Fostering High-Leverage Family Engagement
by Teresita Galarza and Sheldon Watson
The Home-School Connection to Language and Literacy Development
The nature of home literacy practices can be drastically different depending on a variety of home
and family characteristics, including sociolinguistic context. Variation in home literacy practices
may have even more impact on children when the language spoken at home differs from the
language of instruction at school. Students learning English have additional needs when it comes
to support of language and literacy development in the home. Given that a child’s oral language
development and literacy interest increases when literacy support is a mutual effort between
family and school (Frijters, Barron, & Brunello, 2000) it is vital to build mutually-supportive
relationships with families. This can be achieved when educators make family literacy a priority
in their curricular models and pay careful attention to the needs of both students and families.
The hallway workshop is an example of one strategy for family literacy that is consistent with
this vision.
Family Literacy
Most parents are very interested in supporting their children’s skills in reading and writing at
home. If parents know the advantages of particular activities for their children, they may be more
likely to facilitate those experiences (Edwards, 1995). The significance of home literacy
practices cannot be understated (Payne, Whitehurst, & Angell, 1994). One study of Mexican
American preschoolers found that the home literacy environment had a greater impact on literacy
skills than many other factors, such as the home-school relationship, family composition, and
family history (Ezell, Gonzalez, & Randolph, 2000). A number of specific activities have been
found to contribute to a child’s home literacy environment. These include
•
•
•
•
•
frequency of shared picture-book reading,
age of onset of picture book reading,
duration of shared picture-book reading at one sitting,
number of picture books in the home, and
frequency of caregiver’s personal reading time.
We often find, however, that the culture of educators and the school is different from that of the
family. Sociolinguistic context can include different ideas and values related to how children
learn, relationships between families and educators, and home literacy practices. In these cases,
educators need to make a conscious effort to engage families in ways that do not communicate
messages that parenting skills are judged negatively or perceived as inadequate. Perceptions by
families that they are being judged negatively may simply be the result of divergent perspectives
emerging from interactions with educators, but these perceptions can quickly become reality for
families. The following are conversational tips to help avoid the potential alienation of adult
family members:
● Limit use of school jargon and acronyms (e.g., IEP, SAT, SBAC, CCSS).
Fostering High-Leverage Family Engagement
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TESOL Connections: April 2016
● Don’t begin the relationship, or most interactions, with a focus on problems about the
children.
● Avoid negative language, like “Your child does not/cannot/needs to…”
● Focus on assets of the child, such as “Your child is able to/good at…”
● Seek their input, such as “How do you feel about...?” and “What happens when…?”
Approaching conversations with family members in this way will contribute to more positive
feelings toward the school and educators, and helps reduce negative or adversarial perceptions.
The whole point is creating a partnership to support children based upon mutual respect between
family and school. How we talk and interact with families is where this begins.
Case Study: The Hallway Workshop
Fostering family involvement requires more than requesting adult attendance at school meetings
and teachers disseminating information. It is about engaging families in authentic conversations
concerning language and literacy development. These conversations should include suggestions
and supports for what they can do with their children. However, these strategies for home
literacy must be practices that family members are (1) able to do, and (2) feel comfortable
implementing independently at home with their children. An engagement strategy that we call
the hallway workshop is an example of one such experience that promotes language and literacy
practices at home. It has proven highly effective in positively engaging increased numbers of
kindergarten families in home literacy behaviors in the Pre-K–8 urban school where it has been
developed.
At many schools, families are present and bustling throughout the building at the beginning and
end of every school day. This is even more true in urban environments where young children
frequently walk to school. The hallway workshop is a family engagement experience that
strategically occurs directly when and where families are most likely to be found. The hallway
workshop is designed to be a brief 10–15 minute conversation. Adults are individually invited to
participate in a manner that is intentionally planned as nonthreatening and low stakes.
Disseminating information is not the primary purpose of the conversation, rather it is to promote
a personal connection. The educator’s conversational role is that of advocate and active listener
in an interaction framed from this perspective. Developing the capacity of families to support
home literacy will hopefully be an associated outcome of this interpersonal exchange.
The invitation comes in the form of a complimentary gift offered as adults pass the teacher’s
table in the hallway. The gift is a book available for them to take home and share with their
child. It is inside a folder that contains an assortment of materials to use with the text. These
Family Literacy Toolkits each contain: the book, a dry erase marker, highlighter, and laminated
worksheets that include an alphabet chart, basic sight word lists, and lined paper. The teacher has
a casual conversation with the adults about how they can use these resources to read with their
child at home. The importance of language and literacy at home is discussed as well as the
principle that they are their child's first teacher. This principle is particularly important for
families of English language learners because we want to promote the native language as an
essential resource in the academic growth of the child. Native language exchanges between
parent and child: (1) extend dialogue, (2) prompt questioning, and (3) expand vocabulary, which
Fostering High-Leverage Family Engagement
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TESOL Connections: April 2016
is then transferred to English. Basic steps and strategies are demonstrated for how to teach their
child with a focus on developing language and literacy skills using the book as the foundation for
conversation in the home environment.
Impact
The hallway workshops had an immediate impact on all stakeholders. They increased the
frequency and quality of conversations between family members and teachers. More adults are
now engaged in positive interactions with the school and are supporting literacy behaviors at
home with their children. As a result of the hallway workshops, adults that participated in
previous weeks now take the initiative of bringing other adults to the table. The unsolicited
feedback from families has been extremely positive.
The toolkit materials are presented as simple tools that families can use to teach their children at
home just like teachers do at school. Family members confirm the success of this objective. They
note how they use the materials with their children, that their child wants to “play” like they do
in school, and that the activities motivate their child to want to read books at home. These first
steps, established in the context of warm and supportive conversations at school, hold the
promise of developing even stronger home literacy practices over time.
References
Edwards, P. A. (1995). Combining parents’ and teachers’ thoughts about storybook reading at
home and school. In L. M. Morrow (Ed.), Family literacy: Connections in schools and
communities (pp. 54–69). New Brunswick, NJ: International Reading Association.
Ezell, H. K., Gonzales, M. D., & Randolph, E. (2000). Emergent literacy skills of migrant
Mexican American preschoolers. Communication Disorders Quarterly, 21(3), 147–153.
Frijters, J. C., Barron, R. W., & Brunello, M. (2000). Direct and mediated influences of home
literacy and literacy interest on prereaders’ oral vocabulary and early written language skill.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 466–477.
Payne, A. C., Whitehurst, G. J., & Angell, A. L. (1994). The role of home literacy environment
in the development of language ability in preschool children from low-income families.
Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 9(3-4), 427–440.
___________________________________
Dr. Teresita Galarza is a veteran educator in the Hartford Public Schools, a former principal
and district administrator, and a specialist in second language acquisition and bilingual
education. Her doctoral research focused on classroom conversational interactions and their
impact on language development and academic performance. Current research focuses on
literacy and family engagement. Dr. Galarza facilitates professional learning on language and
literacy development for educators in Connecticut and Massachusetts.
Fostering High-Leverage Family Engagement
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TESOL Connections: April 2016
Dr. Sheldon Watson is an associate professor in the Department of Educational Leadership,
Policy, and Instructional Technology at Central Connecticut State University. He has developed
graduate courses in sheltered English instruction and program administration for English
language learners. Dr. Watson has facilitated professional learning on language and literacy
development for both teachers and administrators in Massachusetts. His research focuses on
educational policy, professional collaboration, and family engagement.
Fostering High-Leverage Family Engagement
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TESOL Connections: April 2016
Family Engagement Action Plan
Name__________________ Year: __________
Goal of the Plan: __________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
PTA Standards: (highlight the standard that matches the goal of your lesson plan)
Standard 1—Welcoming All Families into the School Community; Standard 2—Communicating Effectively; Standard 3—Supporting Student Success;
Standard 4—Speaking Up for Every Child; Standard 5—Sharing Power; Standard 6—Collaborating with Community
Goal Setting: How will we accomplish THIS GOAL?
Possible strategies,
activities, and
initiatives we want
to consider:
Family Literacy Strategy
Language Development
Audience:
Timeline:
e.g., grade, all,
some, few
Projected
Date(s)
(frequency)
PTA
Standard(s)
1‐6
(see above)
Person(s)
Responsible:
Who’s helping? What
resources, training, and
information will they
need?
How will you measure
the Outcome of the
strategy?
(e.g., questionnaires, surveys,
checklists, interviews,
observations, and focus
groups.)
ACCESS
2.0
for
ELLS
Part II: Identify one English Language Learner (ELL) in your class or school and complete the
information below. To complete the required information you will have to review their
Access 2.0 score report. You will find the scores by looking at their cumulative folder or by
asking the ESOL representative at your school.
Part A: Basic Information
Name: _______________________________Age: _______________Grade:__________________
Country of Origin: _________________________________________Time in USA: _____________
Native Language___________________________________________________________________
Part B: Language Domain
Information can be obtained by looking at the student cumulative folder or asking the ESOL
representative in your building.
Domain
Listening
Proficiency Level
Scale Score
Speaking
Reading
Writing
Part C: Based on your findings, what will you do to support the student in your class?
Essential Actions
A Handbook for Implementing
WIDA’s Framework for English
Language Development Standards
A Companion to the
2012 Amplification of
the ELD Standards
Margo Gottlieb
Essential Actions
A Handbook for Implementing
WIDA’s Framework for English
Language Development Standards
Margo Gottlieb
Copyright Notice
Essential Actions: A Handbook for Implementing WIDA’s Framework for English Language Development
Standards (“Essential Actions Handbook”) is owned by the Board of Regents of the University of
Wisconsin System on behalf of WIDA. The Essential Actions Handbook is protected by United States
copyright laws and may not be reproduced, modified, or distributed, including posting, without the
prior written permission of the Wisconsin Center for Education Research (WCER) and the Board of
Regents of the University of Wisconsin System. The Essential Actions Handbook is for your personal,
noncommercial use only. You may not alter or remove any trademark, copyright, or other notice from
copies of this book.
Fair use of the Essential Actions Handbook includes reproduction for the purpose of teaching
(including multiple copies). If you are not sure whether your use of the Essential Actions Handbook
falls within fair use or if you want permission to use the copyrighted Essential Actions Handbook
for purposes other than personal or fair use, please contact the WIDA Client Services Center at
help@wida.us or 1-866-276-7735.
© 2013 Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System, on behalf of the WIDA
Consortium—www.wida.us.
2013 WIDA Consortium Members
Alabama
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iv
South Carolina
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FOREWORD:
WIDA’s Framework for Language
Development Standards
Essential Actions is a response to three frequently asked questions about WIDA’s Framework for language
development standards: “Why are there so many components?,” “What is the reasoning behind each
component?,” and “What is important to consider in implementing English language development
standards?” The framework is designed for use across multiple contexts and settings and represents
language development in English and Spanish of the youngest dual language learners from age 2.5
through language learners at the high school level.
WIDA’s framework for language development standards, depicted below, consists of a set of interactive
and interdependent components that exemplify WIDA’s vision for academic language development. This
framework is the foundation for WIDA’s ongoing work in the area of language development standards
and assessment.
Figure A: WIDA’s Framework for Language Development Standards
Gu
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Age
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Performance
Definitions
Standards &
their Matrices
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WIDA's Can Do
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Ex
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Ex
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Standards &
their Matrices
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Performance
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es of Language D
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WIDA's Can Do
ilo
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The conceptualization of academic language and language development in academic contexts has
been and continues to be upheld by WIDA’s Can Do Philosophy and Guiding Principles of Language
Development. WIDA’s Can Do Philosophy is based on the belief that all students bring to their learning
cultural and linguistic practices, skills, and ways of knowing from their homes and communities. WIDA
believes that an educator’s role is to craft instruction that capitalizes on and builds upon these assets. This
belief is based on a synthesis of the literature related to working with culturally and linguistically diverse
students. Using this work as a frame, WIDA drafted its Guiding Principles from a synthesis of literature
and research related to language development and effective instructional practices for language learners.
These Guiding Principles represent WIDA’s core beliefs about language development.
v
so
Using the Can Do Philosophy and Guiding Principles of Language Development as a foundation, WIDA
identified prominent Features of Academic Language. Academic language, in this framework, is viewed as
a vehicle for communicating and learning within sociocultural contexts; in other words, the interaction
between different people for specific purposes and across different learning environments influence how
language is used.
At the core of WIDA’s framework are the Performance Definitions along with the five language
development standards and their representative matrices. The Performance Definitions delineate what
the various levels of language proficiency look like, informed by the Features of Academic Language.
The standards matrices help educators envision what language development might look like in K–12
classrooms scaffolded across levels of language proficiency within the five standards. These matrices
are used in conjunction with the Performance Definitions to describe possible student trajectories for
academic language development.
The components of WIDA’s framework interact and influence each other in the design of curricula,
language instruction, and assessment of language learners. Teachers and school leaders are encouraged
to emphasize specific elements of the framework in their language instruction to fit the specific needs of
individual students and contexts. In doing so, all stakeholders can participate in shaping the education of
an increasingly diverse student population.
Essential Actions is a call for teachers and teacher educators to take action and collaborate in designing
and implementing curriculum, instruction, and assessment through standards. Through this coordinated
effort, all students can benefit from a personalized and challenging standards-referenced education that is
geared towards advancing their individual and collective academic success. As a result, language learners,
by having exposure to both language and content standards, will build stronger academic language to use
inside and outside of school.
vi
Table of Contents and List of Figures
Foreword
WIDA’s Framework for Language Development Standards................................................................... v
Section I: Overview of the Handbook
Introduction..........................................................................................................................................3
Purposes and Audiences .......................................................................................................................3
The Role of Academic Language in School Context..............................................................................5
Architecture of WIDA’s Framework for Language Development Standards...........................................6
Section II: Taking Action!
The Essential Actions for Academic Language Success.........................................................................10
Appendices
Appendix A: WIDA Implementation Survey for Taking Action ..........................................................67
Appendix B: Glossary of Terms and Expressions Related to WIDA’s Language Development..............70
Standards and Essential Actions
Appendix C: References......................................................................................................................74
Appendix D: Acknowledgments .........................................................................................................83
List of Figures
Figure A: WIDA’s Framework for Language Development Standards.................................................... v
Figure B: Audiences and Uses of the Handbook....................................................................................4
Figure C: What this Handbook Is and Is Not........................................................................................5
Figure D: A Strand of Model Performance Indicators............................................................................8
Figure E: Essential Actions for Academic Language Success.................................................................11
Figure F: An Overlay of the Essential Actions onto the WIDA Standards Matrix................................12
Figure G: The Features of Academic Language in WIDA’s Framework for Language...........................18
Figure H: WIDA Performance Definitions Listening and Reading, Grades K–12................................22
Figure I: WIDA Performance Definitions Speaking and Writing, Grades K–12...................................23
Figure J: The English Language Development Standards.....................................................................26
Figure K: Grade-level Representation in WIDA’s English Language Standards.....................................29
Figure L: Examples of Connections from WIDA’s Standards Matrices.................................................32
Figure M: Example Contexts for Language Use from WIDA’s Standards Matrices...............................35
Figure N: Examples of Topic-Related Language from WIDA’s Standards Matrices..............................41
Figure O: A Strand of Model Performance Indicators with a Variety of Language Functions...............44
Figure P: Example Content Topics and Corresponding Content Stems ..............................................47
Figure Q: Examples of Types of Instructional Supports.......................................................................50
Figure R: Integrated Strand of Model Performance Indicators.............................................................54
Figure S: Expanded Strand of Model Performance Indicators..............................................................60
Figure T: A Grade-Level List of Complementary Strands of Model Performance ................................65
Indicators Along With Their Language Domains and Example Topics
SECTION 1:
Overview of the Handbook
Introduction
World-Class Instructional Design and Assessment’s (WIDA’s) mission, to support academic language
development and academic achievement for linguistically diverse students through high quality standards,
assessments, research, and professional development, is exemplified in its Can Do Philosophy. Our ten
Guiding Principles of Language Development provide the theoretical and research bases for extensive
standards work. And now, our 15 Essential Actions for unlocking academic language use in school
will help educators better understand the multiple facets of standards-referenced education for English
language learners (ELLs).
This handbook is an outgrowth of much conversation around how to enhance the representation of our
English language development standards in preparation for the release of our 2012 Amplification. We
wished to make more explicit what was implicit in our previous editions, and create clear connections
to academic content standards, including the Common Core State Standards and the Next Generation
Science Standards.
Since their inception in 2003, WIDA’s five English language development standards have remained
unaltered and foundational to our work, enhancing educational opportunity and excellence for ELLs.1
With input from our members, including thousands of educators, we at WIDA have continuously
refined and improved how we represent language standards. In that way, teachers and instructional
leaders have gained a richer and deeper appreciation of the complexities of language learning.
Purpose and Audiences
This handbook is designed to be a resource to share among educators who work directly with or are
impacted by ELLs. It is a guide that describes and illustrates the standards-referenced components and
elements of language learning within WIDA’s standards framework.
Purpose
The overall purpose of this handbook is to promote collaboration, mutual understanding, and use of
language development standards among all educators who work with ELLs. The Essential Actions,
derived from current theory and research, provide a rationale for each component and element of
WIDA’s standards framework. They may be used in conjunction with WIDA’s 2007 or 2012 Standards
books or independently, once teachers have familiarity with the components and elements.
In reading this handbook, you might note several changes in reference to the standards. First, we now refer to the
overall language expectations for ELLs as language development standards. We believe that “language development” better
captures the description of the cumulative process of language learning while “language proficiency” is a snapshot of that
development measured at one point in time and interpreted as a level along a continuum.
1
3
Audiences
Various audiences may choose different ways to use the Essential Actions in order to implement WIDA’s
language development standards.
Teachers, in professional learning teams or communities, may share experiences related to the Essential
Actions that lead to sound instruction and classroom assessment for ELLs.
Instructional and school leaders may use the Essential Actions to gain a global sense of students’ language
development within and across classrooms and be attuned to the effectiveness of language education
programs.
Teacher educators may find this resource a springboard for deep discussion about the role of language
development standards in the achievement of language learners.
The following table specifies the uses of the handbook for these audiences.
Figure B: Audiences and Uses of the Handbook
Audiences
Uses of the Handbook
Teachers, including
language and content
teachers, special
education teachers, and
“specials” teachers
Plan for students’ language learning
Instructional
leaders, including
superintendents,
assistant
superintendents,
principals, and
instructional coaches
Provide a common ground for discussing issues related to academic language
learning
Teacher educators,
including preservice teachers
and professional
development providers
Provide a theoretical basis for the Framework for Language Development
Standards
Collaborate with one another and share information on language learners
Apply to the design of standards-referenced instruction and classroom
assessment
Guide curriculum, instruction, and school-based assessment for language
learners
Use in the design of standards-referenced curriculum and common assessment
Use as a needs assessment for districts or schools
Offer deeper understanding of the components of the framework
This handbook is limited in scope in relation to its purposes and audiences. To avoid misunderstanding
on the uses of the Essential Actions, the following table specifies what the handbook is and what it is not.
4
Figure C: What this Handbook Is and Is Not
The Handbook is a…
The Handbook is NOT a…
Resource to help educators plan for academic
language success of their students
“How to manual” for designing curriculum
Complement to the Resource Guides for
Language Development Standards
Compendium of instructional strategies
Set of suggestions that is in accordance with
WIDA’s mission, vision, and Can Do Philosophy
Mandate for instruction and assessment for ELLs
Theoretical rationale for WIDA’s Framework for
Language Development Standards
Set of classroom practices
The Role of Academic Language in School Contexts
Research and theory provide guidance about the
experiences of language learners in schools and the
In the end, academic language
important role of academic language in this context.
is not just academic…it is life
Language shapes the sociocultural contexts in which it
giving when it extends through
lives and in turn, these sociocultural contexts, including
the length, width, and depth
the actors in them, shape the language. Schools are no
of all that we can learn (Heath,
exception. For many students, schooling is primarily a
2008, pp. xiii).
linguistic experience, as learning language and learning
through language are simultaneous endeavors (Halliday,
1993). For all students, but particularly for ELLs, school
brings new situations, new ways of interacting, and new forms of text (Schleppegrell, 2004). These
unfamiliar contexts for learning are filled with academic language. With every ring of a bell, there is new
academic language for students to learn, whether it is oral and written interaction of science lessons,
mathematics problem solving, or social studies tasks (Bailey, Butler, Stevens, & Lord, 2007).
Academic language is at the heart of standards and serves as the crosswalk between grade-level
expectations delineated in academic content standards and their corresponding language development
standards. This handbook emphasizes these connections to ensure that ELLs, as all students, take
challenging, yet realistic, steps along their pathway to academic success. By integrating language with
content and content with language through a shared lens, teachers can prepare students to be active
participants in 21st century learning.
It takes a coordinated effort among teachers and school leaders to implement standards-based reform.
The 15 Essential Actions exemplified in this handbook are a starting point for rich conversations among
professionals working with ELLs. Centered on the academic rigor surrounding the language of school,
5
the Actions afford educators of ELLs insight into the academic language of the competitive world of
college and career.
Architecture of WIDA’s Framework for Language Development Standards
WIDA’s Framework for Language Development Standards includes three major components. The
Features of Academic Language in Sociocultural Contexts overarch and shape the Performance
Definitions for receptive and productive language, which, in turn, interact with the language
development standards and their matrices.
Features of Academic Language in Sociocultural Contexts
Academic language does not operate in isolation—it is always associated with and is embedded in a
sociocultural context. It is the sociocultural context that frames academic language and gives meaning to
oral and written communication. This relation is dialogic in that the language used in particular contexts
also shapes those contexts. In school, the classroom is the venue that provides the sociocultural context in
which language learning occurs (Gottlieb & Ernst-Slavit, 2013). The sociocultural context is multifaceted
in that it represents the interaction or relationship between what the student brings to the learning
environment (e.g., languages, cultures, experiences) and the language of the task at hand, including the
register, genre, and topic. Schools shape the expectations for language use by the students, while at the
same time, students and their ways of knowing and using language also have tremendous influence on
schools.
Language permeates school and is fundamental in educating youth. Language development standards
provide a window for educators of language learners into the systematic treatment of language within and
across content areas. The new elements and components of WIDA’s standards matrices, as illustrated in
the 2012 Amplification, will help all educators organize curriculum, instruction, and assessment around
language.
Performance Definitions
The Performance Definitions work together with the English language development standards to shape
WIDA’s vision of the language expectations of ELLs as they move along the five levels of English
language proficiency—Entering, Emerging,2 Developing, Expanding, and Bridging. Performance
Definitions specify the academic language features included in its three sets of criteria—Linguistic
Complexity, Language Forms and Conventions,3 and Vocabulary Usage—that operate within a
Another change from WIDA’s 2007 Edition to 2012 is that we now refer to English language proficiency level 2 as
“Emerging” rather than “Beginning.” We believe that teachers, in differentiating language instruction, often set up three
groups of language learners; the most logical divisions are Beginning, Intermediate, and Advanced students. Therefore,
we thought it would be wise to replace Beginning, which at times was confused with Level 1-Entering, with a more
descriptive label.
2
The criterion “Language Forms and Conventions” is replacing “Language Control” to better define sentence-level
features of academic language and to ensure a stronger correspondence with academic content standards, including the
Common Core.
3
6
sociocultural context within a classroom setting. These criteria, delineated for each level of language
proficiency, and reflected in the Common Core State Standards, are an overall description of the language
ELLs process and produce (see Essential Action 2 for more details); they entail:
•
•
•
Linguistic Complexity—the organization, cohesion and relationship between ideas expressed in a
variety of sentences that make up different registers, genres, and text types in oral or written language.
Language Forms and Conventions—the grammatical structures, patterns, syntax, and mechanics
associated with sentence level meaning and use.
Vocabulary Usage—the specificity of words, phrases, or expressions, along with multiple meanings,
cognates, and collocations, applied to given contexts.
Language Development Standards and their Matrices4
English Language Development Standards
Content standards, including the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) and the Next Generation
Science Standards (NGSS), by definition, set common expectations for learning. Academic content
standards delineate what students should understand (conceptual knowledge) and are able to do
(practices) for each discipline. On the other hand, English language development standards illustrate:
•
•
•
•
A developmental pathway to English language proficiency.
Scaffolding from one language proficiency level to the next along the continuum of language
development.
The necessary academic language for accessing and achieving grade-level content.
Academic language use in school within and across content areas.
WIDA’s language development standards remain constant and the components within its matrices are
always presented within a fixed format. The matrices are one way to portray the language expectations for
each of the five levels of language proficiency within a particular context. The expectations are described
through statements called model performance indicators or MPIs. As the context varies, the language will
probably vary as well. For this reason, the ways in which the standards are represented are intended to be
dynamic to fit the language learning context. In fact, to customize teaching and classroom assessment so
that it is better synchronized with content instruction in your classroom, encourages exchanging elements
of the MPIs and other components, such as the language domains, through transformations.5 With the
tremendous heterogeneity of language learners, teachers should be able to craft curriculum, instruction,
For example standards matrices, see the WIDA English Language Proficiency Standards and Resource Guide, 2007 Edition,
PreKindergarten–Grade 12 and the 2012 Amplification of the English Language Development Standards, Kindergarten–
Grade 12.
4
See the WIDA ELP Standards and Resource Guide, 2007 Edition (pp. RG34–38) for an explanation and examples of
transformations.
5
7
and assessment based on representations of the English language development standards that:
•
•
•
•
Best mirror the academic language of their classrooms.
Are compatible and interweave with content learning.
Reflect the differentiated language needs of their students.
Include a variety of built-in instructional supports (i.e., sensory, graphic, and interactive).
Strands of Model Performance Indicators
WIDA’s representation of English language development through its standards framework is unique.
The central structure consists of the strands of model performance indicators (MPIs). Each strand
exemplifies how language is processed (for the language domains of listening or reading) or produced
(for the language domains of speaking or writing) for example grade-level content topics that are
differentiated across five levels of language proficiency. The strands of model performance indicators are
representations of how the standards may be implemented in classrooms with a heterogeneous mix of
ELLs.
A strand of MPIs illustrates one of many ways in which language may be scaffolded across the levels of
language proficiency for a given content topic and context for language use. The following strand shows
how language development builds over time from language proficiency level 1, Entering, to level 5,
GRADE 4
Bridging.
ELD STANDARD
4: The
Language
of Science Indicators
Figure
D: A Strand
of Model
Performance
EXAMPLE TOPIC: Earth history/materials
CONNECTION: Next Generation Science Standards, Earth and Space Sciences, Earth’s Systems: Processes that Shape the Earth ESS1-1, ESS2-1 (Grade 4): Identify evidence from
patterns in rock formations and fossils in rock layers for changes in a landscape over time to support an explanation for changes in a landscape over time. Make observations and/
GRADE
4 by water, ice, wind, or vegetation.
or measurements to provide evidence of the effects of weathering or the
rate of erosion
EXAMPLE CONTEXT FOR LANGUAGE USE: Students gather information about scientific processes (e.g., from teacher demonstrations, computer programs, or videos) and
demonstrate how the surface of the earth has changed over time as part of a long-term project on earth history.
ELD STANDARD 4: The Language of Science
EXAMPLE TOPIC: Earth history/materials
LISTENING
with their effects on earth
of processes or events on
processes or events on earth
of processes or events on
processes or events on
materials based on oral
earth materials based on
materials based on oral
earth materials based on
earth materials using videos
COGNITIVE
FUNCTION:
Students at alloral
levels
of Englishusing
language proficiency
ANALYZE
the results of change
over time using
due to processes
affecting
earth materials.
descriptions
using photos,
descriptions
descriptions
using photos,
oral descriptions
based
on grade-level
oral
illustrations, or videos with
photos, illustrations, or
illustrations, or videos and
photos, illustrations, or
discourse
Level
2 in L1
Level 3 with a
Level 4
Level 5
a partner in
L1 or1 L2
videos withLevel
a partner
graphic organizers
videos
Entering
Expanding
Bridging
or L2 Emerging
partner Developing
Level 6 – Reaching
COGNITIVE FUNCTION:
Students
at all
levels ofEarth
English
proficiency
ANALYZE
the results
change
due toESS2-1
processes
affecting
earth materials.
CONNECTION:
Next Generation
Science
Standards,
andlanguage
Space Sciences,
Earth’s
Systems: Processes
thatofShape
the over
Earthtime
ESS1-1,
(Grade
4): Identify
evidence from
patterns in rock formations and fossils in rock layers for changes in a landscape over time to support an explanation for changes in a landscape over time. Make observations and/
or measurements to provide
weathering
or the rate of erosion
by water,
Level 1 evidence of the effects ofLevel
2
Level
3 ice, wind, or vegetation.
Level 4
Level 5
Entering
Emerging
Developing
Expanding
Bridging
EXAMPLE CONTEXT FOR LANGUAGE USE: Students gather information about scientific processes (e.g., from teacher demonstrations, computer programs, or videos) and
demonstrate
how processes
the surface
the earth has
changed
as part of aCategorize
long-term the
project
onof
earth history.
Match
orofevents
Identify
andover
sorttime
the effect
effects
Distinguish between effects
Interpret the effects of
LISTENING
Level 6 – Reaching
Match processes or events
Identify and sort the effect
Categorize the effects of
Distinguish between effects
Interpret the effects of
with their effects on earth
of processes or events on
processes or events on earth
of processes or events on
processes or events on
materials based on oral
earth materials based on
materials based on oral
earth materials based on
earth materials using videos
descriptions
using photos,
descriptions
using languagedescriptions
using photos,
oral descriptions
using
on grade-level
oral erosion,
TOPIC-RELATED
LANGUAGE:
Studentsoral
at all
levels of English
proficiency interact
with grade-level
words and expressions,
suchbased
as: weather
v. weathering,
illustrations,
photos, illustrations, or
illustrations, or videos and
photos, illustrations, or
discourse
breaks down
rocks or videos with
a partner in L1 or L2
videos with a partner in L1
graphic organizers with a
videos
or L2
partner
TOPIC-RELATED LANGUAGE: Students at all levels of English language proficiency interact with grade-level words and expressions, such as: weather v. weathering, erosion,
breaks down rocks
73
8
73
This handbook addresses the four new components to the standards matrix. Each new component
surrounding the strand of MPIs provides an additional dimension of language learning to be considered
in planning curriculum, instruction, and assessment for ELLs. The new components to the standards
matrix introduced in the 2012 Amplification are:
•
•
•
•
A Connection to academic content standards, including the Common Core and Next Generation
Science Standards.
Representative grade-level, Topic-Related Language.
A uniform Cognitive Function across the five levels of language proficiency.
An Example Context for Language Use for the strand of model performance indicators.
The 2012 Amplification also introduces different types of strands. The new types of strands illustrate the
flexibility in the ways standards are portrayed and the importance of ELLs’ development of academic
language outside of the traditional core content areas. The additional types of strands are:
•
•
•
Expanded strands, illustrating the three performance criteria across the levels of language proficiency.
Integrated strands, encompassing multiple language domains, grade levels, and standards.
Complementary strands, extending the language of the content areas to Visual Arts, Physical
Education and Health, and Technology and Engineering, to name a few.
These new components and additional types of strands offer a much broader range of language learning
possibilities that typify classrooms with language learners. The next section outlines the theoretical
backgrounds for these components and illustrates how they are converted into Essential Actions.
9
SECTION 2:
Taking Action!
Essential Actions for Academic Language Success
Fifteen Essential Actions for academic language
success provide the organizing structure for this section
of the handbook. The Essential Actions are evidencebased strategies for educators to apply in implementing
standards-referenced, language-centered education. In
particular, they are intended to help identify the academic
language of grade-level content through WIDA’s language
development standards. In that way, ELLs can have
greater opportunities to experience success and thrive
in elementary and secondary schools in preparation for
college and careers.
The Essential Actions are
evidence-based strategies
for educators to apply in
implementing standardsreferenced, language-centered
education.
The first 12 Essential Actions are arranged according to their presentation in WIDA’s standards matrix,
from the most global, the Performance Definitions, to the most discrete, the elements of the model
performance indicators: language functions, content stems, and instructional supports. Essential Actions
13–15 emphasize how all teachers have a shared responsibility for the education of ELLs and how they
are to support each another in working toward a more comprehensive, inclusive educational system.
The Essential Actions are intended to stimulate professional conversations among language and content
educators about academic language and its role in education. They are not presented in a linear fashion
nor are they intended to be followed in a sequential order. The Actions may be rearranged or categorized
according to a school’s preference or may be used as a point of departure for professional learning teams
or communities.
For each Essential Action there is an explanation of its use, background information on its importance
or rationale that is supported by research, a description of its relation to WIDA’s standards framework
for language development, and an example of a practice that is reflective of the Action. Each Action
also includes an illustration of the specified standards-referenced component or element. The Actions
come alive with teachers’ and teacher educators’ contributions. Finally, each Action is followed by a set
of questions to stimulate discussion among educators working with language learners as they plan the
implementation of standards-referenced education. Each set of questions includes opportunities for
educators to apply the ideas from the Essential Actions to their practice.
The Essential Actions follow. Their numbers correspond to elements or component shown in the
expanded English language development standards matrix.
10
Figure E: Essential Actions for Academic Language Success
ACTION 1
Capitalize on the resources
and experiences that ELLs
bring to school to build
and enrich their academic
language.
ACTION 2
Analyze the academic
language demands involved
in grade-level teaching and
learning.
ACTION 3
Plan differentiated language
instruction around the
conceptual knowledge and
language development of
ELLs.
ACTION 4
Connect language and
content to make learning
relevant and meaningful for
ELLs.
ACTION 5
Focus on the developmental
nature of language
learning within grade-level
curriculum.
ACTION 6
Reference content standards
and language development
standards in planning for
language learning.
ACTION 7
Design language teaching
and learning with attention
to the sociocultural context.
ACTION 8
Provide opportunities for all
ELLs to engage in higherorder thinking.
ACTION 9
Create language-rich
classroom environments
with ample time for
language practice and use.
ACTION 10
Identify the language
needed for functional use in
teaching and learning.
ACTION 11
Plan for language teaching
and learning around
discipline-specific topics.
ACTION 12
Use instructional supports
to help scaffold language
learning.
ACTION 13
Integrate language domains
to provide rich, authentic
instruction.
ACTION 14
Coordinate and collaborate
in planning for language
and content teaching and
learning.
ACTION 15
Share responsibility so that
all teachers are language
teachers and support one
another within communities
of practice.
11
12
6
ACTION
4
TOPIC-RELATED LANGUAGE:
Level 1
Entering
COGNITIVE FUNCTION:
9
ACTION
8
ACTION
EXAMPLE CONTEXT FOR LANGUAGE USE:
CONNECTION:
ELD STANDARD:
ACTION
ACTION
ACTION
Level 3
Developing
ACTION
3 10 11 12
7
ACTION
ACTION
Level 2
Emerging
1
ACTION
Figure F: An Overlay of the Essential Actions onto the WIDA Standards Matrix
Language Domain(s)
Level 4
Expanding
5
ACTION
11
ACTION
Level 5
Bridging
EXAMPLE TOPIC:
GRADE:
Level 6 – Reaching
2 14
ACTION
Levels 2–4
Action 13 is represented in the Integrated Strands and Action 15 is represented in the Complementary Strands.
Vocabulary
Usage
Word/Phrase
Level
Language
Forms &
Conventions
Sentence
Level
Linguistic
Complexity
Discourse
Level
Levels 1–3
Example Language Features
ACTION
Levels 3–5
Level 6 – Reaching
13
ACTION 1
Capitalize on the resources and experiences that ELLs bring to school to
build and enrich their academic language.
Students are the centerpiece of an educational system and the nation’s future. Teaching and learning
should revolve around who ELLs are, what they can do, and how everyone can benefit from the
tremendous assets they bring to school. When the sociocultural contexts students encounter in their
schools are in concert with those of their home and community and when the students can recognize
their linguistic and cultural identities represented in their school, they feel respected as members and
contributors to their learning environment. Therefore, every attempt should be made to incorporate the
backgrounds of the students into curriculum design, such as in the selection of topics or themes of units
and the genres or text types of materials. Equally important, instructional tasks and activities should
provide students with opportunities to take on a variety of identities and social roles to promote more
linguistically and culturally responsive instructional practices. As a result of having more positive and
connected experiences with schooling, students will more likely acquire and use grade-level academic
language in relevant and meaningful contexts.
RESEARCH-BASED EVIDENCE FOR ACTION 1
A wealth of linguistic and cultural knowledge exists in
local households in diverse communities around the
country. These community-based resources can shape a
pedagogy that connects to students’ life experiences and
engages them academically. By using students’ “funds of
knowledge,” we are mobilizing their cultural resources for
teaching and learning (Gonzalez, Moll, & Amanti, 2005;
Moll, 1992).
By using students “funds of
knowledge,” we are mobilizing
their cultural resources
for teaching and learning
(Gonzalez, Moll, & Amanti, 2005;
Moll, 1992).
The complex socio-cognitive processes of meaning making
that we use to understand and produce text and talk
are embedded within social practices of everyday life (Pérez, 2004). Students acquire these resources in
their homes and communities. Empirical studies have shown that ELLs with rich experiences in their
home language develop literacy faster in a second language. As educators, we need to nurture dynamic
bilingualism by fostering students’ exploration of their linguistic identities and their development across
languages (Escamilla & Hopewell, 2010, Garcia & Kleifgen, 2010; Hornberger, 2003, among others).
For too long, schools have underestimated the contribution of language development at home (Zentella,
2005), envisioning ELLs functioning in two separate worlds rather than realizing that they learn in and
across both. Academic language includes multiple literacies (Gee, 2008) and being able to tap two or
more languages as the basis for academic language development enriches all students.
14
A REPRESENTATION OF ACTION 1 IN THE WIDA STANDARDS FRAMEWORK
ELLs are central to WIDA’s standards-referenced system. Language development standards help frame
curriculum, instruction, and assessment while stimulating professional development and research,
however, ELLs must always be visible in the overall system. Systemic consideration of ELLs in planning,
implementing, evaluating, and refining any and all aspects of education will help ensure their equitable
and fair treatment.
WIDA’s Can Do Philosophy brings the strengths of ELLs to the forefront of the educational system. As
21st century knowledge and skills take center stage in today’s standards-referenced arena, teachers and
school leaders of ELLs must step up and act on the positive contributions that these students make to the
U.S. educational enterprise. By taking action toward improving educational opportunities and academic
outcomes of this fastest-growing student population, educators will help pave the way for ELLs’ academic
language success.
PUTTING ACTION 1 INTO PRACTICE
By Marylin Low and Emily Lam, Honolulu, HI
ELLs have diverse language and cultural backgrounds, learning styles, and life experiences that are often
different from those of their peers. When teachers build on these diverse assets through intentionally
designed learning plans, ELLs’ academic performance is enhanced (Ladson-Billings, 1995; González,
Moll, & Amanti, 2005). Below is an example of how Kimi, an elementary teacher in Hawai’i, capitalizes
on the resources and experiences of the ELLs in her classroom.
Kimi is co-planning a project-based unit on the topic of weather.6 Students will learn about the water
cycle, weather elements, measuring changes in weather, and data collection through a variety of
interactive activities. The culminating product will be an event, planned by students, to teach the school
community about what they have learned. Kimi has different images of Pacific weather patterns she
wants to display and use to activate prior knowledge about weather.
Capitalizing on the varying kinesthetic, visual, and oral learning styles of her students, Kimi wants the
final event to be performed for the community—a performance with a message. Knowing that some
parents of her ELLs are fishers, Kimi invites them as guest speakers and, with assistance from interpreters
at school, they share with her class the methods they have used to forecast weather and determine
the impact of weather on their livelihood. A group of students is intrigued by the idea of predicting
the weather. They list important terms such as water, wind, and rain in the languages of their group
members. They seek clarification of local meanings from the community and family and decide to teach
each other the words in context. They discuss their ideas in more than one language. Soon this group is
ready to connect words to music and begin animating the deep meaning of the multilingual lyrics.
See Kindergarten–Grade 5 Integrated Strand on weather on pp. 18–19 of the 2012 Amplification of the English Language
Development Standards, Kindergarten–Grade 12.
6
15
The questions below provide an opportunity to consider how to apply the ideas from
Action 1 to practice.
1. How do the resources and experiences of students impact their engagement with the curriculum and
their learning?
2. What might you do to learn more about students’ resources and experiences?
3. What are some examples of how you might incorporate students’ resources and experiences into the
curriculum?
16
ACTION 2
Analyze the academic language demands involved in grade-level teaching
and learning.
Throughout the school day, ELLs are surrounded by the academic language of oral and written discourse.
The specialized discourse of each content area challenges students to understand and engage with
ideas and concepts. Teachers and instructional leaders must be aware of the complexities of language
development and consider the features of academic language in planning and implementing curriculum
and instruction.
RESEARCH-BASED EVIDENCE FOR ACTION 2
Students’ mastery of grade-level academic language is
key to academic success (Freeman & Freeman, 2008;
Zwiers, 2008; Frances, et. al., 2006). It is a foundation
for college and career readiness for all students, including
ELLs. The communication goals of each content area
guide the choice of language structures, register, and
discourse (Askehave & Swales, 2001; Anstrom et al.,
2010). At school, students need opportunities to play the
expert and do the communicative work of a particular
discipline (Gee, 2008; Hart & Lee, 2003; Irujo, 2007) in
order to learn the discipline-specific language. For ELLs
in particular, academic language must be made explicit
(Valdés, 2001).
At school, students need
opportunities to play the expert
and do the communicative
work of a particular discipline
(Gee, 2008; Hart & Lee, 2003;
Irujo, 2007) in order to learn the
discipline-specific language.
Language features can be organized at three levels: discourse, sentence, and word/phrase, which
emphasize linguistic complexity, language forms, and vocabulary (Halliday & Hassan, 1989; Bailey &
Huang, 2011). Empirical studies have shown how each of these features of language impact students’
overall language proficiency and that language proficiency grows when these features are explicitly taught
(Snow & Uccelli, 2009; Echevarría, Short, & Powers, 2006).
A REPRESENTATION OF ACTION 2 IN THE WIDA STANDARDS FRAMEWORK
The Features of Academic Language identify the major characteristics of academic language that WIDA
has identified for its three performance criteria: Linguistic Complexity at the discourse level, Language
Forms and Conventions at the sentence level, and Vocabulary Usage at the word/phrase level. Linguistic
Complexity entails the quantity, quality, and variety of sentences involved in processing or producing
language related to ideas and concepts. Language Forms and Conventions take into account the
grammatical structures and associated mechanics typically encountered in each discipline or content area.
Vocabulary Usage involves general academic words and phrases used in school, specialized content words
17
and words with multiple meanings applicable across one or more content areas, and technical words
unique to topics within each content area.
The Features of Academic Language, in conjunction with the Performance Definitions, provide the broad
set of language expectations for ELLs to be used in interpreting the language development standards and
grade-level strands of model performance indicators.
Figure G: The Features of Academic Language in WIDA’s Framework for Language
Development Standards
The Features of Academic Language operate within sociocultural contexts for language use.
Discourse
Level
Performance Criteria
Features
Linguistic
Complexity
Amount of speech/written text
Structure of speech/written text
Density of speech/written text
Organization and cohesion of ideas
Variety of sentence types
(Quantity and variety of
oral and written text)
Sentence
Level
Language Forms and
Conventions
(Types, array, and use of
language structures)
Word/Phrase
Level
Vocabulary Usage
(Specificity of word or
phrase choice)
Types and variety of grammatical structures
Conventions, mechanics, and fluency
Match of language forms to purpose/
perspective
General, specific, and technical language
Multiple meanings of words and phrases
Formulaic and idiomatic expressions
Nuances and shades of meaning
Collocations
The sociocultural contexts for language use involve the interaction between the student
and the language environment, encompassing the…
•
•
•
•
•
18
Register
Genre/Text type
Topic
Task/Situation
Participants’ identities and social roles
PUTTING ACTION 2 INTO PRACTICE
By Joanne Marino, Raleigh, NC
Being able to analyze academic language and its role in grade-level teaching and learning are paramount
in order to ensure educators have a deep understanding of the WIDA English Language Development
(ELD) Standards and how to implement them to improve student outcomes. With this in mind the
English as a Second Language (ESL) team in the North Carolina Department of Public Instruction
(NCDPI) joined with those involved in the rollout of the new Common Core State Standards for
English Language Arts and Mathematics and the N.C. Essential Standards to delve into the academic
language represented in those standards using the WIDA ELD Standards as a guide.
The result of this work was the development of blended professional learning opportunities for teachers.
These blended opportunities included face-to-face and online learning opportunities using a variety of
presentational modes including conference presentations, regional sessions, summer institutes, webinars,
“live chats”, online modules, and an online toolbox.
In these professional development activities, educators came to see that language is the bridge that enables
ELLs to access the content standards and be successful academically. The WIDA ELD Standards clarify
features of academic language to be explicitly taught such as general, specific, and technical language;
multiple meanings of words and phrases; idioms; cohesion of ideas, and nuances and shades of meaning.
Furthermore, the WIDA standards framework for language development frames language within
sociocultural contexts that can support a school-wide literacy program.
The toolkit for the WIDA ELD Standards, provided on the NCDPI website, deepens educators’
understanding of academic language as it delves into each of the five ELD standards and provides specific
examples of the academic language found in the various disciplines. The professional development
delivered by the NCDPI ESL team addressed all educators of ELLs, both ESL and content teachers.
To increase the impact of the trainings, the ESL consultants frequently teamed with English Language
Arts and mathematics consultants. Such a multi-tiered approach assisted North Carolina’s educators in
analyzing academic language of their grade level(s) and improved their teaching and learning.
The questions below provide an opportunity to consider how to apply the ideas from
Action 2 to practice.
1. How might educators analyze the academic language demands of the curriculum?
2. What resources exist at your school or district to help educators analyze the academic language
demands of the curriculum?
3. How can the Features of Academic Language be used in curriculum design?
19
ACTION 3
Plan differentiated language instruction around the conceptual knowledge
and language development of ELLs.
Every student has a distinct personality, life history, and educational background. Influenced by these
experiences and opportunities, every language learner, at any given time, has a unique language learning
portrait with varying levels of proficiency in each of the domains of listening, speaking, reading, and
writing. By understanding students’ strengths and current levels of language proficiency, educators can
plan for and monitor their progress along the language development continuum.
RESEARCH-BASED EVIDENCE FOR ACTION 3
The complexity of vocabulary and linguistic patterns
increases as language develops from a beginning stage
of the language to native-like language proficiency
(Goldenberg, 2008). Empirical research indicates that
progress from beginning to mid levels of English language
proficiency is relatively rapid in comparison with middle
to upper levels of proficiency (Hakuta et al., 2000;
Howard et al., 2003; Lindholm-Leary, 2001; Thomas &
Collier, 2002). Different amounts of time are necessary to
reach proficiency depending on where a student begins on
the scale (Cook & Zhao, 2011).
Information about student
background, including
linguistic and content abilities,
is key to plan and deliver
instruction to optimize
opportunities for learning
(Tomlinson, 2003; Fairbairn &
Jones-Vo, 2010).
Once students’ level of language proficiency is known,
scaffolding may be used to help the learner “move toward new skills, concepts, or levels of understanding”
(Gibbons, 2002, p. 10). In his work on the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), Vygotsky (1978)
described learning opportunities as interactions that are challenging but also within reach for the learner.
Information about the backgrounds of the students, including their linguistic and content abilities, is key
to plan and deliver differentiated instruction to optimize opportunities for learning (Tomlinson, 2003;
Fairbairn & Jones-Vo, 2010).
A REPRESENTATION OF ACTION 3 IN THE WIDA STANDARDS FRAMEWORK
The Performance Definitions are central to understanding and implementing language standards as they
describe the milestones of language development, from level 1, Entering, through level 5, Bridging. In
essence, the Definitions holistically illustrate what constitutes each level of language proficiency according
to three criteria: 1. Linguistic Complexity, 2. Language Forms and Conventions, and 3. Vocabulary
Usage. These criteria delineate the expectations of receptive language (listening and reading) and
productive language (speaking and writing) across the language development continuum, always within a
sociocultural context.
20
The Performance Definitions apply to all ELLs from Kindergarten through Grade 12; therefore,
educators need to ensure that their interpretation is developmentally appropriate for their students’ ages.
For example, producing “organized, cohesive, and coherent expression of ideas,” which typifies level 5,
Bridging, looks much different for a 7-year-old than a 17-year-old. Additionally, the youngest ELLs in
Kindergarten and grade 1, like their peers, are just beginning the road to literacy; therefore, the language
expectations for these students must take into account their early stage of literacy development.
The Performance Definitions are shown on the following pages.
PUTTING ACTION 3 INTO PRACTICE
By José Reyes, Gadsden, NM
Schools throughout New Mexico are challenged to meet the needs of ELLs as well as those of students
who are fluent in English. New Mexico classrooms serve the highest percentage of Hispanic students
in the nation and a high percentage of Native American students, second only to Alaska. In addition
to Spanish, there are eight different indigenous languages spoken in New Mexico, some of which are
traditional oral languages that have existed for hundreds of years and are not written. Many students
bring to their school classrooms cultures and linguistic structures that are fundamentally different from a
“standard” English-speaking tradition. The diversity that students bring to school must be highly valued
as resource to build upon.
Our district is located in southernmost part of the state, bordering with Mexico. In fact, the language
minority (Spanish) is the majority in this region of the state. Our kindergarten teachers make a home
visit at the beginning of each school year to make observations of home life and home language to
inform instruction. Our district policies ensure that teachers have information about students’ language
use to make appropriate program and school placement appropriate to their language goals and language
proficiency in their various languages. This practice allows educators to broaden their view of the
language portrait of students to include all of the languages in their lives.
By Martha Mason Miller, Roseville, MN
Many ELLs who enter American secondary schools for the first time do so with limited formal
education, but also rich experiences, often beyond our imaginations. When I plan content instruction, I
strive to connect it to their lives and to honor their experiences. Building the academic background that
is assumed in American high schools is a great challenge for educators. The key to ELLs’ learning is to
differentiate using language that is appropriate to their language proficiency levels.
In order to introduce basic science vocabulary and the concept and procedures of scientific investigation
illustrative of scientific discourse to students at the entering or emerging levels, our class engages in
hands-on real life science. Students practice new skills in a cooperative environment. They also engage
in critical thinking as they question their results and participate in intense discussions in their first
languages, and later explain their outcomes to me in English. In their science notebooks, they draw and
label diagrams and write simple hypotheses, materials, procedure, and results. The group works together
with the stronger students clarifying complex ideas in their L1 to other students.
21
22
and Reading, Grades K–12
Level 1
Entering
Level 2
Emerging
Level 3
Developing
Level 4
Expanding
Level 5
Bridging
Language Forms and Conventions
Linguistic Complexity
• A variety of complex grammatical
constructions
• Sentence patterns characteristic of
particular content areas
• Compound and some complex (e.g., noun
phrase, verb phrase, prepositional phrase)
grammatical constructions
• Sentence patterns across content areas
• Compound grammatical constructions
• Repetitive phrasal and sentence patterns
across content areas
• Simple grammatical constructions (e.g.,
commands, Wh- questions, declaratives)
• Common social and instructional forms
and patterns
• Connected discourse with a variety of
sentences
• Expanded related ideas
• Discourse with a series of extended
sentences
• Related ideas
• Multiple related simple sentences
• An idea with details
• Single statements or questions
• An idea within words, phrases, or chunks
of language
…within sociocultural contexts for language use.
• Compound, complex grammatical
constructions (e.g., multiple phrases and
clauses)
• A broad range of sentence patterns
characteristic of particular content areas
• Rich descriptive discourse with complex
sentences
• Cohesive and organized related ideas
Vocabulary Usage
Word/Phrase Level
• General content-related words
• Everyday social and instructional words
and expressions
• General and some specific content words
and expressions (including cognates)
• Social and instructional words and
expressions across content areas
• Specific content words and expressions
• Words or expressions related to content
area with common collocations and idioms
across content areas
• Specific and some technical content-area
language
• Words and expressions with multiple
meanings or collocations and idioms for
each content area
• Technical and abstract content-area
language
• Words and expressions with shades of
meaning for each content area
Level 6 – Reaching Language that meets all criteria through Level 5, Bridging
Sentence Level
Discourse Level
At each grade, toward the end of a given level of English language proficiency, and with instructional support, English language learners will process…
Figure H: WIDA Performance Definitions Listening
23
and Writing, Grades K–12
Level 1
Entering
Level 2
Emerging
Level 3
Developing
Level 4
Expanding
Level 5
Bridging
Language Forms and Conventions
Linguistic Complexity
• A variety of grammatical structures and
generally consistent use of conventions
• Sentence patterns characteristic of
particular content areas
• Repetitive grammatical structures with
occasional variation and emerging use of
conventions
• Sentence patterns across content areas
• Formulaic grammatical structures and
variable use of conventions
• Repetitive phrasal and sentence patterns
across content areas
• Simple grammatical constructions (e.g.,
commands, Wh- questions, declaratives)
• Phrasal patterns associated with common
social and instructional situations
• Short, expanded, and some complex
sentences
• Organized expression of ideas with
emerging cohesion
• Short and some expanded sentences with
emerging complexity
• Expanded expression of one idea or
emerging expression of multiple related
ideas
• Phrases or short sentences
• Emerging expression of ideas
• Words, phrases, or chunks of language
• Single words used to represent ideas
…within sociocultural contexts for language use.
• A variety of grammatical structures
matched to purpose and nearly consistent
use of conventions, including for effect
• A broad range of sentence patterns
characteristic of particular content areas
• Multiple, complex sentences
• Organized, cohesive, and coherent
expression of ideas
Vocabulary Usage
Word/Phrase Level
• General content-related words
• Everyday social and instructional words and
familiar expressions
• General content words and expressions
(including common cognates)
• Social and instructional words and
expressions across content areas
• Specific content words and expressions
(including content-specific cognates)
• Words or expressions related to content areas
• Specific and some technical content-area
language
• Words and expressions with multiple
meanings or common collocations and
idioms across content areas
• Technical and abstract content-area language
• Words and expressions with precise meaning
related to content area topics
Level 6 – Reaching Language that meets all criteria through Level 5, Bridging
Sentence Level
Discourse Level
At each grade, toward the end of a given level of English language proficiency, and with instructional support, English language learners will produce…
Figure I: WIDA Performance Definitions Speaking
As students develop their English language proficiency beyond level 3, Developing, they are expected to
write several related sentences describing their observations, stating findings, and suggesting reasons for
the differences, independently using key academic vocabulary.
At all levels, the students use critical thinking, practice academic skills, build background, and become
familiar with or use academic vocabulary and sentence structures. The difference from level to level is the
increasing complexity of the language and increasing individual responsibility for work. Discussion and
collaboration in the students’ home language may continue through the levels as they grapple with new
concepts.
The questions below provide an opportunity to consider how to apply the ideas from
Action 3 to practice.
1. How might you use the Performance Definitions to help formulate instructional strategies (e.g., in
grouping students or differentiating language objectives)?
2. How might you use the Performance Definitions to help scaffold content instruction for ELLs?
3. When might educators use a student’s overall composite language proficiency level (from ACCESS
for ELLs) versus the language proficiency level for each language domains?
24
ACTION 4
Connect language and content to make learning relevant and meaningful
for English language learners.
The explicit interaction between language and content is fundamental to the effective schooling of ELLs.
Over last several decades, there has been a growing recognition of the construct of academic language,
referring to the unique discursive, grammatical, and vocabulary features that pertain to each academic
discipline. Indeed, academic language is the common ground between language and content learning.
Acknowledging and intentionally addressing content-area specific language, in addition to social and
instructional English, ensures that ELLs, like all students, have access to grade-level concepts throughout
the school day.
RESEARCH-BASED EVIDENCE FOR ACTION 4
Language learning is a social activity as well as the
basis for new conceptual understandings. Learning
academic language and academic content knowledge are
…it is the reciprocal
interrelated processes for all students (Yore & Treagust,
relationship between language
2006; Yore, 2000), and it is the reciprocal relationship
and content that contributes to
between language and content that contributes to the
the academic achievement of
academic achievement of these students (Gottlieb, 2012a;
these students (Gottlieb, 2012a;
Echevarría, Vogt, & Short, 2008; Kaufman & Crandall,
Echevarría, Vogt, & Short, 2008;
2005; Chamot & O’Malley, 1994; Mohan, 1986).
Kaufman & Crandall, 2005;
Academic language refers to specific language associated
Chamot & O’Malley, 1994;
with particular content knowledge, concepts, and
Mohan, 1986).
topics (Bailey, Butler, Stevens, & Lord, 2007; Rosebery
& Warren, 2008) and language is used differently in
each content area, including, for instance, mathematics
(Moschkovich, 2007; O’Halloran, 2000), science (Lemke,
2000; Hand, Prain, & Yore, 2001), and social studies (Schleppegrell, Achugar, & Oteíza, 2004).
Instructional approaches should be designed with academic language in mind, not only for languagerelated content areas such as language arts, but for student achievement in all content areas (Snow &
Uccelli, 2009). Moreover, recent findings suggest that the systematic integration of language, content,
and thinking skills often results from activities that are planned and implemented with attention to both
language and content (Short, Echevarría, & Richards-Tutor, 2011; Gibbons, 2008).
25
A REPRESENTATION OF ACTION 4 IN THE WIDA STANDARDS FRAMEWORK
In its five English language development standards, WIDA recognizes the critical role of academic
language in academic success. Standard 1: Social and Instructional Language serves as the experiential
foundation and springboard for standards 2–5, which address the language of the core content areas of
language arts, mathematics, science, and social studies.
Figure J: The English Language Development Standards
Standard
Abbreviation
English Language
Development
Standard 1
English language learners communicate for Social and
Instructional purposes within the school setting
Social and
Instructional
language
English Language
Development
Standard 2
English language learners communicate information, ideas
and concepts necessary for academic success in the content
area of Language Arts
The language of
Language Arts
English Language
Development
Standard 3
English language learners communicate information, ideas
and concepts necessary for academic success in the content
area of Mathematics
The language of
Mathematics
English Language
Development
Standard 4
English language learners communicate information, ideas
and concepts necessary for academic success in the content
area of Science
The language of
Science
English Language
Development
Standard 5
English language learners communicate information, ideas
and concepts necessary for academic success in the content
area of Social Studies
The language of
Social Studies
PUTTING ACTION 4 INTO PRACTICE
By Carrie Sorensen, Bloomington, MN
Learning involves both understanding the language and applying the content knowledge. We must
balance providing access to the content while developing academic language. There is not enough time to
wait until ELLs have mastered English to start teaching science, social studies, and math. When English
learning is connected grade-level content learning, ELLs feel a part of the learning community, have the
opportunity to learn grade-level material, and develop English—all at the same time.
26
As a fourth grade ELL teacher at an International Baccalaureate school, learning content and language
through inquiry is the foundation of learning for all students. Through differentiated tasks, students are
able to show me their content knowledge and develop their academic language. My newcomers draw
and label pictures while my advanced students write essays using a graphic organizer. The classroom
teacher is able to assess the content knowledge while I assess the language development. ELLs feel a part
of the learning community when they are able to show content knowledge alongside their language
development.
Another way I connect language and content is by analyzing the language of the content so that the
students can understand the content. For example, after watching a short video or reading a few
paragraphs, we brainstorm a list of important people, places and things and talk about how they are
connected using power verbs. Then, we make connections between the nouns and the pronouns. We
create sentence stems that allow students to say the same thing many different ways. ELLs need to be
taught how to comprehend the content text. Science texts tend to explain how and why things happen.
In social studies, students have to be able to analyze how the text is structured, determine what has
happened, and identify the perspective of the author. In order to solve math story problems, students
must first be able to understand what they have to do.
The questions below provide an opportunity to consider how to apply the ideas from
Action 4 to practice.
1. How can ELD standards work in conjunction with content standards?
2. What are some resources at your school or district to guide educators in integrating language and
content instruction within the general education curriculum?
3. What are some unique features of language within each content area?
27
ACTION 5
Focus on the developmental nature of language learning within gradelevel curriculum.
Students’ maturation and age, along with their language proficiency, have to be taken into account in
planning instruction and interpreting their performance; in other words, language expectations for ELLs
may cluster around a grade-level span rather than a definitive grade. Often it is difficult to pinpoint exact
ages or grades when ELLs typically acquire specific words, expressions, and forms of language in English.
Language development is variable and contingent on many factors; it is a constellation of factors that
determines where students fall on the second language continuum.
RESEARCH-BASED EVIDENCE FOR ACTION 5
Students develop language and literacy skills at different
rates and in different sequences. Influences on second
Influences on second language
language acquisition include students’ age, age of arrival
acquisition include students’
in U.S. schools, motivation, attitudes, and educational
age, age of arrival in U.S.
background (Lightbown & Spada, 2006, Spolsky, 1989).
schools, motivation, attitudes,
Students’ varied backgrounds and experiences shape
and educational background
their linguistic and academic portraits and determine
(Lightbown & Spada, 2006,
their entry points into language development, resulting
Spolsky, 1989).
in a wide range of language proficiencies among ELLs.
Teachers’ recognition of each student’s stage of language
development is one of the first steps in pairing where
students are with relevant instructional practices (Cloud,
Genesee, & Hamayan 2009). Since language development is a complex, long-term process, students
should have access to grade-level curriculum concurrently with language instruction. Empirical
research indicates that with access to grade-level content, students’ academic literacy development and
performance improves on standardized assessments (Short et al., 2011).
A REPRESENTATION OF ACTION 5 IN THE WIDA STANDARDS FRAMEWORK
Academic content standards, including the Common Core State Standards, are grade-level specific;
however, topics often span several grade levels, shifting their focus and depth as students mature.
Likewise, as a means of ensuring correspondence with content standards, WIDA has designed a series of
example topic-related strands at each grade level. However, it is important for teachers to understand that
although instruction must be age and developmentally appropriate, English language development for
ELLs occurs over multiple years and therefore, it is valuable to look at examples of language development
across a grade level cluster. Among the adjacent grade level examples, educators will find that the
language expectations and kinds of support will be quite similar. In sum, teachers should be aware that
language development is a lengthy process that unfolds over time and is not necessarily tied to particular
grades.
28
The figure on this page shows the configuration of grades and grade-level clusters for WIDA’s English
language development standards. Corresponding to the Common Core State Standards, the top row has
individual grades, combined at grades 9–10 and 11–12, for which there are example strands of model
performance indicators (see the 2012 Amplification of the English Language Development Standards).
The bottom row reflects the grade-level clusters used in WIDA’s 2007 representation of the language
standards, which are still useful to educators for their examples of strands of model performance
indicators.
Figure K: Grade-level Representation in WIDA’s English Language Development Standards
Grade Levels for the WIDA English Language Development Standards (2012)
K
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9–10
11–12
Grade-level Clusters for the WIDA English Language Proficiency Standards (2007, 2004)
PreK7– K
1–2
3–5
6–8
9–12
PUTTING ACTION 5 INTO PRACTICE
By Hilda Connell, Greenville, NC
As an ESL teacher who taught first grade, fourth grade, ninth grade, and tenth grade ESL students during
the same academic year, my challenge was working with grade-level content from multiple grade levels.
After obtaining the language that I knew my students had to learn to use in a given situation or in a
conceptually knowledgeable manner, I used several activities to provide them with practice in using the
words and phrases. One thing I did with the younger kids was the use of project-based learning activities.
If the kindergarten students were learning about colors and shapes, I added labeled pictures to the class
word wall such as red circle, green square, blue triangle. Through meaningful, interactive activities like
taking photos of objects that match each shape throughout the school to create a poster, the students
were using the academic language their teacher was using in class in a real-world activity.
For my high school students, I also used project-based learning but I added personal word walls that
they created with a file folder and small sticky notes. Every time they came across a word or phrase they
didn’t know, they put it on their personal word walls and the first thing they could do was ask someone
else what it meant, how to use it, and the different forms of the word or phrase, or they could look it up
in the dictionary. They kept their personal word walls with them so they could ask not only the ELLs
in our class but also their content area teachers and other students in those classrooms. These personal
PreKindergarten is represented in the WIDA Early English Language Development Standards for dual language learners
ages 2.5–5.5, released in 2013 at www.wida.us.
7
29
word walls allowed the students to focus on words, interact with other students and learn from them, and
begin to use these new words in a meaningful way.
Whether it was kindergarten or high school, it was important to engage ELLs with the content
appropriate for their particular grade level and to design opportunities for them to participate and
interact with their peers. Since both groups of students are developmentally different, the content and the
language needed to reflect their age and grade level.
The questions below provide an opportunity to consider how to apply the ideas from
Action 5 to practice.
1. Why is it important to consider the age of ELLs in making decisions about instruction?
2. What policies exist in your school or district to ensure ELLs receive access to grade-level language and
content instruction?
3. How can awareness of grade-level expectations of surrounding grades (e.g., grades 3, 4, and 5)
influence language instruction?
30
ACTION 6
Reference content standards and language development standards in
planning for language learning.
The blending of content and language standards is integral to the achievement of ELLs. The content
standards, including the Common Core State Standards and Next Generation Science Standards, provide
the necessary grade-level concepts and skills while the language development standards offer examples
of the associated language critical for understanding the content. Content standards, in conjunction
with language development standards, enable teachers to design curriculum, craft instruction, and plan
classroom assessment for ELLs. Both language and content standards recognize academic language as
essential to learning; however, it is the language development standards that provide for differentiation
based on students’ levels of language proficiency.
There must be direct connections between language development standards and content standards to
create a crosswalk for academic language learning. While the most apparent correspondence between
language and content standards is having shared topics, the cognitive and linguistic demands in both sets
must also be compatible.
RESEARCH-BASED EVIDENCE FOR ACTION 6
In curricular frameworks for ELLs, there must be college
and career readiness standards, including the Common
Core and Next Generation Science Standards, alongside
language development standards. A correspondence
between or among these sets of standards helps create an
aligned instructional assessment system (Gottlieb, 2012c).
In addition, matching content standards to language
standards encourages collaboration among teachers
serving ELLs (Morita-Mullaney, 2007). Approaches to
standards-referenced learning that include challenging and
engaging instruction, deep examination of student work,
and recognition of the language required of content-based
learning enhance opportunities for academic success for
ELLs (Lachat, 2004).
Approaches to standardsreferenced learning that
include challenging and
engaging instruction, deep
examination of student
work, and recognition of the
language demands of contentbased learning enhance
opportunities for academic
success for English language
learners (Lachat, 2004).
The acceptance of common sets of standards can, in
some contexts, support more careful assessment of student learning, better professional development
for teachers, and a more equitable school experience for all students. Standards play a central role in
understanding and improving school quality (Porter & Smithson, 2001; Supovitz, 2001).
31
A REPRESENTATION OF ACTION 6 IN THE WIDA STANDARDS FRAMEWORK
There is specific language associated with particular content knowledge, concepts, and topics. Therefore,
cross-referencing multiple sets of standards is critical in designing curriculum and planning for
instruction and assessment for ELLs. In matching language to content-area expectations, teachers can
help ensure continuity of educational experiences and high academic expectations for language learners.
In the example strands, WIDA shows direct Connections between how language is embedded in content
learning and how students can reach for that content goal. Example Connections to academic standards,
including the Common Core and Next Generation Science Standards, are illustrated below.
Figure L: Examples of Connections from WIDA’s Standards Matrices
Grade(s)
ELD Standard
Connection
3
ELD Standard 3:
The Language of
Mathematics
Common Core Standards for Mathematics, Measurement and Data
#5–6 (Grade 3): Recognize area as an attribute of plane figures and
understand concepts of area measurement…Measure areas by
counting unit squares (square cm, square m, square in, square ft,
and improvised units).
6
ELD Standard 4:
The Language of
Science
Next Generation Science Standards, Life Sciences, Ecosystems:
Interactions, Energy, and Dynamics LS 2–1, 2–2, 2–3, 2–4 (Middle
School): Analyze and interpret data to provide evidence for the
effects of resource availability on organisms and populations
of organisms in an ecosystem. Construct an explanation that
predicts patterns of interactions among organisms across multiple
ecosystems. Develop a model to describe the cycling of matter and
flow of energy among living and nonliving parts of an ecosystem.
Construct an argument supported by empirical evidence that
changes to physical or biological components of an ecosystem
affect populations.
ELD Standard 1:
Social & Instructional
Language
Common Core Reading Standards for Informational Texts, Integration
of Knowledge & Ideas #7 (Grades 11–12): Integrate and evaluate
multiple sources of information presented in different media or
formats (e.g., visually, quantitatively) as well as in words in order to
address a question or solve a problem.
11–12
Making these Connections explicit within WIDA’s standards matrix gives content teachers insights
into language expectations within the content standard, possible instructional supports for scaffolding
language, and reminds language teachers of the academic concepts students are expected to meet.
32
PUTTING ACTION 6 INTO PRACTICE
By Margot Downs, Yarmouth, ME
When working with content and language development standards, I know it is essential to identify
the key language that my ELLs need in a specific learning context. Using the content and language
development standards as a starting point for lesson planning helps my colleagues and I focus on
identifying essential language for tasks within a lesson (the language demand) so students can access and
interact with the content.
In my middle school teaching context when students are introduced to new topics it is often by making a
visual representation of some of the key concepts. In order to engage linguistically on the topic, students
need to be explicitly exposed to the language of the content standard. Once my colleagues and I are
aware of the language required of the learning task, we can identify the appropriate supports for ELLs
and provide for differentiation based on levels of language proficiency. Even though all students will be
explicitly taught and interact with the essential language of the task and will be working towards the same
content standard, not every student will be producing or processing the same language to demonstrate
understanding of the concept.
This practice of identifying the language demands of a content standard and the tasks designed by
teachers to engage students in learning the key concepts has also helped me improve the quality of my
feedback to students. If I have a clear understanding of the language demand, then I can communicate
explicitly and effectively to students appropriate language targets for their proficiency level. This allows
students to take more ownership of their learning.
The questions below provide an opportunity to consider how to apply the ideas from
Action 6 to practice.
1. How do you analyze content standards to gain insight about language demands and ideas for possible
instructional supports for ELLs?
2. How does the Connection encourage content teachers to use language development standards for
their ELLs?
3. How does the Connection inform the strand of model performance indicators?
33
ACTION 7
Design language teaching and learning with attention to the sociocultural
context.
Language learning occurs within a social context that serves as the backdrop for knowing what to
communicate (the task), how to communicate (the register), and why communicate (the purpose). The
context for language learning is significant within the classroom environment because it provides the
reasons for academic language use. The classroom context should:
•
•
•
Honor and build upon students identities and experiences.
Connect school to home, community, and other venues in the real world.
Offer authenticity and meaning to communication.
RESEARCH-BASED EVIDENCE FOR ACTION 7
School provides contexts for students to construct both
social and academic knowledge. Within school, there are
Literacy development happens
shared assumptions and expectations as well as multiple
as students construct new
contexts for language use in which language choices
knowledge in engaged
vary. ELLs learn language through meaningful use and
interactions with peers and
interaction (García & Hamayan, 2006; Kramsch, 2003;
through supportive interactions
Halliday & Hasan, 1989 among others). Authentic
with adults (Spivey, 1997).
contexts that center on content contribute to ELLs’
learning particular forms of language. There is empirical
evidence that ELLs who engage in learning activities that
mirror the work of a discipline (e.g., explaining an article,
interpreting historical artifacts, making a presentation, working a math problem) are able to produce,
recognize, and evaluate salient academic language features (Bunch, 2006; Gebhard, Harman, & Seger,
2007; Gee, 2008; Schleppegrell, 2005). The context for classroom language use extends to tasks and
interactions among students. Inquiry-based, authentic activities can be thought of as more accessible
because they draw on gestural and visual modes of communication (Hart & Lee, 2003). Literacy
development happens as students construct new knowledge in engaged interactions with peers and
through supportive interactions with adults (Spivey, 1997).
A REPRESENTATION OF ACTION 7 IN THE WIDA STANDARDS FRAMEWORK
Language learning does not occur in isolation but is motivated by a need to communicate for a given
purpose. Some possible purposes are illustrated in the Example Context for Language Use within
WIDA’s standards matrix. A variety of contexts are presented across the strands, ranging from a specific
classroom activity to end-of-unit projects. These examples, emphasize the importance of students having
opportunities to assume different roles or voices, become familiar with a variety of registers, and work
with different genres or text types. Here are Example Contexts for Language Use from three grades:
34
Figure M: Example Contexts for Language Use from WIDA’s Standards Matrices
Grade(s)
ELD Standard
Example Context for Language Use
1
ELD Standard 5:
The Language of
Social Studies
Students participate in role-play activities (e.g., with costumes/
puppets) involving different members of their community using
information from classroom guest speakers, field trips, videos,
stories, or posters.
6
ELD Standard 3:
The Language of
Mathematics
Students justify their decisions in real-life scenarios (e.g., choosing
items to buy based on discounts and local tax, determining miles
per gallon for different models of cars, or selecting players for a
fantasy team based on sports average).
9–10
ELD Standard 2:
The Language of
Language Arts
Students learn how to choose appropriate sources for a research
project by examining texts (e.g., speech transcripts, websites,
editorials) to identify authors’ bias.
PUTTING ACTION 7 INTO PRACTICE
By Michelle Niska, Shakopee, MN
Human beings are social creatures by nature. We learn by communicating and interacting with each
other; this interaction always occurs within a sociocultural context. A student learning a new language
and subject matter discourse can be taught through their need to be social with those around them.
A teacher who can capitalize on this natural social process of learning will see students who are better
informed of not only the subject content, but are also better able to problem solve in a variety of
situations. Using a social context for learning will also produce students who are better able to use
language to express their own knowledge, thoughts, and opinions.
One way in which teachers can be intentional about creating sociocultural contexts is in strategically
designed learning groups. Teachers can design lessons that incorporate many chances for students to
interact with each other as well as with their teacher. In this way, teachers coach their students through
a project, questioning and challenging them to expand their thinking. Generally, students also find
working with each other more interesting than traditional, and perhaps passive, methods of learning.
ELLs need these social interactions to support their language growth. In a learning group, students are
also offered a chance to use some content-centered language in very interactive ways.
Teachers using a grouping method of learning need to spend significant time helping their students
become competent in the roles and responsibilities of group work. Students can learn group roles such as
facilitator,...
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