, and family history (Ezell, Gonzalez, & Randolph, 2000). A number of specific activities have been found to contribute to a child’s home literacy environment. These include • • • • • frequency of shared picture-book reading, age of onset of picture book reading, duration of shared picture-book reading at one sitting, number of picture books in the home, and frequency of caregiver’s personal reading time. We often find, however, that the culture of educators and the school is different from that of the family. Sociolinguistic context can include different ideas and values related to how children learn, relationships between families and educators, and home literacy practices. In these cases, educators need to make a conscious effort to engage families in ways that do not communicate messages that parenting skills are judged negatively or perceived as inadequate. Perceptions by families that they are being judged negatively may simply be the result of divergent perspectives emerging from interactions with educators, but these perceptions can quickly become reality for families. The following are conversational tips to help avoid the potential alienation of adult family members: ● Limit use of school jargon and acronyms (e.g., IEP, SAT, SBAC, CCSS). Fostering High-Leverage Family Engagement 1 TESOL Connections: April 2016 ● Don’t begin the relationship, or most interactions, with a focus on problems about the children. ● Avoid negative language, like “Your child does not/cannot/needs to…” ● Focus on assets of the child, such as “Your child is able to/good at…” ● Seek their input, such as “How do you feel about...?” and “What happens when…?” Approaching conversations with family members in this way will contribute to more positive feelings toward the school and educators, and helps reduce negative or adversarial perceptions. The whole point is creating a partnership to support children based upon mutual respect between family and school. How we talk and interact with families is where this begins. Case Study: The Hallway Workshop Fostering family involvement requires more than requesting adult attendance at school meetings and teachers disseminating information. It is about engaging families in authentic conversations concerning language and literacy development. These conversations should include suggestions and supports for what they can do with their children. However, these strategies for home literacy must be practices that family members are (1) able to do, and (2) feel comfortable implementing independently at home with their children. An engagement strategy that we call the hallway workshop is an example of one such experience that promotes language and literacy practices at home. It has proven highly effective in positively engaging increased numbers of kindergarten families in home literacy behaviors in the Pre-K–8 urban school where it has been developed. At many schools, families are present and bustling throughout the building at the beginning and end of every school day. This is even more true in urban environments where young children frequently walk to school. The hallway workshop is a family engagement experience that strategically occurs directly when and where families are most likely to be found. The hallway workshop is designed to be a brief 10–15 minute conversation. Adults are individually invited to participate in a manner that is intentionally planned as nonthreatening and low stakes. Disseminating information is not the primary purpose of the conversation, rather it is to promote a personal connection. The educator’s conversational role is that of advocate and active listener in an interaction framed from this perspective. Developing the capacity of families to support home literacy will hopefully be an associated outcome of this interpersonal exchange. The invitation comes in the form of a complimentary gift offered as adults pass the teacher’s table in the hallway. The gift is a book available for them to take home and share with their child. It is inside a folder that contains an assortment of materials to use with the text. These Family Literacy Toolkits each contain: the book, a dry erase marker, highlighter, and laminated worksheets that include an alphabet chart, basic sight word lists, and lined paper. The teacher has a casual conversation with the adults about how they can use these resources to read with their child at home. The importance of language and literacy at home is discussed as well as the principle that they are their child's first teacher. This principle is particularly important for families of English language learners because we want to promote the native language as an essential resource in the academic growth of the child. Native language exchanges between parent and child: (1) extend dialogue, (2) prompt questioning, and (3) expand vocabulary, which Fostering High-Leverage Family Engagement 2 TESOL Connections: April 2016 is then transferred to English. Basic steps and strategies are demonstrated for how to teach their child with a focus on developing language and literacy skills using the book as the foundation for conversation in the home environment. Impact The hallway workshops had an immediate impact on all stakeholders. They increased the frequency and quality of conversations between family members and teachers. More adults are now engaged in positive interactions with the school and are supporting literacy behaviors at home with their children. As a result of the hallway workshops, adults that participated in previous weeks now take the initiative of bringing other adults to the table. The unsolicited feedback from families has been extremely positive. The toolkit materials are presented as simple tools that families can use to teach their children at home just like teachers do at school. Family members confirm the success of this objective. They note how they use the materials with their children, that their child wants to “play” like they do in school, and that the activities motivate their child to want to read books at home. These first steps, established in the context of warm and supportive conversations at school, hold the promise of developing even stronger home literacy practices over time. References Edwards, P. A. (1995). Combining parents’ and teachers’ thoughts about storybook reading at home and school. In L. M. Morrow (Ed.), Family literacy: Connections in schools and communities (pp. 54–69). New Brunswick, NJ: International Reading Association. Ezell, H. K., Gonzales, M. D., & Randolph, E. (2000). Emergent literacy skills of migrant Mexican American preschoolers. Communication Disorders Quarterly, 21(3), 147–153. Frijters, J. C., Barron, R. W., & Brunello, M. (2000). Direct and mediated influences of home literacy and literacy interest on prereaders’ oral vocabulary and early written language skill. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 466–477. Payne, A. C., Whitehurst, G. J., & Angell, A. L. (1994). The role of home literacy environment in the development of language ability in preschool children from low-income families. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 9(3-4), 427–440. ___________________________________ Dr. Teresita Galarza is a veteran educator in the Hartford Public Schools, a former principal and district administrator, and a specialist in second language acquisition and bilingual education. Her doctoral research focused on classroom conversational interactions and their impact on language development and academic performance. Current research focuses on literacy and family engagement. Dr. Galarza facilitates professional learning on language and literacy development for educators in Connecticut and Massachusetts. Fostering High-Leverage Family Engagement 3 TESOL Connections: April 2016 Dr. Sheldon Watson is an associate professor in the Department of Educational Leadership, Policy, and Instructional Technology at Central Connecticut State University. He has developed graduate courses in sheltered English instruction and program administration for English language learners. Dr. Watson has facilitated professional learning on language and literacy development for both teachers and administrators in Massachusetts. His research focuses on educational policy, professional collaboration, and family engagement. Fostering High-Leverage Family Engagement 4 TESOL Connections: April 2016 Family Engagement Action Plan Name__________________ Year: __________ Goal of the Plan: __________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ PTA Standards: (highlight the standard that matches the goal of your lesson plan) Standard 1—Welcoming All Families into the School Community; Standard 2—Communicating Effectively; Standard 3—Supporting Student Success; Standard 4—Speaking Up for Every Child; Standard 5—Sharing Power; Standard 6—Collaborating with Community Goal Setting: How will we accomplish THIS GOAL? Possible strategies, activities, and initiatives we want to consider: Family Literacy Strategy Language Development Audience: Timeline: e.g., grade, all, some, few Projected Date(s) (frequency) PTA Standard(s) 1‐6 (see above) Person(s) Responsible: Who’s helping? What resources, training, and information will they need? How will you measure the Outcome of the strategy? (e.g., questionnaires, surveys, checklists, interviews, observations, and focus groups.) ACCESS 2.0 for ELLS Part II: Identify one English Language Learner (ELL) in your class or school and complete the information below. To complete the required information you will have to review their Access 2.0 score report. You will find the scores by looking at their cumulative folder or by asking the ESOL representative at your school. Part A: Basic Information Name: _______________________________Age: _______________Grade:__________________ Country of Origin: _________________________________________Time in USA: _____________ Native Language___________________________________________________________________ Part B: Language Domain Information can be obtained by looking at the student cumulative folder or asking the ESOL representative in your building. Domain Listening Proficiency Level Scale Score Speaking Reading Writing Part C: Based on your findings, what will you do to support the student in your class? Essential Actions A Handbook for Implementing WIDA’s Framework for English Language Development Standards A Companion to the 2012 Amplification of the ELD Standards Margo Gottlieb Essential Actions A Handbook for Implementing WIDA’s Framework for English Language Development Standards Margo Gottlieb Copyright Notice Essential Actions: A Handbook for Implementing WIDA’s Framework for English Language Development Standards (“Essential Actions Handbook”) is owned by the Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System on behalf of WIDA. The Essential Actions Handbook is protected by United States copyright laws and may not be reproduced, modified, or distributed, including posting, without the prior written permission of the Wisconsin Center for Education Research (WCER) and the Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System. The Essential Actions Handbook is for your personal, noncommercial use only. You may not alter or remove any trademark, copyright, or other notice from copies of this book. Fair use of the Essential Actions Handbook includes reproduction for the purpose of teaching (including multiple copies). If you are not sure whether your use of the Essential Actions Handbook falls within fair use or if you want permission to use the copyrighted Essential Actions Handbook for purposes other than personal or fair use, please contact the WIDA Client Services Center at help@wida.us or 1-866-276-7735. © 2013 Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System, on behalf of the WIDA Consortium—www.wida.us. 2013 WIDA Consortium Members Alabama Alaska Colorado Delaware District of Columbia Georgia Hawaii Illinois Kentucky Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico North Carolina North Dakota Northern Mariana Islands Oklahoma Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Dakota Utah Vermont Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming 2013 Non-member States Formally Adopting the WIDA ELD Standards Idaho Indiana iv South Carolina Tennessee FOREWORD: WIDA’s Framework for Language Development Standards Essential Actions is a response to three frequently asked questions about WIDA’s Framework for language development standards: “Why are there so many components?,” “What is the reasoning behind each component?,” and “What is important to consider in implementing English language development standards?” The framework is designed for use across multiple contexts and settings and represents language development in English and Spanish of the youngest dual language learners from age 2.5 through language learners at the high school level. WIDA’s framework for language development standards, depicted below, consists of a set of interactive and interdependent components that exemplify WIDA’s vision for academic language development. This framework is the foundation for WIDA’s ongoing work in the area of language development standards and assessment. Figure A: WIDA’s Framework for Language Development Standards Gu idi n Age -Ap Performance Definitions Standards & their Matrices ts ex WIDA's Can Do ph y pl ify ing c u l t u ra l Co n t ilo Ph so em Ex em Ex ci o So in in So Standards & their Matrices ci o pl ify ing ex ts Gu idi n Age -Ap pm Performance Definitions es of Language D cipl ev n i r elo gP c A a d e t e mic ria op L pr age gu an age gu an t en pm es of Language D cipl ev n i r elo gP c A a d e t e mic ria op L pr c u l t u ra l Co n t WIDA's Can Do ilo Ph The conceptualization of academic language and language development in academic contexts has been and continues to be upheld by WIDA’s Can Do Philosophy and Guiding Principles of Language Development. WIDA’s Can Do Philosophy is based on the belief that all students bring to their learning cultural and linguistic practices, skills, and ways of knowing from their homes and communities. WIDA believes that an educator’s role is to craft instruction that capitalizes on and builds upon these assets. This belief is based on a synthesis of the literature related to working with culturally and linguistically diverse students. Using this work as a frame, WIDA drafted its Guiding Principles from a synthesis of literature and research related to language development and effective instructional practices for language learners. These Guiding Principles represent WIDA’s core beliefs about language development. v so Using the Can Do Philosophy and Guiding Principles of Language Development as a foundation, WIDA identified prominent Features of Academic Language. Academic language, in this framework, is viewed as a vehicle for communicating and learning within sociocultural contexts; in other words, the interaction between different people for specific purposes and across different learning environments influence how language is used. At the core of WIDA’s framework are the Performance Definitions along with the five language development standards and their representative matrices. The Performance Definitions delineate what the various levels of language proficiency look like, informed by the Features of Academic Language. The standards matrices help educators envision what language development might look like in K–12 classrooms scaffolded across levels of language proficiency within the five standards. These matrices are used in conjunction with the Performance Definitions to describe possible student trajectories for academic language development. The components of WIDA’s framework interact and influence each other in the design of curricula, language instruction, and assessment of language learners. Teachers and school leaders are encouraged to emphasize specific elements of the framework in their language instruction to fit the specific needs of individual students and contexts. In doing so, all stakeholders can participate in shaping the education of an increasingly diverse student population. Essential Actions is a call for teachers and teacher educators to take action and collaborate in designing and implementing curriculum, instruction, and assessment through standards. Through this coordinated effort, all students can benefit from a personalized and challenging standards-referenced education that is geared towards advancing their individual and collective academic success. As a result, language learners, by having exposure to both language and content standards, will build stronger academic language to use inside and outside of school. vi Table of Contents and List of Figures Foreword WIDA’s Framework for Language Development Standards................................................................... v Section I: Overview of the Handbook Introduction..........................................................................................................................................3 Purposes and Audiences .......................................................................................................................3 The Role of Academic Language in School Context..............................................................................5 Architecture of WIDA’s Framework for Language Development Standards...........................................6 Section II: Taking Action! The Essential Actions for Academic Language Success.........................................................................10 Appendices Appendix A: WIDA Implementation Survey for Taking Action ..........................................................67 Appendix B: Glossary of Terms and Expressions Related to WIDA’s Language Development..............70 Standards and Essential Actions Appendix C: References......................................................................................................................74 Appendix D: Acknowledgments .........................................................................................................83 List of Figures Figure A: WIDA’s Framework for Language Development Standards.................................................... v Figure B: Audiences and Uses of the Handbook....................................................................................4 Figure C: What this Handbook Is and Is Not........................................................................................5 Figure D: A Strand of Model Performance Indicators............................................................................8 Figure E: Essential Actions for Academic Language Success.................................................................11 Figure F: An Overlay of the Essential Actions onto the WIDA Standards Matrix................................12 Figure G: The Features of Academic Language in WIDA’s Framework for Language...........................18 Figure H: WIDA Performance Definitions Listening and Reading, Grades K–12................................22 Figure I: WIDA Performance Definitions Speaking and Writing, Grades K–12...................................23 Figure J: The English Language Development Standards.....................................................................26 Figure K: Grade-level Representation in WIDA’s English Language Standards.....................................29 Figure L: Examples of Connections from WIDA’s Standards Matrices.................................................32 Figure M: Example Contexts for Language Use from WIDA’s Standards Matrices...............................35 Figure N: Examples of Topic-Related Language from WIDA’s Standards Matrices..............................41 Figure O: A Strand of Model Performance Indicators with a Variety of Language Functions...............44 Figure P: Example Content Topics and Corresponding Content Stems ..............................................47 Figure Q: Examples of Types of Instructional Supports.......................................................................50 Figure R: Integrated Strand of Model Performance Indicators.............................................................54 Figure S: Expanded Strand of Model Performance Indicators..............................................................60 Figure T: A Grade-Level List of Complementary Strands of Model Performance ................................65 Indicators Along With Their Language Domains and Example Topics SECTION 1: Overview of the Handbook Introduction World-Class Instructional Design and Assessment’s (WIDA’s) mission, to support academic language development and academic achievement for linguistically diverse students through high quality standards, assessments, research, and professional development, is exemplified in its Can Do Philosophy. Our ten Guiding Principles of Language Development provide the theoretical and research bases for extensive standards work. And now, our 15 Essential Actions for unlocking academic language use in school will help educators better understand the multiple facets of standards-referenced education for English language learners (ELLs). This handbook is an outgrowth of much conversation around how to enhance the representation of our English language development standards in preparation for the release of our 2012 Amplification. We wished to make more explicit what was implicit in our previous editions, and create clear connections to academic content standards, including the Common Core State Standards and the Next Generation Science Standards. Since their inception in 2003, WIDA’s five English language development standards have remained unaltered and foundational to our work, enhancing educational opportunity and excellence for ELLs.1 With input from our members, including thousands of educators, we at WIDA have continuously refined and improved how we represent language standards. In that way, teachers and instructional leaders have gained a richer and deeper appreciation of the complexities of language learning. Purpose and Audiences This handbook is designed to be a resource to share among educators who work directly with or are impacted by ELLs. It is a guide that describes and illustrates the standards-referenced components and elements of language learning within WIDA’s standards framework. Purpose The overall purpose of this handbook is to promote collaboration, mutual understanding, and use of language development standards among all educators who work with ELLs. The Essential Actions, derived from current theory and research, provide a rationale for each component and element of WIDA’s standards framework. They may be used in conjunction with WIDA’s 2007 or 2012 Standards books or independently, once teachers have familiarity with the components and elements. In reading this handbook, you might note several changes in reference to the standards. First, we now refer to the overall language expectations for ELLs as language development standards. We believe that “language development” better captures the description of the cumulative process of language learning while “language proficiency” is a snapshot of that development measured at one point in time and interpreted as a level along a continuum. 1 3 Audiences Various audiences may choose different ways to use the Essential Actions in order to implement WIDA’s language development standards. Teachers, in professional learning teams or communities, may share experiences related to the Essential Actions that lead to sound instruction and classroom assessment for ELLs. Instructional and school leaders may use the Essential Actions to gain a global sense of students’ language development within and across classrooms and be attuned to the effectiveness of language education programs. Teacher educators may find this resource a springboard for deep discussion about the role of language development standards in the achievement of language learners. The following table specifies the uses of the handbook for these audiences. Figure B: Audiences and Uses of the Handbook Audiences Uses of the Handbook Teachers, including language and content teachers, special education teachers, and “specials” teachers Plan for students’ language learning Instructional leaders, including superintendents, assistant superintendents, principals, and instructional coaches Provide a common ground for discussing issues related to academic language learning Teacher educators, including preservice teachers and professional development providers Provide a theoretical basis for the Framework for Language Development Standards Collaborate with one another and share information on language learners Apply to the design of standards-referenced instruction and classroom assessment Guide curriculum, instruction, and school-based assessment for language learners Use in the design of standards-referenced curriculum and common assessment Use as a needs assessment for districts or schools Offer deeper understanding of the components of the framework This handbook is limited in scope in relation to its purposes and audiences. To avoid misunderstanding on the uses of the Essential Actions, the following table specifies what the handbook is and what it is not. 4 Figure C: What this Handbook Is and Is Not The Handbook is a… The Handbook is NOT a… Resource to help educators plan for academic language success of their students “How to manual” for designing curriculum Complement to the Resource Guides for Language Development Standards Compendium of instructional strategies Set of suggestions that is in accordance with WIDA’s mission, vision, and Can Do Philosophy Mandate for instruction and assessment for ELLs Theoretical rationale for WIDA’s Framework for Language Development Standards Set of classroom practices The Role of Academic Language in School Contexts Research and theory provide guidance about the experiences of language learners in schools and the In the end, academic language important role of academic language in this context. is not just academic…it is life Language shapes the sociocultural contexts in which it giving when it extends through lives and in turn, these sociocultural contexts, including the length, width, and depth the actors in them, shape the language. Schools are no of all that we can learn (Heath, exception. For many students, schooling is primarily a 2008, pp. xiii). linguistic experience, as learning language and learning through language are simultaneous endeavors (Halliday, 1993). For all students, but particularly for ELLs, school brings new situations, new ways of interacting, and new forms of text (Schleppegrell, 2004). These unfamiliar contexts for learning are filled with academic language. With every ring of a bell, there is new academic language for students to learn, whether it is oral and written interaction of science lessons, mathematics problem solving, or social studies tasks (Bailey, Butler, Stevens, & Lord, 2007). Academic language is at the heart of standards and serves as the crosswalk between grade-level expectations delineated in academic content standards and their corresponding language development standards. This handbook emphasizes these connections to ensure that ELLs, as all students, take challenging, yet realistic, steps along their pathway to academic success. By integrating language with content and content with language through a shared lens, teachers can prepare students to be active participants in 21st century learning. It takes a coordinated effort among teachers and school leaders to implement standards-based reform. The 15 Essential Actions exemplified in this handbook are a starting point for rich conversations among professionals working with ELLs. Centered on the academic rigor surrounding the language of school, 5 the Actions afford educators of ELLs insight into the academic language of the competitive world of college and career. Architecture of WIDA’s Framework for Language Development Standards WIDA’s Framework for Language Development Standards includes three major components. The Features of Academic Language in Sociocultural Contexts overarch and shape the Performance Definitions for receptive and productive language, which, in turn, interact with the language development standards and their matrices. Features of Academic Language in Sociocultural Contexts Academic language does not operate in isolation—it is always associated with and is embedded in a sociocultural context. It is the sociocultural context that frames academic language and gives meaning to oral and written communication. This relation is dialogic in that the language used in particular contexts also shapes those contexts. In school, the classroom is the venue that provides the sociocultural context in which language learning occurs (Gottlieb & Ernst-Slavit, 2013). The sociocultural context is multifaceted in that it represents the interaction or relationship between what the student brings to the learning environment (e.g., languages, cultures, experiences) and the language of the task at hand, including the register, genre, and topic. Schools shape the expectations for language use by the students, while at the same time, students and their ways of knowing and using language also have tremendous influence on schools. Language permeates school and is fundamental in educating youth. Language development standards provide a window for educators of language learners into the systematic treatment of language within and across content areas. The new elements and components of WIDA’s standards matrices, as illustrated in the 2012 Amplification, will help all educators organize curriculum, instruction, and assessment around language. Performance Definitions The Performance Definitions work together with the English language development standards to shape WIDA’s vision of the language expectations of ELLs as they move along the five levels of English language proficiency—Entering, Emerging,2 Developing, Expanding, and Bridging. Performance Definitions specify the academic language features included in its three sets of criteria—Linguistic Complexity, Language Forms and Conventions,3 and Vocabulary Usage—that operate within a Another change from WIDA’s 2007 Edition to 2012 is that we now refer to English language proficiency level 2 as “Emerging” rather than “Beginning.” We believe that teachers, in differentiating language instruction, often set up three groups of language learners; the most logical divisions are Beginning, Intermediate, and Advanced students. Therefore, we thought it would be wise to replace Beginning, which at times was confused with Level 1-Entering, with a more descriptive label. 2 The criterion “Language Forms and Conventions” is replacing “Language Control” to better define sentence-level features of academic language and to ensure a stronger correspondence with academic content standards, including the Common Core. 3 6 sociocultural context within a classroom setting. These criteria, delineated for each level of language proficiency, and reflected in the Common Core State Standards, are an overall description of the language ELLs process and produce (see Essential Action 2 for more details); they entail: • • • Linguistic Complexity—the organization, cohesion and relationship between ideas expressed in a variety of sentences that make up different registers, genres, and text types in oral or written language. Language Forms and Conventions—the grammatical structures, patterns, syntax, and mechanics associated with sentence level meaning and use. Vocabulary Usage—the specificity of words, phrases, or expressions, along with multiple meanings, cognates, and collocations, applied to given contexts. Language Development Standards and their Matrices4 English Language Development Standards Content standards, including the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) and the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS), by definition, set common expectations for learning. Academic content standards delineate what students should understand (conceptual knowledge) and are able to do (practices) for each discipline. On the other hand, English language development standards illustrate: • • • • A developmental pathway to English language proficiency. Scaffolding from one language proficiency level to the next along the continuum of language development. The necessary academic language for accessing and achieving grade-level content. Academic language use in school within and across content areas. WIDA’s language development standards remain constant and the components within its matrices are always presented within a fixed format. The matrices are one way to portray the language expectations for each of the five levels of language proficiency within a particular context. The expectations are described through statements called model performance indicators or MPIs. As the context varies, the language will probably vary as well. For this reason, the ways in which the standards are represented are intended to be dynamic to fit the language learning context. In fact, to customize teaching and classroom assessment so that it is better synchronized with content instruction in your classroom, encourages exchanging elements of the MPIs and other components, such as the language domains, through transformations.5 With the tremendous heterogeneity of language learners, teachers should be able to craft curriculum, instruction, For example standards matrices, see the WIDA English Language Proficiency Standards and Resource Guide, 2007 Edition, PreKindergarten–Grade 12 and the 2012 Amplification of the English Language Development Standards, Kindergarten– Grade 12. 4 See the WIDA ELP Standards and Resource Guide, 2007 Edition (pp. RG34–38) for an explanation and examples of transformations. 5 7 and assessment based on representations of the English language development standards that: • • • • Best mirror the academic language of their classrooms. Are compatible and interweave with content learning. Reflect the differentiated language needs of their students. Include a variety of built-in instructional supports (i.e., sensory, graphic, and interactive). Strands of Model Performance Indicators WIDA’s representation of English language development through its standards framework is unique. The central structure consists of the strands of model performance indicators (MPIs). Each strand exemplifies how language is processed (for the language domains of listening or reading) or produced (for the language domains of speaking or writing) for example grade-level content topics that are differentiated across five levels of language proficiency. The strands of model performance indicators are representations of how the standards may be implemented in classrooms with a heterogeneous mix of ELLs. A strand of MPIs illustrates one of many ways in which language may be scaffolded across the levels of language proficiency for a given content topic and context for language use. The following strand shows how language development builds over time from language proficiency level 1, Entering, to level 5, GRADE 4 Bridging. ELD STANDARD 4: The Language of Science Indicators Figure D: A Strand of Model Performance EXAMPLE TOPIC: Earth history/materials CONNECTION: Next Generation Science Standards, Earth and Space Sciences, Earth’s Systems: Processes that Shape the Earth ESS1-1, ESS2-1 (Grade 4): Identify evidence from patterns in rock formations and fossils in rock layers for changes in a landscape over time to support an explanation for changes in a landscape over time. Make observations and/ GRADE 4 by water, ice, wind, or vegetation. or measurements to provide evidence of the effects of weathering or the rate of erosion EXAMPLE CONTEXT FOR LANGUAGE USE: Students gather information about scientific processes (e.g., from teacher demonstrations, computer programs, or videos) and demonstrate how the surface of the earth has changed over time as part of a long-term project on earth history. ELD STANDARD 4: The Language of Science EXAMPLE TOPIC: Earth history/materials LISTENING with their effects on earth of processes or events on processes or events on earth of processes or events on processes or events on materials based on oral earth materials based on materials based on oral earth materials based on earth materials using videos COGNITIVE FUNCTION: Students at alloral levels of Englishusing language proficiency ANALYZE the results of change over time using due to processes affecting earth materials. descriptions using photos, descriptions descriptions using photos, oral descriptions based on grade-level oral illustrations, or videos with photos, illustrations, or illustrations, or videos and photos, illustrations, or discourse Level 2 in L1 Level 3 with a Level 4 Level 5 a partner in L1 or1 L2 videos withLevel a partner graphic organizers videos Entering Expanding Bridging or L2 Emerging partner Developing Level 6 – Reaching COGNITIVE FUNCTION: Students at all levels ofEarth English proficiency ANALYZE the results change due toESS2-1 processes affecting earth materials. CONNECTION: Next Generation Science Standards, andlanguage Space Sciences, Earth’s Systems: Processes thatofShape the over Earthtime ESS1-1, (Grade 4): Identify evidence from patterns in rock formations and fossils in rock layers for changes in a landscape over time to support an explanation for changes in a landscape over time. Make observations and/ or measurements to provide weathering or the rate of erosion by water, Level 1 evidence of the effects ofLevel 2 Level 3 ice, wind, or vegetation. Level 4 Level 5 Entering Emerging Developing Expanding Bridging EXAMPLE CONTEXT FOR LANGUAGE USE: Students gather information about scientific processes (e.g., from teacher demonstrations, computer programs, or videos) and demonstrate how processes the surface the earth has changed as part of aCategorize long-term the project onof earth history. Match orofevents Identify andover sorttime the effect effects Distinguish between effects Interpret the effects of LISTENING Level 6 – Reaching Match processes or events Identify and sort the effect Categorize the effects of Distinguish between effects Interpret the effects of with their effects on earth of processes or events on processes or events on earth of processes or events on processes or events on materials based on oral earth materials based on materials based on oral earth materials based on earth materials using videos descriptions using photos, descriptions using languagedescriptions using photos, oral descriptions using on grade-level oral erosion, TOPIC-RELATED LANGUAGE: Studentsoral at all levels of English proficiency interact with grade-level words and expressions, suchbased as: weather v. weathering, illustrations, photos, illustrations, or illustrations, or videos and photos, illustrations, or discourse breaks down rocks or videos with a partner in L1 or L2 videos with a partner in L1 graphic organizers with a videos or L2 partner TOPIC-RELATED LANGUAGE: Students at all levels of English language proficiency interact with grade-level words and expressions, such as: weather v. weathering, erosion, breaks down rocks 73 8 73 This handbook addresses the four new components to the standards matrix. Each new component surrounding the strand of MPIs provides an additional dimension of language learning to be considered in planning curriculum, instruction, and assessment for ELLs. The new components to the standards matrix introduced in the 2012 Amplification are: • • • • A Connection to academic content standards, including the Common Core and Next Generation Science Standards. Representative grade-level, Topic-Related Language. A uniform Cognitive Function across the five levels of language proficiency. An Example Context for Language Use for the strand of model performance indicators. The 2012 Amplification also introduces different types of strands. The new types of strands illustrate the flexibility in the ways standards are portrayed and the importance of ELLs’ development of academic language outside of the traditional core content areas. The additional types of strands are: • • • Expanded strands, illustrating the three performance criteria across the levels of language proficiency. Integrated strands, encompassing multiple language domains, grade levels, and standards. Complementary strands, extending the language of the content areas to Visual Arts, Physical Education and Health, and Technology and Engineering, to name a few. These new components and additional types of strands offer a much broader range of language learning possibilities that typify classrooms with language learners. The next section outlines the theoretical backgrounds for these components and illustrates how they are converted into Essential Actions. 9 SECTION 2: Taking Action! Essential Actions for Academic Language Success Fifteen Essential Actions for academic language success provide the organizing structure for this section of the handbook. The Essential Actions are evidencebased strategies for educators to apply in implementing standards-referenced, language-centered education. In particular, they are intended to help identify the academic language of grade-level content through WIDA’s language development standards. In that way, ELLs can have greater opportunities to experience success and thrive in elementary and secondary schools in preparation for college and careers. The Essential Actions are evidence-based strategies for educators to apply in implementing standardsreferenced, language-centered education. The first 12 Essential Actions are arranged according to their presentation in WIDA’s standards matrix, from the most global, the Performance Definitions, to the most discrete, the elements of the model performance indicators: language functions, content stems, and instructional supports. Essential Actions 13–15 emphasize how all teachers have a shared responsibility for the education of ELLs and how they are to support each another in working toward a more comprehensive, inclusive educational system. The Essential Actions are intended to stimulate professional conversations among language and content educators about academic language and its role in education. They are not presented in a linear fashion nor are they intended to be followed in a sequential order. The Actions may be rearranged or categorized according to a school’s preference or may be used as a point of departure for professional learning teams or communities. For each Essential Action there is an explanation of its use, background information on its importance or rationale that is supported by research, a description of its relation to WIDA’s standards framework for language development, and an example of a practice that is reflective of the Action. Each Action also includes an illustration of the specified standards-referenced component or element. The Actions come alive with teachers’ and teacher educators’ contributions. Finally, each Action is followed by a set of questions to stimulate discussion among educators working with language learners as they plan the implementation of standards-referenced education. Each set of questions includes opportunities for educators to apply the ideas from the Essential Actions to their practice. The Essential Actions follow. Their numbers correspond to elements or component shown in the expanded English language development standards matrix. 10 Figure E: Essential Actions for Academic Language Success ACTION 1 Capitalize on the resources and experiences that ELLs bring to school to build and enrich their academic language. ACTION 2 Analyze the academic language demands involved in grade-level teaching and learning. ACTION 3 Plan differentiated language instruction around the conceptual knowledge and language development of ELLs. ACTION 4 Connect language and content to make learning relevant and meaningful for ELLs. ACTION 5 Focus on the developmental nature of language learning within grade-level curriculum. ACTION 6 Reference content standards and language development standards in planning for language learning. ACTION 7 Design language teaching and learning with attention to the sociocultural context. ACTION 8 Provide opportunities for all ELLs to engage in higherorder thinking. ACTION 9 Create language-rich classroom environments with ample time for language practice and use. ACTION 10 Identify the language needed for functional use in teaching and learning. ACTION 11 Plan for language teaching and learning around discipline-specific topics. ACTION 12 Use instructional supports to help scaffold language learning. ACTION 13 Integrate language domains to provide rich, authentic instruction. ACTION 14 Coordinate and collaborate in planning for language and content teaching and learning. ACTION 15 Share responsibility so that all teachers are language teachers and support one another within communities of practice. 11 12 6 ACTION 4 TOPIC-RELATED LANGUAGE: Level 1 Entering COGNITIVE FUNCTION: 9 ACTION 8 ACTION EXAMPLE CONTEXT FOR LANGUAGE USE: CONNECTION: ELD STANDARD: ACTION ACTION ACTION Level 3 Developing ACTION 3 10 11 12 7 ACTION ACTION Level 2 Emerging 1 ACTION Figure F: An Overlay of the Essential Actions onto the WIDA Standards Matrix Language Domain(s) Level 4 Expanding 5 ACTION 11 ACTION Level 5 Bridging EXAMPLE TOPIC: GRADE: Level 6 – Reaching 2 14 ACTION Levels 2–4 Action 13 is represented in the Integrated Strands and Action 15 is represented in the Complementary Strands. Vocabulary Usage Word/Phrase Level Language Forms & Conventions Sentence Level Linguistic Complexity Discourse Level Levels 1–3 Example Language Features ACTION Levels 3–5 Level 6 – Reaching 13 ACTION 1 Capitalize on the resources and experiences that ELLs bring to school to build and enrich their academic language. Students are the centerpiece of an educational system and the nation’s future. Teaching and learning should revolve around who ELLs are, what they can do, and how everyone can benefit from the tremendous assets they bring to school. When the sociocultural contexts students encounter in their schools are in concert with those of their home and community and when the students can recognize their linguistic and cultural identities represented in their school, they feel respected as members and contributors to their learning environment. Therefore, every attempt should be made to incorporate the backgrounds of the students into curriculum design, such as in the selection of topics or themes of units and the genres or text types of materials. Equally important, instructional tasks and activities should provide students with opportunities to take on a variety of identities and social roles to promote more linguistically and culturally responsive instructional practices. As a result of having more positive and connected experiences with schooling, students will more likely acquire and use grade-level academic language in relevant and meaningful contexts. RESEARCH-BASED EVIDENCE FOR ACTION 1 A wealth of linguistic and cultural knowledge exists in local households in diverse communities around the country. These community-based resources can shape a pedagogy that connects to students’ life experiences and engages them academically. By using students’ “funds of knowledge,” we are mobilizing their cultural resources for teaching and learning (Gonzalez, Moll, & Amanti, 2005; Moll, 1992). By using students “funds of knowledge,” we are mobilizing their cultural resources for teaching and learning (Gonzalez, Moll, & Amanti, 2005; Moll, 1992). The complex socio-cognitive processes of meaning making that we use to understand and produce text and talk are embedded within social practices of everyday life (Pérez, 2004). Students acquire these resources in their homes and communities. Empirical studies have shown that ELLs with rich experiences in their home language develop literacy faster in a second language. As educators, we need to nurture dynamic bilingualism by fostering students’ exploration of their linguistic identities and their development across languages (Escamilla & Hopewell, 2010, Garcia & Kleifgen, 2010; Hornberger, 2003, among others). For too long, schools have underestimated the contribution of language development at home (Zentella, 2005), envisioning ELLs functioning in two separate worlds rather than realizing that they learn in and across both. Academic language includes multiple literacies (Gee, 2008) and being able to tap two or more languages as the basis for academic language development enriches all students. 14 A REPRESENTATION OF ACTION 1 IN THE WIDA STANDARDS FRAMEWORK ELLs are central to WIDA’s standards-referenced system. Language development standards help frame curriculum, instruction, and assessment while stimulating professional development and research, however, ELLs must always be visible in the overall system. Systemic consideration of ELLs in planning, implementing, evaluating, and refining any and all aspects of education will help ensure their equitable and fair treatment. WIDA’s Can Do Philosophy brings the strengths of ELLs to the forefront of the educational system. As 21st century knowledge and skills take center stage in today’s standards-referenced arena, teachers and school leaders of ELLs must step up and act on the positive contributions that these students make to the U.S. educational enterprise. By taking action toward improving educational opportunities and academic outcomes of this fastest-growing student population, educators will help pave the way for ELLs’ academic language success. PUTTING ACTION 1 INTO PRACTICE By Marylin Low and Emily Lam, Honolulu, HI ELLs have diverse language and cultural backgrounds, learning styles, and life experiences that are often different from those of their peers. When teachers build on these diverse assets through intentionally designed learning plans, ELLs’ academic performance is enhanced (Ladson-Billings, 1995; González, Moll, & Amanti, 2005). Below is an example of how Kimi, an elementary teacher in Hawai’i, capitalizes on the resources and experiences of the ELLs in her classroom. Kimi is co-planning a project-based unit on the topic of weather.6 Students will learn about the water cycle, weather elements, measuring changes in weather, and data collection through a variety of interactive activities. The culminating product will be an event, planned by students, to teach the school community about what they have learned. Kimi has different images of Pacific weather patterns she wants to display and use to activate prior knowledge about weather. Capitalizing on the varying kinesthetic, visual, and oral learning styles of her students, Kimi wants the final event to be performed for the community—a performance with a message. Knowing that some parents of her ELLs are fishers, Kimi invites them as guest speakers and, with assistance from interpreters at school, they share with her class the methods they have used to forecast weather and determine the impact of weather on their livelihood. A group of students is intrigued by the idea of predicting the weather. They list important terms such as water, wind, and rain in the languages of their group members. They seek clarification of local meanings from the community and family and decide to teach each other the words in context. They discuss their ideas in more than one language. Soon this group is ready to connect words to music and begin animating the deep meaning of the multilingual lyrics. See Kindergarten–Grade 5 Integrated Strand on weather on pp. 18–19 of the 2012 Amplification of the English Language Development Standards, Kindergarten–Grade 12. 6 15 The questions below provide an opportunity to consider how to apply the ideas from Action 1 to practice. 1. How do the resources and experiences of students impact their engagement with the curriculum and their learning? 2. What might you do to learn more about students’ resources and experiences? 3. What are some examples of how you might incorporate students’ resources and experiences into the curriculum? 16 ACTION 2 Analyze the academic language demands involved in grade-level teaching and learning. Throughout the school day, ELLs are surrounded by the academic language of oral and written discourse. The specialized discourse of each content area challenges students to understand and engage with ideas and concepts. Teachers and instructional leaders must be aware of the complexities of language development and consider the features of academic language in planning and implementing curriculum and instruction. RESEARCH-BASED EVIDENCE FOR ACTION 2 Students’ mastery of grade-level academic language is key to academic success (Freeman & Freeman, 2008; Zwiers, 2008; Frances, et. al., 2006). It is a foundation for college and career readiness for all students, including ELLs. The communication goals of each content area guide the choice of language structures, register, and discourse (Askehave & Swales, 2001; Anstrom et al., 2010). At school, students need opportunities to play the expert and do the communicative work of a particular discipline (Gee, 2008; Hart & Lee, 2003; Irujo, 2007) in order to learn the discipline-specific language. For ELLs in particular, academic language must be made explicit (Valdés, 2001). At school, students need opportunities to play the expert and do the communicative work of a particular discipline (Gee, 2008; Hart & Lee, 2003; Irujo, 2007) in order to learn the discipline-specific language. Language features can be organized at three levels: discourse, sentence, and word/phrase, which emphasize linguistic complexity, language forms, and vocabulary (Halliday & Hassan, 1989; Bailey & Huang, 2011). Empirical studies have shown how each of these features of language impact students’ overall language proficiency and that language proficiency grows when these features are explicitly taught (Snow & Uccelli, 2009; Echevarría, Short, & Powers, 2006). A REPRESENTATION OF ACTION 2 IN THE WIDA STANDARDS FRAMEWORK The Features of Academic Language identify the major characteristics of academic language that WIDA has identified for its three performance criteria: Linguistic Complexity at the discourse level, Language Forms and Conventions at the sentence level, and Vocabulary Usage at the word/phrase level. Linguistic Complexity entails the quantity, quality, and variety of sentences involved in processing or producing language related to ideas and concepts. Language Forms and Conventions take into account the grammatical structures and associated mechanics typically encountered in each discipline or content area. Vocabulary Usage involves general academic words and phrases used in school, specialized content words 17 and words with multiple meanings applicable across one or more content areas, and technical words unique to topics within each content area. The Features of Academic Language, in conjunction with the Performance Definitions, provide the broad set of language expectations for ELLs to be used in interpreting the language development standards and grade-level strands of model performance indicators. Figure G: The Features of Academic Language in WIDA’s Framework for Language Development Standards The Features of Academic Language operate within sociocultural contexts for language use. Discourse Level Performance Criteria Features Linguistic Complexity Amount of speech/written text Structure of speech/written text Density of speech/written text Organization and cohesion of ideas Variety of sentence types (Quantity and variety of oral and written text) Sentence Level Language Forms and Conventions (Types, array, and use of language structures) Word/Phrase Level Vocabulary Usage (Specificity of word or phrase choice) Types and variety of grammatical structures Conventions, mechanics, and fluency Match of language forms to purpose/ perspective General, specific, and technical language Multiple meanings of words and phrases Formulaic and idiomatic expressions Nuances and shades of meaning Collocations The sociocultural contexts for language use involve the interaction between the student and the language environment, encompassing the… • • • • • 18 Register Genre/Text type Topic Task/Situation Participants’ identities and social roles PUTTING ACTION 2 INTO PRACTICE By Joanne Marino, Raleigh, NC Being able to analyze academic language and its role in grade-level teaching and learning are paramount in order to ensure educators have a deep understanding of the WIDA English Language Development (ELD) Standards and how to implement them to improve student outcomes. With this in mind the English as a Second Language (ESL) team in the North Carolina Department of Public Instruction (NCDPI) joined with those involved in the rollout of the new Common Core State Standards for English Language Arts and Mathematics and the N.C. Essential Standards to delve into the academic language represented in those standards using the WIDA ELD Standards as a guide. The result of this work was the development of blended professional learning opportunities for teachers. These blended opportunities included face-to-face and online learning opportunities using a variety of presentational modes including conference presentations, regional sessions, summer institutes, webinars, “live chats”, online modules, and an online toolbox. In these professional development activities, educators came to see that language is the bridge that enables ELLs to access the content standards and be successful academically. The WIDA ELD Standards clarify features of academic language to be explicitly taught such as general, specific, and technical language; multiple meanings of words and phrases; idioms; cohesion of ideas, and nuances and shades of meaning. Furthermore, the WIDA standards framework for language development frames language within sociocultural contexts that can support a school-wide literacy program. The toolkit for the WIDA ELD Standards, provided on the NCDPI website, deepens educators’ understanding of academic language as it delves into each of the five ELD standards and provides specific examples of the academic language found in the various disciplines. The professional development delivered by the NCDPI ESL team addressed all educators of ELLs, both ESL and content teachers. To increase the impact of the trainings, the ESL consultants frequently teamed with English Language Arts and mathematics consultants. Such a multi-tiered approach assisted North Carolina’s educators in analyzing academic language of their grade level(s) and improved their teaching and learning. The questions below provide an opportunity to consider how to apply the ideas from Action 2 to practice. 1. How might educators analyze the academic language demands of the curriculum? 2. What resources exist at your school or district to help educators analyze the academic language demands of the curriculum? 3. How can the Features of Academic Language be used in curriculum design? 19 ACTION 3 Plan differentiated language instruction around the conceptual knowledge and language development of ELLs. Every student has a distinct personality, life history, and educational background. Influenced by these experiences and opportunities, every language learner, at any given time, has a unique language learning portrait with varying levels of proficiency in each of the domains of listening, speaking, reading, and writing. By understanding students’ strengths and current levels of language proficiency, educators can plan for and monitor their progress along the language development continuum. RESEARCH-BASED EVIDENCE FOR ACTION 3 The complexity of vocabulary and linguistic patterns increases as language develops from a beginning stage of the language to native-like language proficiency (Goldenberg, 2008). Empirical research indicates that progress from beginning to mid levels of English language proficiency is relatively rapid in comparison with middle to upper levels of proficiency (Hakuta et al., 2000; Howard et al., 2003; Lindholm-Leary, 2001; Thomas & Collier, 2002). Different amounts of time are necessary to reach proficiency depending on where a student begins on the scale (Cook & Zhao, 2011). Information about student background, including linguistic and content abilities, is key to plan and deliver instruction to optimize opportunities for learning (Tomlinson, 2003; Fairbairn & Jones-Vo, 2010). Once students’ level of language proficiency is known, scaffolding may be used to help the learner “move toward new skills, concepts, or levels of understanding” (Gibbons, 2002, p. 10). In his work on the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), Vygotsky (1978) described learning opportunities as interactions that are challenging but also within reach for the learner. Information about the backgrounds of the students, including their linguistic and content abilities, is key to plan and deliver differentiated instruction to optimize opportunities for learning (Tomlinson, 2003; Fairbairn & Jones-Vo, 2010). A REPRESENTATION OF ACTION 3 IN THE WIDA STANDARDS FRAMEWORK The Performance Definitions are central to understanding and implementing language standards as they describe the milestones of language development, from level 1, Entering, through level 5, Bridging. In essence, the Definitions holistically illustrate what constitutes each level of language proficiency according to three criteria: 1. Linguistic Complexity, 2. Language Forms and Conventions, and 3. Vocabulary Usage. These criteria delineate the expectations of receptive language (listening and reading) and productive language (speaking and writing) across the language development continuum, always within a sociocultural context. 20 The Performance Definitions apply to all ELLs from Kindergarten through Grade 12; therefore, educators need to ensure that their interpretation is developmentally appropriate for their students’ ages. For example, producing “organized, cohesive, and coherent expression of ideas,” which typifies level 5, Bridging, looks much different for a 7-year-old than a 17-year-old. Additionally, the youngest ELLs in Kindergarten and grade 1, like their peers, are just beginning the road to literacy; therefore, the language expectations for these students must take into account their early stage of literacy development. The Performance Definitions are shown on the following pages. PUTTING ACTION 3 INTO PRACTICE By José Reyes, Gadsden, NM Schools throughout New Mexico are challenged to meet the needs of ELLs as well as those of students who are fluent in English. New Mexico classrooms serve the highest percentage of Hispanic students in the nation and a high percentage of Native American students, second only to Alaska. In addition to Spanish, there are eight different indigenous languages spoken in New Mexico, some of which are traditional oral languages that have existed for hundreds of years and are not written. Many students bring to their school classrooms cultures and linguistic structures that are fundamentally different from a “standard” English-speaking tradition. The diversity that students bring to school must be highly valued as resource to build upon. Our district is located in southernmost part of the state, bordering with Mexico. In fact, the language minority (Spanish) is the majority in this region of the state. Our kindergarten teachers make a home visit at the beginning of each school year to make observations of home life and home language to inform instruction. Our district policies ensure that teachers have information about students’ language use to make appropriate program and school placement appropriate to their language goals and language proficiency in their various languages. This practice allows educators to broaden their view of the language portrait of students to include all of the languages in their lives. By Martha Mason Miller, Roseville, MN Many ELLs who enter American secondary schools for the first time do so with limited formal education, but also rich experiences, often beyond our imaginations. When I plan content instruction, I strive to connect it to their lives and to honor their experiences. Building the academic background that is assumed in American high schools is a great challenge for educators. The key to ELLs’ learning is to differentiate using language that is appropriate to their language proficiency levels. In order to introduce basic science vocabulary and the concept and procedures of scientific investigation illustrative of scientific discourse to students at the entering or emerging levels, our class engages in hands-on real life science. Students practice new skills in a cooperative environment. They also engage in critical thinking as they question their results and participate in intense discussions in their first languages, and later explain their outcomes to me in English. In their science notebooks, they draw and label diagrams and write simple hypotheses, materials, procedure, and results. The group works together with the stronger students clarifying complex ideas in their L1 to other students. 21 22 and Reading, Grades K–12 Level 1 Entering Level 2 Emerging Level 3 Developing Level 4 Expanding Level 5 Bridging Language Forms and Conventions Linguistic Complexity • A variety of complex grammatical constructions • Sentence patterns characteristic of particular content areas • Compound and some complex (e.g., noun phrase, verb phrase, prepositional phrase) grammatical constructions • Sentence patterns across content areas • Compound grammatical constructions • Repetitive phrasal and sentence patterns across content areas • Simple grammatical constructions (e.g., commands, Wh- questions, declaratives) • Common social and instructional forms and patterns • Connected discourse with a variety of sentences • Expanded related ideas • Discourse with a series of extended sentences • Related ideas • Multiple related simple sentences • An idea with details • Single statements or questions • An idea within words, phrases, or chunks of language …within sociocultural contexts for language use. • Compound, complex grammatical constructions (e.g., multiple phrases and clauses) • A broad range of sentence patterns characteristic of particular content areas • Rich descriptive discourse with complex sentences • Cohesive and organized related ideas Vocabulary Usage Word/Phrase Level • General content-related words • Everyday social and instructional words and expressions • General and some specific content words and expressions (including cognates) • Social and instructional words and expressions across content areas • Specific content words and expressions • Words or expressions related to content area with common collocations and idioms across content areas • Specific and some technical content-area language • Words and expressions with multiple meanings or collocations and idioms for each content area • Technical and abstract content-area language • Words and expressions with shades of meaning for each content area Level 6 – Reaching Language that meets all criteria through Level 5, Bridging Sentence Level Discourse Level At each grade, toward the end of a given level of English language proficiency, and with instructional support, English language learners will process… Figure H: WIDA Performance Definitions Listening 23 and Writing, Grades K–12 Level 1 Entering Level 2 Emerging Level 3 Developing Level 4 Expanding Level 5 Bridging Language Forms and Conventions Linguistic Complexity • A variety of grammatical structures and generally consistent use of conventions • Sentence patterns characteristic of particular content areas • Repetitive grammatical structures with occasional variation and emerging use of conventions • Sentence patterns across content areas • Formulaic grammatical structures and variable use of conventions • Repetitive phrasal and sentence patterns across content areas • Simple grammatical constructions (e.g., commands, Wh- questions, declaratives) • Phrasal patterns associated with common social and instructional situations • Short, expanded, and some complex sentences • Organized expression of ideas with emerging cohesion • Short and some expanded sentences with emerging complexity • Expanded expression of one idea or emerging expression of multiple related ideas • Phrases or short sentences • Emerging expression of ideas • Words, phrases, or chunks of language • Single words used to represent ideas …within sociocultural contexts for language use. • A variety of grammatical structures matched to purpose and nearly consistent use of conventions, including for effect • A broad range of sentence patterns characteristic of particular content areas • Multiple, complex sentences • Organized, cohesive, and coherent expression of ideas Vocabulary Usage Word/Phrase Level • General content-related words • Everyday social and instructional words and familiar expressions • General content words and expressions (including common cognates) • Social and instructional words and expressions across content areas • Specific content words and expressions (including content-specific cognates) • Words or expressions related to content areas • Specific and some technical content-area language • Words and expressions with multiple meanings or common collocations and idioms across content areas • Technical and abstract content-area language • Words and expressions with precise meaning related to content area topics Level 6 – Reaching Language that meets all criteria through Level 5, Bridging Sentence Level Discourse Level At each grade, toward the end of a given level of English language proficiency, and with instructional support, English language learners will produce… Figure I: WIDA Performance Definitions Speaking As students develop their English language proficiency beyond level 3, Developing, they are expected to write several related sentences describing their observations, stating findings, and suggesting reasons for the differences, independently using key academic vocabulary. At all levels, the students use critical thinking, practice academic skills, build background, and become familiar with or use academic vocabulary and sentence structures. The difference from level to level is the increasing complexity of the language and increasing individual responsibility for work. Discussion and collaboration in the students’ home language may continue through the levels as they grapple with new concepts. The questions below provide an opportunity to consider how to apply the ideas from Action 3 to practice. 1. How might you use the Performance Definitions to help formulate instructional strategies (e.g., in grouping students or differentiating language objectives)? 2. How might you use the Performance Definitions to help scaffold content instruction for ELLs? 3. When might educators use a student’s overall composite language proficiency level (from ACCESS for ELLs) versus the language proficiency level for each language domains? 24 ACTION 4 Connect language and content to make learning relevant and meaningful for English language learners. The explicit interaction between language and content is fundamental to the effective schooling of ELLs. Over last several decades, there has been a growing recognition of the construct of academic language, referring to the unique discursive, grammatical, and vocabulary features that pertain to each academic discipline. Indeed, academic language is the common ground between language and content learning. Acknowledging and intentionally addressing content-area specific language, in addition to social and instructional English, ensures that ELLs, like all students, have access to grade-level concepts throughout the school day. RESEARCH-BASED EVIDENCE FOR ACTION 4 Language learning is a social activity as well as the basis for new conceptual understandings. Learning academic language and academic content knowledge are …it is the reciprocal interrelated processes for all students (Yore & Treagust, relationship between language 2006; Yore, 2000), and it is the reciprocal relationship and content that contributes to between language and content that contributes to the the academic achievement of academic achievement of these students (Gottlieb, 2012a; these students (Gottlieb, 2012a; Echevarría, Vogt, & Short, 2008; Kaufman & Crandall, Echevarría, Vogt, & Short, 2008; 2005; Chamot & O’Malley, 1994; Mohan, 1986). Kaufman & Crandall, 2005; Academic language refers to specific language associated Chamot & O’Malley, 1994; with particular content knowledge, concepts, and Mohan, 1986). topics (Bailey, Butler, Stevens, & Lord, 2007; Rosebery & Warren, 2008) and language is used differently in each content area, including, for instance, mathematics (Moschkovich, 2007; O’Halloran, 2000), science (Lemke, 2000; Hand, Prain, & Yore, 2001), and social studies (Schleppegrell, Achugar, & Oteíza, 2004). Instructional approaches should be designed with academic language in mind, not only for languagerelated content areas such as language arts, but for student achievement in all content areas (Snow & Uccelli, 2009). Moreover, recent findings suggest that the systematic integration of language, content, and thinking skills often results from activities that are planned and implemented with attention to both language and content (Short, Echevarría, & Richards-Tutor, 2011; Gibbons, 2008). 25 A REPRESENTATION OF ACTION 4 IN THE WIDA STANDARDS FRAMEWORK In its five English language development standards, WIDA recognizes the critical role of academic language in academic success. Standard 1: Social and Instructional Language serves as the experiential foundation and springboard for standards 2–5, which address the language of the core content areas of language arts, mathematics, science, and social studies. Figure J: The English Language Development Standards Standard Abbreviation English Language Development Standard 1 English language learners communicate for Social and Instructional purposes within the school setting Social and Instructional language English Language Development Standard 2 English language learners communicate information, ideas and concepts necessary for academic success in the content area of Language Arts The language of Language Arts English Language Development Standard 3 English language learners communicate information, ideas and concepts necessary for academic success in the content area of Mathematics The language of Mathematics English Language Development Standard 4 English language learners communicate information, ideas and concepts necessary for academic success in the content area of Science The language of Science English Language Development Standard 5 English language learners communicate information, ideas and concepts necessary for academic success in the content area of Social Studies The language of Social Studies PUTTING ACTION 4 INTO PRACTICE By Carrie Sorensen, Bloomington, MN Learning involves both understanding the language and applying the content knowledge. We must balance providing access to the content while developing academic language. There is not enough time to wait until ELLs have mastered English to start teaching science, social studies, and math. When English learning is connected grade-level content learning, ELLs feel a part of the learning community, have the opportunity to learn grade-level material, and develop English—all at the same time. 26 As a fourth grade ELL teacher at an International Baccalaureate school, learning content and language through inquiry is the foundation of learning for all students. Through differentiated tasks, students are able to show me their content knowledge and develop their academic language. My newcomers draw and label pictures while my advanced students write essays using a graphic organizer. The classroom teacher is able to assess the content knowledge while I assess the language development. ELLs feel a part of the learning community when they are able to show content knowledge alongside their language development. Another way I connect language and content is by analyzing the language of the content so that the students can understand the content. For example, after watching a short video or reading a few paragraphs, we brainstorm a list of important people, places and things and talk about how they are connected using power verbs. Then, we make connections between the nouns and the pronouns. We create sentence stems that allow students to say the same thing many different ways. ELLs need to be taught how to comprehend the content text. Science texts tend to explain how and why things happen. In social studies, students have to be able to analyze how the text is structured, determine what has happened, and identify the perspective of the author. In order to solve math story problems, students must first be able to understand what they have to do. The questions below provide an opportunity to consider how to apply the ideas from Action 4 to practice. 1. How can ELD standards work in conjunction with content standards? 2. What are some resources at your school or district to guide educators in integrating language and content instruction within the general education curriculum? 3. What are some unique features of language within each content area? 27 ACTION 5 Focus on the developmental nature of language learning within gradelevel curriculum. Students’ maturation and age, along with their language proficiency, have to be taken into account in planning instruction and interpreting their performance; in other words, language expectations for ELLs may cluster around a grade-level span rather than a definitive grade. Often it is difficult to pinpoint exact ages or grades when ELLs typically acquire specific words, expressions, and forms of language in English. Language development is variable and contingent on many factors; it is a constellation of factors that determines where students fall on the second language continuum. RESEARCH-BASED EVIDENCE FOR ACTION 5 Students develop language and literacy skills at different rates and in different sequences. Influences on second Influences on second language language acquisition include students’ age, age of arrival acquisition include students’ in U.S. schools, motivation, attitudes, and educational age, age of arrival in U.S. background (Lightbown & Spada, 2006, Spolsky, 1989). schools, motivation, attitudes, Students’ varied backgrounds and experiences shape and educational background their linguistic and academic portraits and determine (Lightbown & Spada, 2006, their entry points into language development, resulting Spolsky, 1989). in a wide range of language proficiencies among ELLs. Teachers’ recognition of each student’s stage of language development is one of the first steps in pairing where students are with relevant instructional practices (Cloud, Genesee, & Hamayan 2009). Since language development is a complex, long-term process, students should have access to grade-level curriculum concurrently with language instruction. Empirical research indicates that with access to grade-level content, students’ academic literacy development and performance improves on standardized assessments (Short et al., 2011). A REPRESENTATION OF ACTION 5 IN THE WIDA STANDARDS FRAMEWORK Academic content standards, including the Common Core State Standards, are grade-level specific; however, topics often span several grade levels, shifting their focus and depth as students mature. Likewise, as a means of ensuring correspondence with content standards, WIDA has designed a series of example topic-related strands at each grade level. However, it is important for teachers to understand that although instruction must be age and developmentally appropriate, English language development for ELLs occurs over multiple years and therefore, it is valuable to look at examples of language development across a grade level cluster. Among the adjacent grade level examples, educators will find that the language expectations and kinds of support will be quite similar. In sum, teachers should be aware that language development is a lengthy process that unfolds over time and is not necessarily tied to particular grades. 28 The figure on this page shows the configuration of grades and grade-level clusters for WIDA’s English language development standards. Corresponding to the Common Core State Standards, the top row has individual grades, combined at grades 9–10 and 11–12, for which there are example strands of model performance indicators (see the 2012 Amplification of the English Language Development Standards). The bottom row reflects the grade-level clusters used in WIDA’s 2007 representation of the language standards, which are still useful to educators for their examples of strands of model performance indicators. Figure K: Grade-level Representation in WIDA’s English Language Development Standards Grade Levels for the WIDA English Language Development Standards (2012) K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9–10 11–12 Grade-level Clusters for the WIDA English Language Proficiency Standards (2007, 2004) PreK7– K 1–2 3–5 6–8 9–12 PUTTING ACTION 5 INTO PRACTICE By Hilda Connell, Greenville, NC As an ESL teacher who taught first grade, fourth grade, ninth grade, and tenth grade ESL students during the same academic year, my challenge was working with grade-level content from multiple grade levels. After obtaining the language that I knew my students had to learn to use in a given situation or in a conceptually knowledgeable manner, I used several activities to provide them with practice in using the words and phrases. One thing I did with the younger kids was the use of project-based learning activities. If the kindergarten students were learning about colors and shapes, I added labeled pictures to the class word wall such as red circle, green square, blue triangle. Through meaningful, interactive activities like taking photos of objects that match each shape throughout the school to create a poster, the students were using the academic language their teacher was using in class in a real-world activity. For my high school students, I also used project-based learning but I added personal word walls that they created with a file folder and small sticky notes. Every time they came across a word or phrase they didn’t know, they put it on their personal word walls and the first thing they could do was ask someone else what it meant, how to use it, and the different forms of the word or phrase, or they could look it up in the dictionary. They kept their personal word walls with them so they could ask not only the ELLs in our class but also their content area teachers and other students in those classrooms. These personal PreKindergarten is represented in the WIDA Early English Language Development Standards for dual language learners ages 2.5–5.5, released in 2013 at www.wida.us. 7 29 word walls allowed the students to focus on words, interact with other students and learn from them, and begin to use these new words in a meaningful way. Whether it was kindergarten or high school, it was important to engage ELLs with the content appropriate for their particular grade level and to design opportunities for them to participate and interact with their peers. Since both groups of students are developmentally different, the content and the language needed to reflect their age and grade level. The questions below provide an opportunity to consider how to apply the ideas from Action 5 to practice. 1. Why is it important to consider the age of ELLs in making decisions about instruction? 2. What policies exist in your school or district to ensure ELLs receive access to grade-level language and content instruction? 3. How can awareness of grade-level expectations of surrounding grades (e.g., grades 3, 4, and 5) influence language instruction? 30 ACTION 6 Reference content standards and language development standards in planning for language learning. The blending of content and language standards is integral to the achievement of ELLs. The content standards, including the Common Core State Standards and Next Generation Science Standards, provide the necessary grade-level concepts and skills while the language development standards offer examples of the associated language critical for understanding the content. Content standards, in conjunction with language development standards, enable teachers to design curriculum, craft instruction, and plan classroom assessment for ELLs. Both language and content standards recognize academic language as essential to learning; however, it is the language development standards that provide for differentiation based on students’ levels of language proficiency. There must be direct connections between language development standards and content standards to create a crosswalk for academic language learning. While the most apparent correspondence between language and content standards is having shared topics, the cognitive and linguistic demands in both sets must also be compatible. RESEARCH-BASED EVIDENCE FOR ACTION 6 In curricular frameworks for ELLs, there must be college and career readiness standards, including the Common Core and Next Generation Science Standards, alongside language development standards. A correspondence between or among these sets of standards helps create an aligned instructional assessment system (Gottlieb, 2012c). In addition, matching content standards to language standards encourages collaboration among teachers serving ELLs (Morita-Mullaney, 2007). Approaches to standards-referenced learning that include challenging and engaging instruction, deep examination of student work, and recognition of the language required of content-based learning enhance opportunities for academic success for ELLs (Lachat, 2004). Approaches to standardsreferenced learning that include challenging and engaging instruction, deep examination of student work, and recognition of the language demands of contentbased learning enhance opportunities for academic success for English language learners (Lachat, 2004). The acceptance of common sets of standards can, in some contexts, support more careful assessment of student learning, better professional development for teachers, and a more equitable school experience for all students. Standards play a central role in understanding and improving school quality (Porter & Smithson, 2001; Supovitz, 2001). 31 A REPRESENTATION OF ACTION 6 IN THE WIDA STANDARDS FRAMEWORK There is specific language associated with particular content knowledge, concepts, and topics. Therefore, cross-referencing multiple sets of standards is critical in designing curriculum and planning for instruction and assessment for ELLs. In matching language to content-area expectations, teachers can help ensure continuity of educational experiences and high academic expectations for language learners. In the example strands, WIDA shows direct Connections between how language is embedded in content learning and how students can reach for that content goal. Example Connections to academic standards, including the Common Core and Next Generation Science Standards, are illustrated below. Figure L: Examples of Connections from WIDA’s Standards Matrices Grade(s) ELD Standard Connection 3 ELD Standard 3: The Language of Mathematics Common Core Standards for Mathematics, Measurement and Data #5–6 (Grade 3): Recognize area as an attribute of plane figures and understand concepts of area measurement…Measure areas by counting unit squares (square cm, square m, square in, square ft, and improvised units). 6 ELD Standard 4: The Language of Science Next Generation Science Standards, Life Sciences, Ecosystems: Interactions, Energy, and Dynamics LS 2–1, 2–2, 2–3, 2–4 (Middle School): Analyze and interpret data to provide evidence for the effects of resource availability on organisms and populations of organisms in an ecosystem. Construct an explanation that predicts patterns of interactions among organisms across multiple ecosystems. Develop a model to describe the cycling of matter and flow of energy among living and nonliving parts of an ecosystem. Construct an argument supported by empirical evidence that changes to physical or biological components of an ecosystem affect populations. ELD Standard 1: Social & Instructional Language Common Core Reading Standards for Informational Texts, Integration of Knowledge & Ideas #7 (Grades 11–12): Integrate and evaluate multiple sources of information presented in different media or formats (e.g., visually, quantitatively) as well as in words in order to address a question or solve a problem. 11–12 Making these Connections explicit within WIDA’s standards matrix gives content teachers insights into language expectations within the content standard, possible instructional supports for scaffolding language, and reminds language teachers of the academic concepts students are expected to meet. 32 PUTTING ACTION 6 INTO PRACTICE By Margot Downs, Yarmouth, ME When working with content and language development standards, I know it is essential to identify the key language that my ELLs need in a specific learning context. Using the content and language development standards as a starting point for lesson planning helps my colleagues and I focus on identifying essential language for tasks within a lesson (the language demand) so students can access and interact with the content. In my middle school teaching context when students are introduced to new topics it is often by making a visual representation of some of the key concepts. In order to engage linguistically on the topic, students need to be explicitly exposed to the language of the content standard. Once my colleagues and I are aware of the language required of the learning task, we can identify the appropriate supports for ELLs and provide for differentiation based on levels of language proficiency. Even though all students will be explicitly taught and interact with the essential language of the task and will be working towards the same content standard, not every student will be producing or processing the same language to demonstrate understanding of the concept. This practice of identifying the language demands of a content standard and the tasks designed by teachers to engage students in learning the key concepts has also helped me improve the quality of my feedback to students. If I have a clear understanding of the language demand, then I can communicate explicitly and effectively to students appropriate language targets for their proficiency level. This allows students to take more ownership of their learning. The questions below provide an opportunity to consider how to apply the ideas from Action 6 to practice. 1. How do you analyze content standards to gain insight about language demands and ideas for possible instructional supports for ELLs? 2. How does the Connection encourage content teachers to use language development standards for their ELLs? 3. How does the Connection inform the strand of model performance indicators? 33 ACTION 7 Design language teaching and learning with attention to the sociocultural context. Language learning occurs within a social context that serves as the backdrop for knowing what to communicate (the task), how to communicate (the register), and why communicate (the purpose). The context for language learning is significant within the classroom environment because it provides the reasons for academic language use. The classroom context should: • • • Honor and build upon students identities and experiences. Connect school to home, community, and other venues in the real world. Offer authenticity and meaning to communication. RESEARCH-BASED EVIDENCE FOR ACTION 7 School provides contexts for students to construct both social and academic knowledge. Within school, there are Literacy development happens shared assumptions and expectations as well as multiple as students construct new contexts for language use in which language choices knowledge in engaged vary. ELLs learn language through meaningful use and interactions with peers and interaction (García & Hamayan, 2006; Kramsch, 2003; through supportive interactions Halliday & Hasan, 1989 among others). Authentic with adults (Spivey, 1997). contexts that center on content contribute to ELLs’ learning particular forms of language. There is empirical evidence that ELLs who engage in learning activities that mirror the work of a discipline (e.g., explaining an article, interpreting historical artifacts, making a presentation, working a math problem) are able to produce, recognize, and evaluate salient academic language features (Bunch, 2006; Gebhard, Harman, & Seger, 2007; Gee, 2008; Schleppegrell, 2005). The context for classroom language use extends to tasks and interactions among students. Inquiry-based, authentic activities can be thought of as more accessible because they draw on gestural and visual modes of communication (Hart & Lee, 2003). Literacy development happens as students construct new knowledge in engaged interactions with peers and through supportive interactions with adults (Spivey, 1997). A REPRESENTATION OF ACTION 7 IN THE WIDA STANDARDS FRAMEWORK Language learning does not occur in isolation but is motivated by a need to communicate for a given purpose. Some possible purposes are illustrated in the Example Context for Language Use within WIDA’s standards matrix. A variety of contexts are presented across the strands, ranging from a specific classroom activity to end-of-unit projects. These examples, emphasize the importance of students having opportunities to assume different roles or voices, become familiar with a variety of registers, and work with different genres or text types. Here are Example Contexts for Language Use from three grades: 34 Figure M: Example Contexts for Language Use from WIDA’s Standards Matrices Grade(s) ELD Standard Example Context for Language Use 1 ELD Standard 5: The Language of Social Studies Students participate in role-play activities (e.g., with costumes/ puppets) involving different members of their community using information from classroom guest speakers, field trips, videos, stories, or posters. 6 ELD Standard 3: The Language of Mathematics Students justify their decisions in real-life scenarios (e.g., choosing items to buy based on discounts and local tax, determining miles per gallon for different models of cars, or selecting players for a fantasy team based on sports average). 9–10 ELD Standard 2: The Language of Language Arts Students learn how to choose appropriate sources for a research project by examining texts (e.g., speech transcripts, websites, editorials) to identify authors’ bias. PUTTING ACTION 7 INTO PRACTICE By Michelle Niska, Shakopee, MN Human beings are social creatures by nature. We learn by communicating and interacting with each other; this interaction always occurs within a sociocultural context. A student learning a new language and subject matter discourse can be taught through their need to be social with those around them. A teacher who can capitalize on this natural social process of learning will see students who are better informed of not only the subject content, but are also better able to problem solve in a variety of situations. Using a social context for learning will also produce students who are better able to use language to express their own knowledge, thoughts, and opinions. One way in which teachers can be intentional about creating sociocultural contexts is in strategically designed learning groups. Teachers can design lessons that incorporate many chances for students to interact with each other as well as with their teacher. In this way, teachers coach their students through a project, questioning and challenging them to expand their thinking. Generally, students also find working with each other more interesting than traditional, and perhaps passive, methods of learning. ELLs need these social interactions to support their language growth. In a learning group, students are also offered a chance to use some content-centered language in very interactive ways. Teachers using a grouping method of learning need to spend significant time helping their students become competent in the roles and responsibilities of group work. Students can learn group roles such as facilitator,...
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