Into the Abyss The First World War The Great Powers A us tria in Turm o il  Country wracked by ethnic differences  Nationalist movements  Ethnic nationalism could dissolve Austrian Empire  Nationalist movements supported by Balkan states  Pan-Slavism  Serbia in particular seen as threat to Austrian security Franz Josef in 1914 Assassination in Sarajevo On June 28, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of AustriaHungary was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist named Gavrilo Princip. Princip’s group, called The Black Hand, had received support from elements of the Serbian military. The Austrian Response  Military saw crisis as an opportunity to:  Prove Austria’s military strength  Remove threat of Slavic nationalism by crushing Serbia  Unify populace in a time of war  Germany promises to support Austria unconditionally  Known as the “blank check” General Conrad von Hotzendorf, chief advocate for war against S erbia The Ultimatum  Austria gives Serbia a list of demands on July 23  Designed to be impossible to accept  Demanded that Serbia, among other things:  End anti-Habsburg publications, dissolve nationalist groups  Let Austria dismiss Serbian officials “hostile to the Dual Monarchy”  Allow Austrian officials to direct arrest of conspirators and carry out trials in Serbian  Surprisingly, Serbia agrees to all but one condition  Austria mobilizes on July 25  War erupts between Austria-Hungary and Serbia The Alliance Network National Honor Demands…  Many in the Russian military saw war as a necessity  Russia could not afford to be seen as weak  Nicholas mobilizes the army, then cancels his own orders  Partial mobilization ordered (against Austria only)  Convinced to order full mobilization again on July 30  Generals begin to override monarchs Germany’s Gamble  Germany now found itself in a nightmare situation  Caught between a hostile Russia and a hostile France  Russia, however, was just beginning to industrialize  Few railways, outdated communications equipment  The German military gambled on defeating France before the Russian army could be ready How Do you Get To Paris? The Franco-German border was heavily defended Ardennes forest would fatally slow any advance Therefore, the best option would be to flank the French army through Belgium Choosing War  Network of secret alliances  Ensured that any small conflict would spread into a large war  Fear of looking “weak”  Suspicion that weakness would invite outside attack  Desire to prevent spread of ethnic nationalism  Power of military leadership  First industrialized war  Unfamiliarity with new, deadly technologies Trench Warfare  Neither side could break the opposing lines  Barbed wire  Artillery  Machine guns  “Race to the Sea”  Trenches ran continuously from Switzerland to North Sea  No weapon yet invented could break an entrenched enemy Basic Trench Design Barbed Wire Defense in Depth The Trench Rotation System Total War The Home Front  Blurred division between civilian and military spheres  First aerial bombardment of cities  Widespread female labor in war production  Censorship of press, public meetings  War needs forced all states deeply in debt  Rationing of consumer items, food luxuries The First Modern War Russia in Crisis  Early 1917 saw food riots in St. Petersburg  By February, general strikes paralyzed Russia  Nicholas convinced to abdicate  Russia’s first democracy established  Alexander Kerensky becomes Prime Minister  Decides to continue war against Germany Nicholas I I under arrest in Siberia, 1918 Enter the Bolsheviks  War caused chronic shortages of basic items  Tremendous casualties  War profiteering  Lenin promised an end to the war  “Peace, Land, and Bread”  Bolsheviks stage coup against Kerensky in November of 1917 B olshevik leader Vladim ir L enin, 1917  Russia becomes the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) Tipping the Balance The British landship, or “tank”, 1916. The first tanks were crude and slow, but they did finally break the stalemate of trench warfare. The Central Powers Unravel  Failure of German offensive led to collapse of home front  Food shortages  Antiwar protests in Berlin  Wilhelm II abdicates  Central Powers begin to surrender in autumn  Bulgaria, 29 September  Ottoman Empire, 11 October  Austria, 3 November  Germany, 11 November Generals Paul von Hindenburg (left) and Erich L udendorff (right). The Big Four L to R: British Prime Minister David Lloyd George, Italian Premier Vittorio Orlando, French President Georges Clemenceau, American President Woodrow Wilson A Hardening of Hearts  Popular opinion wanted to punish Germany  Sheer scale of destruction  Domestic propaganda  Central Powers banned from conference  Soviet Union shunned as well; anger over separate peace with Germany  First goal was to prevent another war from occurring  Create a new international order or simply crush Germany  Second goal was to win something worth the human suffering of the conflict The American President  Former political science professor  Elevated war to a higher moral plane  “War to end all wars”  Wilson’s plan came down to several basic elements:  Abolition of monarchies  Creation of states for ethnic minorities  Disarmament treaties  League of Nations End of the Dual Monarchy Poland’s Rebirth  Poland recreated as a buffer state  German, Russian, and former Habsburg lands  Baltic port of Danzig declared a “free city”  East Prussia detached from Germany proper  Baltic states separated from Soviet Union  Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania An Issue of Guilt  Germany alone blamed for the war  “War guilt” clause  Rhineland to be demilitarized  France to occupy rich Saar valley  Germany compelled to:  Surrender territory  Abolish its military  Pay reparations Germany Divided The League of Nations  Intended to a deterrent to aggression  Questions of state sovereignty  France wanted the League to have a separate military  “Mandate” system  Former German colonies parceled out to Allied powers  Had to report annually to League on their stewardship Palace of the Nations, Geneva The Mandate System Legacy of Versailles  Wilson gambled everything on the League of Nations  United States refused to sign treaty  League permanently weakened  Germany humiliated by harsh terms  “The Stab in the Back”  Treaty was both too harsh and too lenient Consequences of Defeat  Absolute monarchies dissolved  Germany, Austria, Russia  Triumph of ethnic nationalism  Breakup of Austrian Empire  Creation of first communist state  Soviet Union  War had been a social and cultural trauma World War I graveyard at Verdun Broken Faces The Least You Need To Know  World War I saw the first use of mechanized warfare, aerial bombardment, and attacks on civilian centers  Over its four years, the war inflicted both tremendous physical and psychological damage  9 million Russian dead  6 million German dead  1/3 of all French males, age 18-30 dead  Despite the creation of the League of Nations, the Versailles Treaty’s main effect was to punish Germany  The horrors of World War I convinced many leaders that it was preferable to avoid war at all costs A New World Dawn of the Twentieth Century A Revolution Aborted   Germany became a republic following the Kaiser’s abdication  Weimar Republic Food shortages (!) and lack of pay lead to communist uprising  Spartacist Rebellion    Inspired by Lenin’s success in Soviet Union Opposed by most socialists and political parties Spartacists defeated by former army veterans (Freikorps)  Most Germans supported new government Fighting in Berlin, January 1919 The Burden of Reparations  Germany compelled to pay $35 billion in war reparations    New German republic barely able to meet its own obligations Passive resistance, 19211923 France occupies Ruhr Valley, 1923  Germany makes payments by simply printing more money Economic Disaster  By 1923, Germany could no longer pay its war reparations   In desperation, the government began printing money  Hyperinflation  Rapid decrease in the value of money 1924: 1 US dollar = 850 billion marks   France occupies Ruhr Valley Only the United States was capable of stabilizing European economy The Dawes Plan German Reparations (as percentage of GDP) 1920 • 295% • Versailles 1924 • 124% • Dawes Plan 1929 • 80% • Young Plan 1932 • 19% • Lausanne Conference Emancipation of Women  Wartime needs had expanded role of women    Expansion of women’s suffrage    Professional careers Right to equal education Britain, 1919 USA, 1920 Technological devices   Reduced perceived need for ‘domestic’ women “Even men” could now do housework Communist Feminism   Women first gained full citizenship in the Soviet Union, 1918 Many civil rights won under communism      Right to Divorce Right to Alimony Illegitimacy abolished Legal equality Communism began to appeal to traditionally oppressed groups  Seen as a truly international ideology High Tide of Early Soviet Culture  During the 1920s, the USSR enjoyed an outpouring of artistic achievement   Considerable freedom of expression    Film, visual arts, writing, and music Only forbidden subject was the 1917 Revolution Desire to sample variety of views for future of the country Promotion of diverse cultural expression Political Communism   Shaped by war, crisis, and Lenin’s view of society  Siege mentality  “With us or against us” Creation of a one-party state    All other parties seen as working against common good Opposition to party equated opposition to state One group of citizens enjoyed privileged status  Outside groups marginalized (or persecuted) In His Own Words… “[T]he bourgeoisie is still many times stronger than us. To give it still another weapon, such as freedom of political organization (freedom of the press, for the press is the center and foundation of political organization) means to make things easier for the enemy, to help the class enemy.” -Vladimir Lenin, 1922 A Secular Religion  Over time, Communism takes on characteristics of religious faith     Rigid hierarchy Members monitor state authorities Belief in creation of a new society based on communist principles Position in party depends upon loyalty to ideology  Head of the party becomes chief interpreter of ideology Anger Among the Victors  Many soldiers harbored resentments after the war    Disaffected soldiers became radicalized     Lack of veteran’s services Feeling of betrayal by politicians Resentment toward elites Poverty, mass unemployment Communism seen as unpatriotic Sought a conservative revolution  Desire to “turn back the clock” Corporal Benito Mussolini The Founding of Fascism  Radical conservative ideology   Emphasis on unity, strength, and militarism   Appeals to ethnic or cultural nationalism Individual freedoms subordinate to needs of the state    Alternative to socialism or communism Aim of creating a single-party state Competing loyalties (economic, ethnic, ideological) actively suppressed Advocates corporatist economics   “Third Way” between capitalism and communism Both labor and capital heavily regulated by state  “Heroic capitalism” Mussolini’s Blackshirts  Aggressive rhetoric appealed to disaffected Italians     Attacked elected officials as corrupt Appealed to nationalism, heroic Roman heritage Pledged to strengthen Italy, end social unrest Formed “Blackshirt” militia to attack political opponents   Primarily socialists Modeled on the German anticommunist Freikorps Seizing Power  Blackshirts seen as stabilizing force    Attempted communist uprisings, 1919-21 Supported by political, religious and financial elites Political instability gave Mussolini an opening    Prepared to “march on Rome” Government forced to resign Mussolini becomes Prime Minister, 1922 Political Ideological • Polarized opinion leads to paralyzed government Economic • Economic insecurity leads to widespread anxiety Military or Police • Unrest leads to desire for stability and order • Sense of victimization • Contempt for democracy Communism Both Fascist • Seeks to create new, utopian society • Wealthy elites seen as enemy population • Rejection of nationalism • Single party state • Individual subordinate to state • Lack of individual rights • Violent repression of any dissent • Seeks a return to a past ‘golden age’ • Minorities seen as enemy population • Rejection of equality A Failing Lenin, 1923-1924 Death of a Revolutionary In 1924, after a series of debilitating strokes, Vladimir Lenin died. With his death, the Soviet Union entered a period of collective leadership where no one figure was dominant. The Heir Apparent  Trotsky was a famous, dashing figure    Considered a “pure” communist   Active in revolutions of 1905, 1917 Created Red Army “Permanent Revolution” Seen by most as Lenin’s natural heir  Popularity and success made Trotsky resented within Soviet government Leon Trotsky The Gensek  Unlike Trotsky, Stalin was virtually invisible     Accepted position of General Secretary Focused efforts on discrediting Trotsky   Josef Stalin Not an intellectual Marxist Preferred to remain out of the public eye Allied with Trotsky’s ambitious enemies Used position to place his supporters in key state positions Weimar Berlin The First Generation Gap  First modern generation      The “Lost Generation”   Consumer culture Automobiles Comfort with technology Expectation of social mobility Traumatized by war Rejection of older social mores, habits Triumph of the Bourgeoisie  Urban jobs shifted to “white collar” professions   Identified more with capital than labor War had brought upper and middle classes closer together    Large manors, servants increasingly rare Increased social and economic mobility Social mores relaxed A New Way of Living  Leisure time    Disposable income    Adoption of eight hour work day Increased demand for entertainment, vacations Power of mass media advertising Wealth of consumer items Social services   “Homes fit for heroes” States feel obliged to improve citizen quality of life Age of Warlords  China overthrew the emperor in 1911   By 1916, however, ambitious generals had dissolved the government    Sun Yat-Sen upon his return to China in 1917. Birth of the Chinese Republic “Warlord” period No real central government Dr. Sun Yat-Sen sought to unite all political parties  Reaches out to Chinese Communist Party The Chinese Communists  Created in 1921    Focused efforts on mobilizing urban labor force Helped Sun’s GMD fight against warlords   Made up of educated radicals in major cities Multiple strikes in port cities, guerilla fighters Nanjing made new capital, 1926  Sun dies in 1925 Zhou Enlai, one of the leaders of the Communist Party, in 1924. Chiang Kai-Shek   Became leader of the GMD after Sun’s death Openly admired Mussolini, fascism    “Blue Shirts” Secret police Ran China as a virtual dictator    Connections through powerful Song family Lack of alternative political power centers Openly authoritarian A Complicated Relationship   China had become critical to Japan’s foreign trade 80% of Japanese investment   63% in Manchuria (northeast China) Japan second-largest investor in China    Textiles Heavy industry Transportation networks Japan in the Twenties Washington Naval Conference  Conference originally conceived as a treaty for gradual disarmament   Japan received recognition of territory gained during WWI    For Japan, it was forum to solidify territorial gains Port of Qingdao (Shandong Peninsula) Caroline and Marianas Islands Navies to be reduced by a multilateral ratio   5:5:3 (Britain, USA, Japan) Japan still denied equal status Washington Naval Conference, 1921 Birth of Pan-Asianism  Argued for unity of Asian people against foreign domination    Left-wing view   “Asia for the Asians” Japan seen as leading champion of Asian peoples Argued for KoreanJapanese alliance Right-wing view  Supported expansionism for greater good The Least You Need To Know  Numerous left-wing uprisings shook central Europe after World War I       Modeled on Russian Revolution Communism was seen by those without power as the key to a new future In Italy, the Fascist movement served as a model of conservative revolution Despite this upheaval, the postwar period saw great increases in rights for women throughout the western world The Dawes Plan both revived the German economy and forestalled a fascist coup in 1924 During the 1920s, most European states were stabilizing, both diplomatically and economically Last Call The Great Depression and the Rise of Fascism The Crash of 1929 On October 24, 1929, the New York Stock Exchange began an unprecedented slide that would result in the loss of over half of its value in three weeks. This is largely credited with the beginning of the Great Depression, an economic calamity that spread throughout the globe. A Global Catastrophe  Far more widespread and entrenched     Telecommunications Postwar international financing of debts European dependence upon American capital “Rolling” crisis     U.S. affected first, 1929 Central Europe (Germany, Austria) follows, 1930 Smaller countries (Belgium, Netherlands), 1931 Britain, France succumb by 1932 Anatomy of the Depression  Much of the 1920s “boom” funded by debt   Loss of confidence   Margin selling, leveraged investment Banks to withdraw money from circulation Failure to honor debts leads to bank failures   Lack of ability to foster economic growth Falling demand leads to falling productivity Two Remedies  Defla tiona ry policies      Favored by conservatives Force states to “live within their means” Expenses cut with falling tax revenues Danger of “permanent depression” Infla tiona ry policies     Favored by liberals States would borrow money to spur growth Spending would increase employment Danger of monetary inflation Democracy Under Fire   Response to crisis seen as ineffective Soviet Union unaffected by Depression   Never integrated into global economy Popular anger and demonstrations frequent   British Union of Fascists formed Disgruntled veterans occupy Capitol Hill in Washington, DC Fascist Appeal  Spoke to fear of change, insecurity     Italian success made compelling case    Patriotism, tradition Clear enemies Clear hierarchy Revival of economy, low unemployment National pride, sense of progress Advocated seizure of power Northern Success  Scandinavian states recovered first from Depression   Socialists adopted pragmatism over doctrine   Sweden, Norway, Denmark Commitment to collective economics and individual rights “Middle Way”    Social safety net Borrowing to spur growth Free enterprise King Christia n X of Denm a rk Germany’s Division  Unemployment reached crisis levels   Chancellor Müller sought relief for unemployed   55% of Germans lacked fulltime work Conservatives refused to authorize deficit borrowing Conservatives win election of 1930  Opposed fascist movements Heinrich B rüning , the la st Germ a n lea der to win a n outrig ht m a jority until 1949. The Nazis  National Socialist German Worker’s Party (NSDAP)    By September 1930, the Nazis were the secondlargest party    Modeled on Mussolini Failure landed Hitler in prison 1928: 12 seats 1930: 107 seats Opposition weakened by Depression, internal divisions The Early Nazi Party   Combines militarism with political agitation Great Depression offered new recruits   Anger at elites, non-Germans Cast Nazis as champions of a victimized Germany    Offered unemployed jobs within his Stormtroopers (SA) Politicized version of the Freikorps Touted veteran support The Nazi Strategy  Depended upon popular anger for votes   Directed dissatisfaction at potential impediments to power    Opposition political groups (particularly left-wing groups) Easily identified minority groups (Jews, homosexuals) Courted business leaders by denouncing socialists, communists   Support fell from 1924-1929, and rose again after Great Depression Embraced fascist corporatism; gained critical establishment support Promised stability, prosperity, and a return to greatness    Emphasized “betrayal” of Germany during World War I Elimination of left-wing groups would promote employment Return to a “traditional, patriotic” Germany A Terrible Gamble, 1933  Nazis actually lost seats between July and November of 1932     Party came close to bankruptcy; needed to pay the SA Communists made significant gains The government needed support from either Nazis or socialists Conservatives sought to prevent leftists from entering government   Hitler named Chancellor, 30 January 1933 Many believed Nazis could be co-opted or contained Consolidating Power  Reichstag building suffers arson attack on 27 February   Attack used as pretext for attacks on political activity      Communists immediately blamed Socialist parties banned; “unfriendly” press suspended Civil liberties greatly curtailed SA given paramilitary authority Elections held in March amid widespread suppression Enabling Act passed, 23 March  Hitler given virtually unchecked authority Policem a n with S A m inder, 1933 Germany’s Masters L to R: Reichsführer A dolf Hitler, Reichstag P resident H erm a n Göring , P ropag a nda M inister Joseph Goebbels, a nd Deputy Führer Rudolf H ess. Missing is S S lea der Heinrich Him m ler. A Convenient Scapegoat  Jews suffered from stereotyping and cultural legends     Few Jews were industry leaders Prominent in arts, intellectual fields Emphasis on racial supremacy made Jews a target “Nuremburg Laws” legalized discrimination against Jews    Expelled from civil service, 1935 Required to carry identity papers, 1938 Vom Rath murder sparks antiJewish riots in November (Kristallnacht) The Nazi Allure   Provided outlet for feelings of disillusionment after WWI Rooted in desire for social structure and order    Offered organization, pride, and direction for action   Anti-intellectualism, hostility toward alien influences Saw themselves as an oppressed elites (siege mentality) Nazi party provided assistance to members Economic elites saw Nazis as vehicle to preserve status Nazism as a Phenomenon   Nazism was a particular variety of Fascism not found elsewhere Like Italy (and later Spain), Nazi Germany was a single-party police state   Under the Nazis, traditional power centers existed only at the tolerance of the regime   No ability to remove Nazis from power Italy retained autonomy by social authorities other than Fascist Party    Operated with the collaboration of business, but was clearly dominant Preservation of Italian monarchy Mussolini could be deposed if public opinion turned against him Nazism characterized by unique fixation on rabid persecution of ethnic, cultural minorities  Violence thus becomes a rite of cultural purification; rite of membership Stalin’s Soviet Empire  Josef Stalin (right) became sole ruler of the Soviet Union by 1929   Once in power, Stalin used western hostility to create a culture of paranoia   Other rivals discredited or expelled from the Communist Party Siege menta lity Two crucial goals:   Remove all threats to his own personal power Transform the Soviet Union into an industrial power The Five-Year Plans (FYP)   State control meant elimination of market forces Creation of a command economy by 1928    State economic planning organization Set quotas, prices, and supply orders Labor union autonomy curtailed in order to ensure quotas met  Key aspect of what would become Stalinism Goals of the Comintern  Primary objective was to support socialism worldwide   Became leading voice of antiimperialism     Efforts to create allies China, southeast Asia Africa Supported anti-British sentiment Efforts undercut by Stalin’s need for control  Moderate communists forced out A People Under Suspicion   Known as the Purges Unprecedented in scope and depth     No one safe from suspicion Efforts to prove loyalty by naming traitors (real and imagined) Terror tactics aimed at Stalin’s own population Soviet state administration permanently crippled   No reliable facts, data, or statistics Fear of arrest if bad news is reported A State Within a State Dawn of the Terror   Terror: Violence aimed to eliminate resistance through fear A “perpetual enemy” is required to justify terror as a tool of the state   Consistent in all modern dictatorships and serves specific purposes    Siege mentality now becomes necessary prerequisite Elimination of resistance to regime Creation of informant society Aimed against individuals or groups perceived to oppose ruling regime or ideology  Sta te Terrorism  Creation of Gulag system Industry At Any Cost  Five Year Plans introduced in 1930    economy Farms collectivized by the state    Quota system introduced Creation of a comma nd Agricultural produce sold for money to construct factories Rationing introduced to maximize industrial productivity Within a decade, the Soviet Union became a leader in industrial production  Very low standard of living Gutting the Red Army  Army seen as potential threat to the regime        Ma rsha l Mikha il Tukha chevsky Massive purge of military leadership 3 of 5 Marshals 14 of 16 Army commanders 8 of 8 Admirals 60 of 67 Corps commanders 75 of 80 members of the Supreme Military Council Half of all military officers either arrested or shot A Purely Soviet Experience  Unprecedented in scope and depth     Millions disappeared who were either inconvenient or only potential threats    No one truly safe from suspicion Efforts to prove loyalty by naming traitors (real and imagined) Elaborate show trials to publicize perceived threat, warning to other members of society Terror tactics aimed inward, not at an outside threat No opportunity for acquittal or exoneration Soviet state administration permanently crippled   No reliable facts, data, or statistics Fear of arrest if bad news is reported (1937 Census) The New Soviet Man  Concept designed to reinforce group identity   Polarized society    Embodiment of Stalin’s views of communism Erosion of individual identity Emphasis on group identity, priorities Politics, culture, and ideology become intermingled Birth of P a n-A sia nism  Argued for unity of Asian people against foreign domination    Left-wing view   “Asia for the Asians” Japan seen as leading champion of Asian peoples Argued for KoreanJapanese alliance Right-wing view  Supported expansionism for greater good Japan’s Crisis  Economic paralysis blamed on ineffective Diet   Emboldened militarists intimidated economic and political leaders     Public criticism Assassination Attempted coup by elements of Japanese Army, 1930  L a st photo ta ken of F ina nce Minister Ta ka m ori (left) Democracy discredited Three senior administration officials assassinated Diet incapable of reining in military ambitions E m pire B uilding In 1931, the Japanese Army invaded and annexed the Chinese province of Manchuria. Quickly, they created a puppet state of M a nchukuo. Their plan was to use its resources to fuel the conquest of all of East Asia into a greater Japanese Empire. The Military State  Division within civilian political institutions     Ability of military to block creation of a new administration Demanded a dominant voice in ruling Japan As time went on, the Diet became a rubber stamp for policy Military provided alternative to “western’ democracy   Encouraged ethnic nationalism Ability to produce rapid gains The Least You Need To Know   Although the Depression began with an American stock crash, its effects spread gradually across Europe Weakness and disunity of left-wing movements gave initiative to conservative forces    Labor unions lacked leverage with high unemployment Fear of high budget deficits By 1932, the very concept of democracy itself was being called into question   Success of Mussolini, Soviet Union Appeal of fascism for order and stability The Least You Need To Know     The Nazi party offered both a ready-made community as well as prescription for action to angry and disenfranchised Germans Primary appeals were to both national pride and a promise of prosperity and order Nazi popularity and authority depended upon providing an external or internal enemy for the populace to focus their anger against Unlike other fascist movements, the Nazis abolished any independent source of political or social power   Similar to the Soviet Union (aside from ideology) Japan was not a fascist state, but rather an a uthorita ria n sta te
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