Into the Abyss
The First World War
The Great Powers
A us tria in Turm o il
Country wracked by ethnic
differences
Nationalist movements
Ethnic nationalism could
dissolve Austrian Empire
Nationalist movements
supported by Balkan states
Pan-Slavism
Serbia in particular seen as
threat to Austrian security
Franz Josef in 1914
Assassination in
Sarajevo
On June 28, 1914, Archduke
Franz Ferdinand of AustriaHungary was assassinated by
a Serbian nationalist named
Gavrilo Princip.
Princip’s group, called The
Black Hand, had received
support from elements of the
Serbian military.
The Austrian Response
Military saw crisis as an
opportunity to:
Prove Austria’s military
strength
Remove threat of Slavic
nationalism by crushing
Serbia
Unify populace in a time of
war
Germany promises to support
Austria unconditionally
Known as the “blank check”
General Conrad von Hotzendorf, chief
advocate for war against S erbia
The Ultimatum
Austria gives Serbia a list of demands on July 23
Designed to be impossible to accept
Demanded that Serbia, among other things:
End anti-Habsburg publications, dissolve nationalist groups
Let Austria dismiss Serbian officials “hostile to the Dual Monarchy”
Allow Austrian officials to direct arrest of conspirators and carry out trials in
Serbian
Surprisingly, Serbia agrees to all but one condition
Austria mobilizes on July 25
War erupts between Austria-Hungary and Serbia
The Alliance Network
National Honor Demands…
Many in the Russian military
saw war as a necessity
Russia could not afford to be
seen as weak
Nicholas mobilizes the army,
then cancels his own orders
Partial mobilization ordered
(against Austria only)
Convinced to order full
mobilization again on July 30
Generals begin to override
monarchs
Germany’s Gamble
Germany now found itself in a
nightmare situation
Caught between a hostile
Russia and a hostile France
Russia, however, was just
beginning to industrialize
Few railways, outdated
communications equipment
The German military
gambled on defeating France
before the Russian army
could be ready
How Do you Get To Paris?
The Franco-German border was heavily defended
Ardennes forest would fatally slow any advance
Therefore, the best option would be to flank the French army through Belgium
Choosing War
Network of secret alliances
Ensured that any small
conflict would spread into a
large war
Fear of looking “weak”
Suspicion that weakness
would invite outside attack
Desire to prevent spread of
ethnic nationalism
Power of military leadership
First industrialized war
Unfamiliarity with new,
deadly technologies
Trench Warfare
Neither side could break the
opposing lines
Barbed wire
Artillery
Machine guns
“Race to the Sea”
Trenches ran continuously
from Switzerland to North Sea
No weapon yet invented could
break an entrenched enemy
Basic Trench Design
Barbed Wire
Defense in Depth
The Trench Rotation System
Total War
The Home Front
Blurred division between
civilian and military spheres
First aerial bombardment of
cities
Widespread female labor in
war production
Censorship of press, public
meetings
War needs forced all states
deeply in debt
Rationing of consumer items,
food luxuries
The First Modern War
Russia in Crisis
Early 1917 saw food riots in
St. Petersburg
By February, general strikes
paralyzed Russia
Nicholas convinced to
abdicate
Russia’s first democracy
established
Alexander Kerensky
becomes Prime Minister
Decides to continue war
against Germany
Nicholas I I under arrest in Siberia, 1918
Enter the Bolsheviks
War caused chronic shortages
of basic items
Tremendous casualties
War profiteering
Lenin promised an end to the
war
“Peace, Land, and Bread”
Bolsheviks stage coup against
Kerensky in November of 1917
B olshevik leader Vladim ir L enin, 1917
Russia becomes the Union of
Soviet Socialist Republics
(USSR)
Tipping the Balance
The British landship, or “tank”, 1916. The first tanks
were crude and slow, but they did finally break the
stalemate of trench warfare.
The Central Powers Unravel
Failure of German offensive led
to collapse of home front
Food shortages
Antiwar protests in Berlin
Wilhelm II abdicates
Central Powers begin to
surrender in autumn
Bulgaria, 29 September
Ottoman Empire, 11 October
Austria, 3 November
Germany, 11 November
Generals Paul von Hindenburg (left) and
Erich L udendorff (right).
The Big Four
L to R: British Prime Minister David Lloyd George, Italian Premier Vittorio
Orlando, French President Georges Clemenceau, American President
Woodrow Wilson
A Hardening of Hearts
Popular opinion wanted to punish Germany
Sheer scale of destruction
Domestic propaganda
Central Powers banned from conference
Soviet Union shunned as well; anger over separate peace with
Germany
First goal was to prevent another war from occurring
Create a new international order or simply crush Germany
Second goal was to win something worth the human suffering of
the conflict
The American President
Former political science
professor
Elevated war to a higher moral
plane
“War to end all wars”
Wilson’s plan came down to
several basic elements:
Abolition of monarchies
Creation of states for ethnic
minorities
Disarmament treaties
League of Nations
End of the Dual Monarchy
Poland’s Rebirth
Poland recreated as a buffer
state
German, Russian, and former
Habsburg lands
Baltic port of Danzig declared
a “free city”
East Prussia detached from
Germany proper
Baltic states separated from
Soviet Union
Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania
An Issue of Guilt
Germany alone blamed for
the war
“War guilt” clause
Rhineland to be
demilitarized
France to occupy rich Saar
valley
Germany compelled to:
Surrender territory
Abolish its military
Pay reparations
Germany Divided
The League of Nations
Intended to a deterrent to
aggression
Questions of state
sovereignty
France wanted the League to
have a separate military
“Mandate” system
Former German colonies
parceled out to Allied
powers
Had to report annually to
League on their stewardship
Palace of the Nations, Geneva
The Mandate System
Legacy of Versailles
Wilson gambled everything
on the League of Nations
United States refused to sign
treaty
League permanently
weakened
Germany humiliated by harsh
terms
“The Stab in the Back”
Treaty was both too harsh and
too lenient
Consequences of Defeat
Absolute monarchies
dissolved
Germany, Austria, Russia
Triumph of ethnic nationalism
Breakup of Austrian Empire
Creation of first communist
state
Soviet Union
War had been a social and
cultural trauma
World War I graveyard at Verdun
Broken Faces
The Least You Need To Know
World War I saw the first use of mechanized warfare, aerial
bombardment, and attacks on civilian centers
Over its four years, the war inflicted both tremendous physical and
psychological damage
9 million Russian dead
6 million German dead
1/3 of all French males, age 18-30 dead
Despite the creation of the League of Nations, the Versailles
Treaty’s main effect was to punish Germany
The horrors of World War I convinced many leaders that it was
preferable to avoid war at all costs
A New World
Dawn of the Twentieth Century
A Revolution Aborted
Germany became a republic
following the Kaiser’s
abdication
Weimar Republic
Food shortages (!) and lack of
pay lead to communist uprising
Spartacist Rebellion
Inspired by Lenin’s success in
Soviet Union
Opposed by most socialists and
political parties
Spartacists defeated by former
army veterans (Freikorps)
Most Germans supported new
government
Fighting in Berlin, January 1919
The Burden of Reparations
Germany compelled to
pay $35 billion in war
reparations
New German republic
barely able to meet its own
obligations
Passive resistance, 19211923
France occupies Ruhr
Valley, 1923
Germany makes payments
by simply printing more
money
Economic Disaster
By 1923, Germany could no
longer pay its war
reparations
In desperation, the
government began printing
money
Hyperinflation
Rapid decrease in the value of
money
1924: 1 US dollar = 850 billion
marks
France occupies Ruhr Valley
Only the United States was
capable of stabilizing
European economy
The Dawes Plan
German Reparations (as percentage of GDP)
1920
• 295%
• Versailles
1924
• 124%
• Dawes Plan
1929
• 80%
• Young Plan
1932
• 19%
• Lausanne Conference
Emancipation of Women
Wartime needs had
expanded role of women
Expansion of women’s
suffrage
Professional careers
Right to equal education
Britain, 1919
USA, 1920
Technological devices
Reduced perceived need for
‘domestic’ women
“Even men” could now do
housework
Communist Feminism
Women first gained full
citizenship in the Soviet
Union, 1918
Many civil rights won under
communism
Right to Divorce
Right to Alimony
Illegitimacy abolished
Legal equality
Communism began to
appeal to traditionally
oppressed groups
Seen as a truly international
ideology
High Tide of Early Soviet Culture
During the 1920s, the USSR
enjoyed an outpouring of
artistic achievement
Considerable freedom of
expression
Film, visual arts, writing, and
music
Only forbidden subject was
the 1917 Revolution
Desire to sample variety of
views for future of the
country
Promotion of diverse
cultural expression
Political Communism
Shaped by war, crisis, and
Lenin’s view of society
Siege mentality
“With us or against us”
Creation of a one-party
state
All other parties seen as
working against common
good
Opposition to party equated
opposition to state
One group of citizens
enjoyed privileged status
Outside groups marginalized
(or persecuted)
In His Own Words…
“[T]he bourgeoisie is still many times stronger than us. To give it still another
weapon, such as freedom of political organization (freedom of the press, for
the press is the center and foundation of political organization) means to
make things easier for the enemy, to help the class enemy.”
-Vladimir Lenin, 1922
A Secular Religion
Over time, Communism
takes on characteristics of
religious faith
Rigid hierarchy
Members monitor state
authorities
Belief in creation of a new
society based on communist
principles
Position in party depends
upon loyalty to ideology
Head of the party becomes
chief interpreter of ideology
Anger Among the Victors
Many soldiers harbored
resentments after the war
Disaffected soldiers became
radicalized
Lack of veteran’s services
Feeling of betrayal by
politicians
Resentment toward elites
Poverty, mass unemployment
Communism seen as
unpatriotic
Sought a conservative
revolution
Desire to “turn back the
clock”
Corporal Benito Mussolini
The Founding of Fascism
Radical conservative ideology
Emphasis on unity, strength, and militarism
Appeals to ethnic or cultural nationalism
Individual freedoms subordinate to needs of the state
Alternative to socialism or communism
Aim of creating a single-party state
Competing loyalties (economic, ethnic, ideological) actively
suppressed
Advocates corporatist economics
“Third Way” between capitalism and communism
Both labor and capital heavily regulated by state
“Heroic capitalism”
Mussolini’s Blackshirts
Aggressive rhetoric appealed
to disaffected Italians
Attacked elected officials as
corrupt
Appealed to nationalism,
heroic Roman heritage
Pledged to strengthen Italy,
end social unrest
Formed “Blackshirt” militia
to attack political opponents
Primarily socialists
Modeled on the German
anticommunist Freikorps
Seizing Power
Blackshirts seen as stabilizing
force
Attempted communist
uprisings, 1919-21
Supported by political,
religious and financial elites
Political instability gave
Mussolini an opening
Prepared to “march on Rome”
Government forced to resign
Mussolini becomes Prime
Minister, 1922
Political
Ideological
• Polarized
opinion leads to
paralyzed
government
Economic
• Economic
insecurity leads
to widespread
anxiety
Military
or Police
• Unrest leads to
desire for
stability and
order
• Sense of
victimization
• Contempt for
democracy
Communism
Both
Fascist
• Seeks to create new,
utopian society
• Wealthy elites seen as
enemy population
• Rejection of nationalism
• Single party state
• Individual subordinate to
state
• Lack of individual rights
• Violent repression of
any dissent
• Seeks a return to a past
‘golden age’
• Minorities seen as
enemy population
• Rejection of equality
A Failing Lenin, 1923-1924
Death of a
Revolutionary
In 1924, after a series of
debilitating strokes, Vladimir
Lenin died.
With his death, the Soviet
Union entered a period of
collective leadership where
no one figure was
dominant.
The Heir Apparent
Trotsky was a famous,
dashing figure
Considered a “pure”
communist
Active in revolutions of
1905, 1917
Created Red Army
“Permanent Revolution”
Seen by most as Lenin’s
natural heir
Popularity and success
made Trotsky resented
within Soviet government
Leon Trotsky
The Gensek
Unlike Trotsky, Stalin was
virtually invisible
Accepted position of
General Secretary
Focused efforts on
discrediting Trotsky
Josef Stalin
Not an intellectual Marxist
Preferred to remain out of the
public eye
Allied with Trotsky’s ambitious
enemies
Used position to place his
supporters in key state
positions
Weimar Berlin
The First Generation Gap
First modern generation
The “Lost Generation”
Consumer culture
Automobiles
Comfort with technology
Expectation of social
mobility
Traumatized by war
Rejection of older social
mores, habits
Triumph of the Bourgeoisie
Urban jobs shifted to
“white collar” professions
Identified more with capital
than labor
War had brought upper
and middle classes closer
together
Large manors, servants
increasingly rare
Increased social and
economic mobility
Social mores relaxed
A New Way of Living
Leisure time
Disposable income
Adoption of eight hour work
day
Increased demand for
entertainment, vacations
Power of mass media
advertising
Wealth of consumer items
Social services
“Homes fit for heroes”
States feel obliged to improve
citizen quality of life
Age of Warlords
China overthrew the
emperor in 1911
By 1916, however,
ambitious generals had
dissolved the government
Sun Yat-Sen upon his return to China in 1917.
Birth of the Chinese
Republic
“Warlord” period
No real central government
Dr. Sun Yat-Sen sought to
unite all political parties
Reaches out to Chinese
Communist Party
The Chinese Communists
Created in 1921
Focused efforts on
mobilizing urban labor force
Helped Sun’s GMD fight
against warlords
Made up of educated radicals
in major cities
Multiple strikes in port cities,
guerilla fighters
Nanjing made new capital,
1926
Sun dies in 1925
Zhou Enlai, one of the leaders of the
Communist Party, in 1924.
Chiang Kai-Shek
Became leader of the
GMD after Sun’s death
Openly admired Mussolini,
fascism
“Blue Shirts”
Secret police
Ran China as a virtual
dictator
Connections through
powerful Song family
Lack of alternative political
power centers
Openly authoritarian
A Complicated Relationship
China had become critical
to Japan’s foreign trade
80% of Japanese
investment
63% in Manchuria
(northeast China)
Japan second-largest
investor in China
Textiles
Heavy industry
Transportation networks
Japan in the Twenties
Washington Naval Conference
Conference originally
conceived as a treaty for
gradual disarmament
Japan received recognition of
territory gained during WWI
For Japan, it was forum to
solidify territorial gains
Port of Qingdao (Shandong
Peninsula)
Caroline and Marianas Islands
Navies to be reduced by a
multilateral ratio
5:5:3 (Britain, USA, Japan)
Japan still denied equal status
Washington Naval Conference, 1921
Birth of Pan-Asianism
Argued for unity of Asian
people against foreign
domination
Left-wing view
“Asia for the Asians”
Japan seen as leading
champion of Asian peoples
Argued for KoreanJapanese alliance
Right-wing view
Supported expansionism
for greater good
The Least You Need To Know
Numerous left-wing uprisings shook central Europe after
World War I
Modeled on Russian Revolution
Communism was seen by those without power as the key to a new
future
In Italy, the Fascist movement served as a model of
conservative revolution
Despite this upheaval, the postwar period saw great increases
in rights for women throughout the western world
The Dawes Plan both revived the German economy and
forestalled a fascist coup in 1924
During the 1920s, most European states were stabilizing, both
diplomatically and economically
Last Call
The Great Depression and the Rise of Fascism
The Crash of 1929
On October 24, 1929, the New York Stock Exchange began an unprecedented slide that would
result in the loss of over half of its value in three weeks. This is largely credited with the
beginning of the Great Depression, an economic calamity that spread throughout the globe.
A Global Catastrophe
Far more widespread and
entrenched
Telecommunications
Postwar international
financing of debts
European dependence upon
American capital
“Rolling” crisis
U.S. affected first, 1929
Central Europe (Germany,
Austria) follows, 1930
Smaller countries (Belgium,
Netherlands), 1931
Britain, France succumb by
1932
Anatomy of the Depression
Much of the 1920s
“boom” funded by debt
Loss of confidence
Margin selling, leveraged
investment
Banks to withdraw money
from circulation
Failure to honor debts
leads to bank failures
Lack of ability to foster
economic growth
Falling demand leads to
falling productivity
Two Remedies
Defla tiona ry policies
Favored by conservatives
Force states to “live within their means”
Expenses cut with falling tax revenues
Danger of “permanent depression”
Infla tiona ry policies
Favored by liberals
States would borrow money to spur growth
Spending would increase employment
Danger of monetary inflation
Democracy Under Fire
Response to crisis seen as
ineffective
Soviet Union unaffected
by Depression
Never integrated into
global economy
Popular anger and
demonstrations frequent
British Union of Fascists
formed
Disgruntled veterans
occupy Capitol Hill in
Washington, DC
Fascist Appeal
Spoke to fear of change,
insecurity
Italian success made
compelling case
Patriotism, tradition
Clear enemies
Clear hierarchy
Revival of economy, low
unemployment
National pride, sense of
progress
Advocated seizure of
power
Northern Success
Scandinavian states
recovered first from
Depression
Socialists adopted
pragmatism over doctrine
Sweden, Norway, Denmark
Commitment to collective
economics and individual
rights
“Middle Way”
Social safety net
Borrowing to spur growth
Free enterprise
King Christia n X of Denm a rk
Germany’s Division
Unemployment reached
crisis levels
Chancellor Müller sought
relief for unemployed
55% of Germans lacked fulltime work
Conservatives refused to
authorize deficit borrowing
Conservatives win
election of 1930
Opposed fascist
movements
Heinrich B rüning , the la st Germ a n lea der
to win a n outrig ht m a jority until 1949.
The Nazis
National Socialist German
Worker’s Party (NSDAP)
By September 1930, the
Nazis were the secondlargest party
Modeled on Mussolini
Failure landed Hitler in
prison
1928: 12 seats
1930: 107 seats
Opposition weakened by
Depression, internal
divisions
The Early Nazi Party
Combines militarism with
political agitation
Great Depression offered
new recruits
Anger at elites, non-Germans
Cast Nazis as champions of
a victimized Germany
Offered unemployed jobs
within his Stormtroopers (SA)
Politicized version of the
Freikorps
Touted veteran support
The Nazi Strategy
Depended upon popular anger for votes
Directed dissatisfaction at potential impediments to power
Opposition political groups (particularly left-wing groups)
Easily identified minority groups (Jews, homosexuals)
Courted business leaders by denouncing socialists, communists
Support fell from 1924-1929, and rose again after Great Depression
Embraced fascist corporatism; gained critical establishment support
Promised stability, prosperity, and a return to greatness
Emphasized “betrayal” of Germany during World War I
Elimination of left-wing groups would promote employment
Return to a “traditional, patriotic” Germany
A Terrible Gamble, 1933
Nazis actually lost seats
between July and November of
1932
Party came close to bankruptcy;
needed to pay the SA
Communists made significant
gains
The government needed
support from either Nazis or
socialists
Conservatives sought to
prevent leftists from entering
government
Hitler named Chancellor, 30
January 1933
Many believed Nazis could be
co-opted or contained
Consolidating Power
Reichstag building suffers arson
attack on 27 February
Attack used as pretext for
attacks on political activity
Communists immediately
blamed
Socialist parties banned;
“unfriendly” press suspended
Civil liberties greatly curtailed
SA given paramilitary authority
Elections held in March amid
widespread suppression
Enabling Act passed, 23 March
Hitler given virtually unchecked
authority
Policem a n with S A m inder, 1933
Germany’s Masters
L to R: Reichsführer A dolf Hitler, Reichstag P resident H erm a n Göring , P ropag a nda M inister Joseph Goebbels, a nd
Deputy Führer Rudolf H ess. Missing is S S lea der Heinrich Him m ler.
A Convenient Scapegoat
Jews suffered from
stereotyping and cultural
legends
Few Jews were industry leaders
Prominent in arts, intellectual
fields
Emphasis on racial supremacy
made Jews a target
“Nuremburg Laws” legalized
discrimination against Jews
Expelled from civil service, 1935
Required to carry identity
papers, 1938
Vom Rath murder sparks antiJewish riots in November
(Kristallnacht)
The Nazi Allure
Provided outlet for feelings
of disillusionment after WWI
Rooted in desire for social
structure and order
Offered organization, pride,
and direction for action
Anti-intellectualism, hostility
toward alien influences
Saw themselves as an
oppressed elites (siege
mentality)
Nazi party provided assistance
to members
Economic elites saw Nazis as
vehicle to preserve status
Nazism as a Phenomenon
Nazism was a particular variety of Fascism not found elsewhere
Like Italy (and later Spain), Nazi Germany was a single-party police
state
Under the Nazis, traditional power centers existed only at the
tolerance of the regime
No ability to remove Nazis from power
Italy retained autonomy by social authorities other than Fascist
Party
Operated with the collaboration of business, but was clearly dominant
Preservation of Italian monarchy
Mussolini could be deposed if public opinion turned against him
Nazism characterized by unique fixation on rabid persecution of
ethnic, cultural minorities
Violence thus becomes a rite of cultural purification; rite of membership
Stalin’s Soviet Empire
Josef Stalin (right) became
sole ruler of the Soviet
Union by 1929
Once in power, Stalin used
western hostility to create a
culture of paranoia
Other rivals discredited or
expelled from the Communist
Party
Siege menta lity
Two crucial goals:
Remove all threats to his own
personal power
Transform the Soviet Union
into an industrial power
The Five-Year Plans (FYP)
State control meant
elimination of market forces
Creation of a command
economy by 1928
State economic planning
organization
Set quotas, prices, and supply
orders
Labor union autonomy
curtailed in order to ensure
quotas met
Key aspect of what would
become Stalinism
Goals of the Comintern
Primary objective was to
support socialism worldwide
Became leading voice of antiimperialism
Efforts to create allies
China, southeast Asia
Africa
Supported anti-British
sentiment
Efforts undercut by Stalin’s
need for control
Moderate communists forced
out
A People Under Suspicion
Known as the Purges
Unprecedented in scope and
depth
No one safe from suspicion
Efforts to prove loyalty by
naming traitors (real and
imagined)
Terror tactics aimed at
Stalin’s own population
Soviet state administration
permanently crippled
No reliable facts, data, or
statistics
Fear of arrest if bad news is
reported
A State Within a State
Dawn of the Terror
Terror: Violence aimed to eliminate resistance through fear
A “perpetual enemy” is required to justify terror as a tool of
the state
Consistent in all modern dictatorships and serves specific
purposes
Siege mentality now becomes necessary prerequisite
Elimination of resistance to regime
Creation of informant society
Aimed against individuals or groups perceived to oppose ruling
regime or ideology
Sta te Terrorism
Creation of Gulag system
Industry At Any Cost
Five Year Plans introduced in
1930
economy
Farms collectivized by the state
Quota system introduced
Creation of a comma nd
Agricultural produce sold for
money to construct factories
Rationing introduced to
maximize industrial
productivity
Within a decade, the Soviet
Union became a leader in
industrial production
Very low standard of living
Gutting the Red Army
Army seen as potential
threat to the regime
Ma rsha l Mikha il Tukha chevsky
Massive purge of military
leadership
3 of 5 Marshals
14 of 16 Army commanders
8 of 8 Admirals
60 of 67 Corps commanders
75 of 80 members of the
Supreme Military Council
Half of all military officers
either arrested or shot
A Purely Soviet Experience
Unprecedented in scope and depth
Millions disappeared who were either inconvenient or
only potential threats
No one truly safe from suspicion
Efforts to prove loyalty by naming traitors (real and imagined)
Elaborate show trials to publicize perceived threat, warning to
other members of society
Terror tactics aimed inward, not at an outside threat
No opportunity for acquittal or exoneration
Soviet state administration permanently crippled
No reliable facts, data, or statistics
Fear of arrest if bad news is reported (1937 Census)
The New Soviet Man
Concept designed to
reinforce group identity
Polarized society
Embodiment of Stalin’s
views of communism
Erosion of individual
identity
Emphasis on group identity,
priorities
Politics, culture, and
ideology become
intermingled
Birth of P a n-A sia nism
Argued for unity of Asian
people against foreign
domination
Left-wing view
“Asia for the Asians”
Japan seen as leading
champion of Asian peoples
Argued for KoreanJapanese alliance
Right-wing view
Supported expansionism
for greater good
Japan’s Crisis
Economic paralysis blamed
on ineffective Diet
Emboldened militarists
intimidated economic and
political leaders
Public criticism
Assassination
Attempted coup by
elements of Japanese Army,
1930
L a st photo ta ken of F ina nce Minister Ta ka m ori
(left)
Democracy discredited
Three senior administration
officials assassinated
Diet incapable of reining in
military ambitions
E m pire B uilding
In 1931, the Japanese Army
invaded and annexed the
Chinese province of
Manchuria.
Quickly, they created a
puppet state of
M a nchukuo. Their plan
was to use its resources to
fuel the conquest of all of
East Asia into a greater
Japanese Empire.
The Military State
Division within civilian
political institutions
Ability of military to block
creation of a new
administration
Demanded a dominant voice
in ruling Japan
As time went on, the Diet
became a rubber stamp for
policy
Military provided alternative
to “western’ democracy
Encouraged ethnic nationalism
Ability to produce rapid gains
The Least You Need To Know
Although the Depression began with an American stock
crash, its effects spread gradually across Europe
Weakness and disunity of left-wing movements gave
initiative to conservative forces
Labor unions lacked leverage with high unemployment
Fear of high budget deficits
By 1932, the very concept of democracy itself was being
called into question
Success of Mussolini, Soviet Union
Appeal of fascism for order and stability
The Least You Need To Know
The Nazi party offered both a ready-made community as
well as prescription for action to angry and
disenfranchised Germans
Primary appeals were to both national pride and a
promise of prosperity and order
Nazi popularity and authority depended upon providing
an external or internal enemy for the populace to focus
their anger against
Unlike other fascist movements, the Nazis abolished any
independent source of political or social power
Similar to the Soviet Union (aside from ideology)
Japan was not a fascist state, but rather an a uthorita ria n sta te
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