Tall Buildings in Numbers Green Walls in High-Rise Buildings For centuries, green walls have been used to shade building walls and atriums, to shield buildings from wind, and to cultivate agricultural plants. Now, as the world population urbanizes, green walls have become a significant tool in the quest for greater sustainability in the tall-building field. The latest CTBUH technical guide, Green Walls in High-Rise Buildings, provides a thorough investigation of the methods used around the world for implementation of vertical vegetation at height. In commemoration of the release of this important guide, Tall Buildings in Numbers profiles the 18 case study buildings included. To purchase your copy of Green Walls in High-Rise Buildings visit: https://store.ctbuh.org Location of Case Studies and Size/Percentage of their Green Coverage One PNC Plaza Pittsburgh, 2009 Building Height: 129 meters Stories: 30 Total surface area of green coverage: 221 m2 Largest green coverage on a single façade: 221 m2 (5%) Green coverage of total façade: 1% Athenaeum Hotel London, 2009 Building Height: 48 meters Stories: 9 Total surface area of green coverage: 256 m2 Largest green coverage on a single façade: 159 m2 (9%) Green coverage of total façade: 9% B3Hotel Virrey Bogota, 2011 Building Height: 30 meters Stories: 9 Total surface area of green coverage: 264 m2 Largest green coverage on a single façade: 264 m2 (49%) Green coverage of total façade: 15% Consorcio Santiago Santiago, 1993 Building Height: 58 meters Stories: 17 Hotel Intercontinental Santiago, 2011 Building Height: 52 meters Stories: 16 Bosco Verticale Milan, 2013 Building Height: 112 meters Stories: 27 Total surface area of green coverage: 2,293 m2 Total surface area of green coverage: 1,590 m2 Total surface area of green coverage: 10,142 m2 Largest green coverage on a single façade: 2,066 m2 (43%) Largest green coverage on a single façade: 1,302 m2 (60%) Largest green coverage on a single façade: 1,735 m2 (47%) Green coverage of total façade: 22% Green coverage of total façade: 29% Green coverage of total façade: 42% The floors with green walls at Consorcio, Santiago, Chile, use 35% less energy than the floors without green walls in the same building. 52 | Tall Building in Numbers The agriculture and greenery in Pasona Headquarters, Tokyo, Japan, has been attributed to 12% productivity gains and a 23% reduction in employee absences due to ailments. Singapore’s Parkroyal on Pickering provides 215% of the greenery that existed on the site before the building was built. CTBUH Journal | 2014 Issue III Building Functions Institutional 1 Hotel Office 4 The Met Bangkok, 2009 Building Height: 231 meters Stories: 69 Solaris Singapore, 2011 Building Height: 79 meters Stories: 15 Total surface area of green coverage: 3,065 m2 6 Residential Across the 18 case studies, there are four different types of building functions. Green walls are thus clearly applicable across multiple building types and functions. 7 Total surface area of green coverage: 7,170 m2 Largest green coverage on a single façade: 3,385 m2 (18%) Green coverage of total façade: 14% Largest green coverage on a single façade: 1,449 m2 (N/A) IDEO Morph 38 Tower Bangkok, 2013 Building Height: 134 meters Stories: 32 Green coverage of total façade: 15% Total surface area of green coverage: 5,850 m2 Largest green coverage on a single façade: 1,276 m2 (66%) Green coverage of total façade: 23% ACROS Fukuoka Fukuoka, 1995 Building Height: 60 meters Stories: 14 Pasona Headquarters Tokyo, 2010 Building Height: 34 meters Stories: 9 Total surface area of green coverage: 5,326 m2 Largest green coverage on a single façade: 5,326 m2 (84%) Total surface area of green coverage: 1,224 m2 Green coverage of total façade: 28% Largest green coverage on a single façade: 720 m2 (37%) Green coverage of total façade: 20% Newton Suites Singapore, 2007 Building Height: 120 meters Stories: 36 Gramercy Skypark Makati, 2013 Building Height: 244 meters Stories: 73 Total surface area of green coverage: 1,274 m2 Largest green coverage on a single façade: 734 m2 (21%) Total surface area of green coverage: 189 m2 Largest green coverage on a single façade: 138 m2 (1%) Green coverage of total façade: 0.4% Green coverage of total façade: 10% PARKROYAL on Pickering Singapore, 2012 Building Height: 89 meters Stories: 15 Total surface area of green coverage: 4,827 m2 Largest green coverage on a single façade: 2,257 m2 (16%) Green coverage of total façade: 11% School of the Arts Singapore, 2010 Building Height: 56 meters Stories: 10 Helios Residences Singapore, 2011 Building Height: 94 meters Stories: 20 Total surface area of green coverage: 6,446 m2 Total surface area of green coverage: 1,652 m2 Largest green coverage on a single façade: 1,434 m2 (53%) Largest green coverage on a single façade: 1,142 m2 (15%) Green coverage of total façade: 26% Green coverage of total façade: 7% The Bosco Verticale, Milan, Italy, has the largest total percentage of green coverage in the guide, at 42%, and the largest total surfacearea coverage at 10,142 m2. CTBUH Journal | 2014 Issue III Trio Apartments Sydney, 2009 Building Height: 39 meters Stories: 16 Total surface area of green coverage: 139 m2 CH2 Council House 2 Melbourne, 2006 Building Height: 42 meters Stories: 10 Largest green coverage on a single façade: 139 m2 (5%) Total surface area of green coverage: 420 m2 Largest green coverage on a single façade: 420 m2 (19%) Green coverage of total façade: 7% The tallest green wall in the guide is at The Met, Bangkok, Thailand, rising about 200 meters in a thin strip. The building’s overall green wall coverage is about 14%. Green coverage of total façade: 0.7% One Central Park, Sydney (submitted too late to make the guide) won the CTBUH 2014 Best Tall Building: Asia & Australasia award for its innovative use of heliostats and vertical greenery. Tall Building in Numbers | 53 Copyright of CTBUH Journal is the property of Council on Tall Buildings & Urban Habitat and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. doi:10.1093/jdh/epw039 Journal of Design History Vol. 30 No. 3 The Evolution of Wallpaper Interior Design Schemes in a Commercial Setting: The Interiors of the St Pancras Renaissance Hotel (Midland Grand Hotel), London 1870s–1980s. Lynda Skipper The refurbishment of the St Pancras Renaissance Hotel (formerly the Midland Grand Hotel) provided a unique opportunity to investigate the interior design history of this iconic London landmark. During the refurbishment, wallpapers were uncovered from the initial decorative schemes of the hotel in the 1870s and from later interior design schemes until the building’s closure in the 1980s. This article demonstrates how the CoBRA (Conservation-based Research and Analysis) methodology can be applied to increase our understanding of the history of interiors. The conservation process adds a new perspective to the historiography of the papered interior and its significance in the interior design process. By combining archival research with access to the original wallpapers during the retrieval and subsequent conservation process, it has been possible to construct an account of this commercial building’s decorative schemes. Many of the earliest wallpapers were supplied by Jeffrey and Co., a London firm that worked with William Morris and other prominent designers. The wallpapers illustrate how the approach to the interior design of this building evolved over time, moving away from the Gothic Revival style of interior. Keywords: wallpaper—William Morris—historical interior—conservation—heritage—Sir George Gilbert Scott Introduction © The Author [2016]. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of The Design History Society. All rights reserved. Advance Access publication 3 October 2016 The St Pancras Renaissance Hotel, London, UK is an iconic building in the Gothic Revival style. Originally known as the Midland Grand Hotel, and later as St Pancras Chambers, it was designed by Sir George Gilbert Scott (1811–1878), and welcomed its first guests in 1873.1 The hotel was funded by the Midland Railway Company, which had previously shared railway lines into London with other rail companies. Many of these companies had an associated hotel at their London terminus, and when the Midland Railway decided to build its own line, it was seen as essential to build its own hotel in order to compete. Although Gilbert Scott’s design for the hotel was the most expensive, he presented the Midland Railway with the opportunity to build a hotel that would overshadow those offered by the other rail companies in terms of size and luxury.2 After the hotel closed in 1935, it was used as British Rail offices and staff accommodation before its final closure in the 1980s.3 After extensive restoration between 1997 and 2011 by a consortium led by the Manhattan Loft Corporation, the building was returned to its original use and reopened as the St Pancras Renaissance Hotel in 2011.4 The Midland Grand Hotel was renowned for its decorative painted interiors, like the Grand Staircase, and the spectacular designs in many of the rooms, particularly on 315 Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jdh/article-abstract/30/3/315/2623687/The-Evolution-of-Wallpaper-Interior-Design-Schemes by Adam Ellsworth, Adam Ellsworth on 24 September 2017 the lower floors, all of which have been discussed in more detail by authors such as Bradley.5 Previous research in the building has concentrated solely on the painted decoration with the wallpapers being ignored. However, early photographs of the building interiors,6 and remnants visible on the walls themselves, provide strong evidence that wallpapers formed a significant part of the interior decorative schemes. While the building was being completely stripped for building works, many areas were uncovered as later additions such as radiators and dividing partition walls were removed. This meant that wallpapers that had survived in situ during earlier redecoration were now exposed. The initial aim of the St Pancras project was to remove and catalogue the wallpapers, carrying out conservation treatments as required. However, the refurbishment of the Midland Grand Hotel also provided a unique opportunity to investigate the importance of wallpapers used in this historic commercial property, spanning a time period of just over one hundred years, from the 1870s to the 1980s. Wallpapers offer valuable evidence of society in a particular era by indicating structural change and hierarchical function, providing examples of contemporary fashion and suggesting the personal tastes and social aspirations of the owners and occupants.7 Wallpaper collections in museums tend to be composed of the best preserved and most expensive examples, not necessarily giving a true picture of the types of wallpapers used at the time.8 The expensive papers often come with some provenance, like bills and letters, but the use of cheaper paper is very rarely recorded, and evidence of the use of wallpapers in commercial settings is scant.9 Information about wallpaper usage from the later 1800s and early 1900s tends to come from interior design publications such as The Building News (1855–1926) and The House-Furnisher and Decorator (1872–1883), though most were aimed at advising householders about the appropriate styles to use, concentrating more on the domestic rather than the commercial interior.10 These sources of advice for the home recommended that wallpapers used in servants’ areas should be cheap, with simple machine-printed patterns. In rooms used mainly by women, like drawing rooms and boudoirs, floral or lightly coloured striped papers were to be used. In areas frequented by men, like the library or smoking room, darker colours with bolder patterns were recommended.11 In more communal areas, designs were suggested for particular areas, like the use of marble patterns in hallways.12 Hotels often used bigger, bolder patterns than domestic homes as the rooms were larger and they created a more striking atmosphere.13 Colours were also important in the Victorian domestic setting but have been little studied in relation to hotels. Browns and oranges were preferred for sitting rooms, whilst green and blue were more commonly used in bedrooms, being considered to be more restful colours.14 In the nineteenth century wallpaper manufacturing developed rapidly, and by 1874, thirty-two million rolls of wallpapers were produced every year, in a vast range of designs.15 Patterns and styles varied widely, along with the cost of the papers, intended to meet the demands of consumers from all areas of society. Because of the sheer quantity and variety of papers produced there are substantial gaps in our knowledge of historic wallpapers, and surviving examples are relatively rare. With the exception of the most costly hand-painted papers, wallpaper was generally regarded as ephemeral and was very easy to replace, either by removal or by covering over. In the hundred and fifty years since the mechanization of the wallpaper production process, this act of replacement has in many cases been relatively inexpensive and so repapering has often been the cheapest way to alter the look of an interior.16 Even now during the refurbishment of historic buildings, although interest in the painted schemes is growing, wallpapers are often neglected. However, wallpapers 316 The Evolution of Wallpaper Interior Design Schemes in a Commercial Setting Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jdh/article-abstract/30/3/315/2623687/The-Evolution-of-Wallpaper-Interior-Design-Schemes by Adam Ellsworth, Adam Ellsworth on 24 September 2017 form a valuable part of the historical record, and should be considered as part of any investigation into a building’s history. The St Pancras project is particularly significant for the approach taken to preserving examples of all the wallpapers. When projects involving the historical study of a building are carried out, generally the interest is in the earlier examples of the decorative schemes, while the ‘modern’ schemes are overlooked. This project preserves not just the earliest wallpapers in the property but looks at the evolution of the decoration as a whole, up until the 1980s, providing a valuable record for future scholars. The stratigraphy of the wallpapers in a building and their relationship to its painted layers both enhance our understanding of an interior’s history. Markus argues that buildings are social constructs, used to convey a narrative and meaning, which will evolve over time with changing uses and ownership. The interiors of a building, whether painted or papered, will all contribute to that narrative.17 Through studying the decorative choices made in the building, we can further add to our understanding of the building’s meaning to its various owners and occupiers. Clark18 uses the term CoBRA—Conservation-Based Research and Analysis—to describe the type of research and analysis carried out to understand the significance of built heritage, and to provide information regarding its future management, repair and alteration. It is a term which encompasses academic rigour and the forensic practices of understanding a building, or elements thereof. CoBRA can arguably be used to good effect with design history as the scientific and forensic methodologies available to conservators are powerful tools for the analysis of material culture. This article illustrates how using the CoBRA approach to deal with the wallpapers from the Midland Grand Hotel has provided additional insights into the significance of wallpapers in the building’s history, and information about the wider context of design trends in commercial settings. The restoration project at the Midland Grand Hotel, and the subsequent conservation and study of the wallpapers, provides a case study to illustrate of the impact and effectiveness of the CoBRA methodological approach to the understanding of historic interiors. In order to carry out these studies, it was therefore necessary to record and, where possible, retrieve samples of all the surviving wallpapers. A conservator’s expertise in the handling and documentation of objects is very valuable as part of this process. By combining information from archives with the evidence of the wallpapers themselves, we can gain an insight into the evolving narrative of interior design styles during the building’s use as a hotel, and then as offices and accommodation. The history of the Midland Grand Hotel In 1866 Sir George Gilbert Scott won the competition to design a new hotel for the Midland Railway Company in St Pancras, London. Scott’s estimate for the work was £316,000, the most expensive of the designs submitted by the eleven invited architects.19 This hotel, then known as the Midland Grand, began construction in 1867. Work on the hotel progressed slowly, but in 1872 firms were invited to tender for the contract to supply furnishing and fittings for the first stage of the hotel. Frederick Sang, a Germanborn decorator, and associate of George Gilbert Scott, was awarded the contract for the interior decoration of the east wing of the hotel at a cost of £9,340.20 Much of this interior decoration seems to have been executed using Scott’s own designs.21 Sang had previously been responsible for decorating the interiors of a number of clubs in London, such as the Travellers Club and New Conservative Club, and had exhibited fifteen drawings at the Royal Academy between 1846 and 1884.22 Although the decoration Lynda Skipper Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jdh/article-abstract/30/3/315/2623687/The-Evolution-of-Wallpaper-Interior-Design-Schemes by Adam Ellsworth, Adam Ellsworth on 24 September 2017 317 was generally admired, the company became concerned that many of the estimates were being exceeded.23 Sang’s account of £11,320 was paid in September 1873, and the decoration of the west wing was given to Gillow & Co. This was a commercial firm who had previously supplied the furniture for the east wing of the hotel.24 The first guests were welcomed into the completed east wing in 1873, while work on the west wing was still ongoing. The building of the hotel was finally completed in 1877 at a cost of £438,000,25 the equivalent of around £46 million in 2015.26 Spending on decoration and furnishings on the upper floors of the hotel was much more modest than that on the lower floors, reflecting the hierarchy of uses in the building. In the servants’ quarters in the attics, furniture was made from deal (pine) japanned as oak. The third and fourth floors were decorated with furniture made from ash; on the second floor the furniture was ‘of mahogany and black, parts being carved, incised and ebonized’; the first floor rooms were furnished in oak; and the ground floor was furnished with ‘the furniture of walnut & black wood relieved with gold’.27 Bedford Lemere’s photographs in the National Monument Record archives, taken shortly after the hotel was opened, clearly show that wallpapers were used throughout the building as part of this initial decorative scheme.28 The original ledger for the hotel also demonstrates the use of wallpapers. For example, Gillow’s accounts from 1875–1877 show: ‘Preparing lining & papering walls with a gold ground bird pattern french [sic] paper having a dark red paper dado & black & gold border’. This is remarkably specific in terms of design; the majority of papers mentioned by Gillow & Co. are simply denoted by ‘Hanging own paper to walls’.29 The Midland Grand was used as a hotel until 1935. During this time various redecorations and modifications took place, and it is likely this would have involved repapering areas in addition to repainting them. Electricity was installed between 1885–1889, which led to further redecoration, co-ordinated by the architects Trubshaw and Towles.30 There were considerable difficulties with modifying the interior spaces to add en-suite plumbing because of a fireproof concrete flooring system; despite this, more bathrooms were added between 1905 and 1912 in order to keep up with the changing expectations of hotel customers. Initially, only nine bathrooms were provided for guests throughout the entire hotel.31 Although the exact number of bedrooms is not recorded, a reference from 1911 states that there were 400 beds.32 A reduction in profits combined with the lack of space for installing further bathrooms led to the Midland Railway, which by that date had become part of the London Midland and Scottish Railway Company, converting the building into offices in 1935.33 It continued to be used as offices while it was in the hands of British Rail, between 1948 and 1985, but there were also staff bedrooms in the garrets.34 The lack of fire escapes led to the building being declared unsafe for occupation and it was closed and stripped of its furnishings. To add to the problems, part of the west wing was damaged by fire in 1988.35 Despite the recognition of the building’s exceptional historic significance, with English Heritage awarding it a Grade 1 listing in 1967,36 the condition of the hotel gradually deteriorated. A survey by architects working for the Conservation Practice in 1990 found dry rot, eroding brickwork and slipped and broken slates.37 However, this proved a catalyst for protecting the future of the building. Essential repairs were carried out, followed by a £9 million project by British Rail between1993–1995 to repair the exterior of the building.38 At this time limited research was carried out into the original decoration, and the grand staircase was restored to the 1901 painted scheme of crimson with gold fleur-de-lis.39 Shortly after the exterior of the hotel was restored, the hotel was handed over to London and Continental Railways as part of the agreement for the development of 318 The Evolution of Wallpaper Interior Design Schemes in a Commercial Setting Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jdh/article-abstract/30/3/315/2623687/The-Evolution-of-Wallpaper-Interior-Design-Schemes by Adam Ellsworth, Adam Ellsworth on 24 September 2017 the Channel Tunnel link. In September 1996 they initiated a competition to find a new use for the building, and in 1998 selected a consortium including the Manhattan Loft Corporation to carry out the work. Later partnered by Marriott International, the consortium carried out extensive internal works to produce apartments on the upper floors and a 244-bedroom hotel, in addition to stabilizing and further improving the condition of the exterior of the building.40 Uncovering the wallpapers Crick Smith Conservation of the University of Lincoln was appointed by English Heritage in 2001, first to investigate the painted interior schemes of the hotel during its restoration, and then later the wallpapered interior decoration, with the initial aim of providing information to the restorers about the original decorative schemes.41 Fig 1. Sitting room of the Midland Grand Hotel, photographed circa 1876. © National Archive for Historic Decoration, University of Lincoln. Many of the later wallpapers from the British Rail era were clearly visible on the walls, and often still covered entire rooms, particularly in areas which had been used for staff accommodation. Some of these papers were layered over other, older wallpapers, as it was not unusual to reduce redecoration costs by papering over existing schemes instead of removing the older design. Others, however, were rather more difficult to track down. Archival and photographic evidence showed that wallpapers had been used extensively throughout the building as part of the interior design schemes.42 While trying to locate these early wallpapers it became apparent that the majority had been stripped and removed when alterations took place, and finding a large section of paper was rare. Where papers were evident, they were generally found only as small remnants. The author made several visits to areas where building works were taking place, as more hidden fragments were revealed as the renovations progressed. Some papers were discovered hidden behind stud walls, others behind ducts or even behind electrical light fittings. Clearly the workmen at the time had decided that stripping off wallpapers which would later be hidden was not a necessary task, a decision which led to the survival of some of these papers. In other areas, like the first-floor sitting room photographed by Bedford Lemere [1], sadly only traces of wallpaper paste were found on the walls. Removal of the wallpapers from the Midland Grand Hotel took place while restoration was going on. With the building works progressing rapidly the work had to be carried out as quickly as possible. In situ, they were exposed to less than ideal environmental conditions within the hotel, and many were subject to damage. This meant that conservation of the wallpapers, including the separation of layers of paper and paint, was necessary in order to fully understand the designs present. As well as layering and overpainting, wallpapers showed evidence of mould growth, fading, Lynda Skipper Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jdh/article-abstract/30/3/315/2623687/The-Evolution-of-Wallpaper-Interior-Design-Schemes by Adam Ellsworth, Adam Ellsworth on 24 September 2017 319 damage from later alterations to the building as well as surface dirt and discolouration [2]. While conservation in situ was considered, many wallpapers would have been damaged or destroyed during the renovations; therefore, their removal was the only way to ensure their survival. Similarly, others would have been covered during redecoration, and the evidence of their design obscured. Working alongside the team carrying out renovations provided challenges but also opportunities. The removal of later additions during renovations exposed wallpapers that would otherwise have remained undiscovered, providing valuable additional material for understanding the interiors. Conversely, the time pressure of working during a commercial restoration of the building meant that wallpapers had to be removed quickly in sometimes difficult conditions. In one case, the author was removing a wallpaper while workmen were waiting with sledgehammers to demolish the doorway it was attached to. Co-operation and communication with the building team was therefore of the utmost importance in order for everything to run smoothly. In a few cases it was not possible to remove a sample of the paper, either for health and safety reasons because of the height at which the wallpaper remained or because of restricted access, or because the wallpaper had already extensively deteriorated. Where retrieval was not possible, the papers were photographed so that there was a record of their appearance. Some wallpapers were removed dry as the glue binder holding them to the wall had broken down and they were either already partially detached or could easily be removed with a scalpel. Others more firmly attached were removed using water and, in a few cases, it was necessary to remove paper still attached to the backing plaster. The aim was to retrieve a full pattern repeat where possible, though some papers were only found as small fragments. In total, ninety-nine different designs were found throughout the hotel. Fig 2. Deteriorated wallpaper (1900–1910) from a third-floor room, showing patches of black mould and fading as a result of light damage. In order to fully understand the wallpaper designs retrieved from the building, conservation treatments were carried out as necessary, prioritizing papers that were particularly vulnerable to further damage, such as those with plaster remaining on the back from the removal process. Papers in layers were separated, generally using careful application of moisture, and paint was removed from the surface of papers in order to reveal all the designs. The photograph [3] illustrates the issues with many of the papers from the hotel, where earlier papers were obscured by paint and other paper layers. The striped paper shown is likely to date to the 1900s, with a pearlescent paper from the 1930s on top, followed by further layers of paint. Without this uncovering as part of the conservation treatment process, it would have been impossible to interpret the designs of the papers and their use in the building. These wallpapers have been catalogued, with their context and position in the building recorded, alongside their position in layers where appropriate, and now form part of an archive of historic wallpapers held by the University of Lincoln. Conservation of the 320 The Evolution of Wallpaper Interior Design Schemes in a Commercial Setting Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jdh/article-abstract/30/3/315/2623687/The-Evolution-of-Wallpaper-Interior-Design-Schemes by Adam Ellsworth, Adam Ellsworth on 24 September 2017 Fig 3. An example of the complexity of layers of paper and paint retrieved from the hotel. This stack of papers is from a third-floor bedroom. wallpapers allowed designs and layers to be better understood, and evaluated in the context of their locations within the building. Finding correlations between wallpaper designs across different areas provides information about how these wallpapers were used, and enables us to make suggestions about why individual papers were chosen for particular spaces. Looking at their stratigraphy—how papers were layered on top of one other—provides some evidence for the dating of the layers. The initial decoration of the hotel By combining archival evidence, historic photographs and the evidence of wallpapers retrieved from the building, it is possible to investigate the wallpapers used within the hotel in more detail. Although the earliest designs found in the building were generally fragmentary, the hotel accounts held by the National Railway Museum, York provide many clues as to the extent of wallpaper used within the building.43 The hotel accounts cover the period from when the hotel was first being built until 1877, and include the expenses sheets for both Gillow and Sang. Additional notes in red ink appear to have been added by R. Etzenberger, the hotel manager. The earliest photographic evidence of wallpaper being used in the Midland Grand Hotel is a historic image of a first-floor sitting room, from 1876.44 Previous investigations had found no trace of this original paper, except for traces of paste and lines on the wall where the dado used to be. This was probably stripped when electricity was installed in around 1886.45 Thirteen examples of wallpapers were found that are believed to relate to this period but many of these were small and did not contain enough of the pattern to be conclusively identified [4]. It seems likely that this pattern of removal was employed throughout the building. Where the papers survived, they were hidden under later alterations such as the insertion of an electric light switch [4a]. In some of the third-floor rooms wallpaper was revealed when a later dividing partition Lynda Skipper Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jdh/article-abstract/30/3/315/2623687/The-Evolution-of-Wallpaper-Interior-Design-Schemes by Adam Ellsworth, Adam Ellsworth on 24 September 2017 321 Fig 4. Wallpapers from the 1870s. a. Two overlaid wallpapers in a third-floor bedroom, protected by the light fitting. b. Owen Jones-style block-printed paper from the first floor. c. William Morris Venetian pattern paper from a third-floor bedroom. A small fragment of slightly later wallpaper can be seen on either side of the Venetian paper. wall was removed. These rooms would originally have been guest bedrooms. The paper is Venetian pattern, probably designed by G.F. Bodley for Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co. in the late 1860s, and manufactured by Jeffrey and Co.46 This paper was found in both pale blue and green within the hotel [4c]. This relates directly to archival information, as it is mentioned in the Gillow & Co. accounts as ‘Hanging own Venetian pattern paper, providing + hanging borders’ and the account from Frederick Sang, as ‘Green venetian 26 pieces @ 5/–‘.47 Gillow’s accounts state specifically that the wallpaper is to be hung on the third floor, which correlates with where the examples were discovered, but doesn’t specify an area in any more detail. By combining the account ledger’s information with that of the actual position of the papers it is possible to conclude that these papers were chosen for guest bedrooms. Although some entries in the accounts ledger do not give quantities of papers provided, the majority of entries do offer that level of detail. Throughout the accounts for both Sang and Gillow, 1184 pieces of paper were mentioned, with 198 yards of border, twenty-five pieces of tinted lining paper, and dado, which is described separately as thirteen pieces, and as a 66-foot run.48 As used in the ledger, ‘piece’ was the terminology used at this date for a roll of wallpaper. Lining paper is mentioned in connection with the wallpapers in the ledger: however, only quantities of tinted lining paper are given; amounts of plain lining paper are not specified. Gillow also describes a frieze on the second floor, although that has not been included in the totals as no measurements were given: ‘Second floor. Hanging own paper to walls in two heights with frieze at top, and providing and hanging a border to dado’.49 322 The Evolution of Wallpaper Interior Design Schemes in a Commercial Setting Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jdh/article-abstract/30/3/315/2623687/The-Evolution-of-Wallpaper-Interior-Design-Schemes by Adam Ellsworth, Adam Ellsworth on 24 September 2017 A list of designs in Sang’s accounts to 1873, which is more detailed than that given by Gillow, contains mention of nine wallpapers that can be identified as Morris & Co. papers. In addition to the Venetian patterns, the other Morris papers listed are two Spray patterns (one variant with gold, one without); light Spray; yellow Larks per and dark blue Larks per (likely Larkspur), dark blue Indian, blue fruit (also known as pomegranate); and New Daisy50 (presumably a revised version of Morris’s c. 1862 Daisy design51). Two further papers may also be Morris, though it has not been possible to confirm this because of the lack of detail in the ledger. These other designs specified in Sang’s lists are Dark Sunflower, which may be a Bruce Talbert or William Morris design, although Talbert’s design is dated to 1878, Morris’s to 1879, and the record is dated prior to this in 1873.52 Peacock is also mentioned by Sang, which may refer to the Walter Crane Peacock wallpaper or to the William Morris Peacock and Dragon, although again the records of these designs suggest they postdate the ledger. The sunflower and the peacock were fashionable motifs of the Aesthetic Movement.53 The pattern used most frequently was Spray without gold, at 102 pieces, with the smallest quantity of one design being New Daisy, at just seven pieces.54 If we assume that seven pieces was the minimum for decorating one average-sized room in the hotel, then that implies that Spray without gold was used in up to fourteen rooms in the building, with a further five rooms in light Spray (thirty-five pieces). No traces of these wallpapers have survived. Some wallpapers were produced at quite a high cost and would have looked very dramatic on the walls: for example, ‘Spray pattern with gold 30 pieces’ suggests this version of the Morris pattern had gold highlights or a gold background. It is of note that the Morris papers mentioned were generally relatively low cost, with the majority priced at four to eight shillings per piece. The exception was the Blue Fruit pattern, at a cost of thirteen shillings, and the Spray with gold at thirteen shillings and sixpence. Other lavish wallpapers include a variety of unspecified satin papers and gold and silver paper, such as ‘36 pieces of green and silver at 18/–‘ and ‘Basket pattern 16 pieces satin papered at 15/–‘.55 Gillow states in an estimate that all gold papers would need to be lined, suggesting gold backgrounds were frequently used. A less costly entry from Sang’s accounts describes 350 pieces of ‘bedroom patterns’ which cost just two shillings per piece,56 a substantial quantity of wallpaper, though no information is given as to which floor this refers to. Interestingly, in a room on the sixth floor, a border was found that was based on an 1850s Owen Jones design, significantly predating the hotel. It may be that this was bought relatively cheaply as old stock and then used to decorate the servants’ quarters. Some evidence for this practice can be found in Sang’s accounts, where he charges for ‘50 pieces of 25 years old pattern at 5/–‘57. There are also several mentions of French papers in the original ledger. In addition to the Gillow quote in the introduction, Sang provided a very intriguing quote of: ‘Sir G Scott’s 31 pieces of French paper near Paris pattern’, and elsewhere, mentions 1 set of 7 pieces of Chinese paper.58 The Chinese paper was the most expensive obtained during the decorating of the hotel, at a cost of £1 5s. Unfortunately it was not stated where this wallpaper was hung, and no evidence for the existence of this paper has been found by the author within the hotel. While Gilbert Scott’s involvement in the latter stages of the decoration of the west wing is believed to be more limited than in the east wing,59 from the accounts it is clear that he still had involvement in the design. Accounts from Sang show ‘print-cutting for borders by order of Mr John Scott’, who was supervising the decoration of the west wing prior to its handover to Gillow.60 John Oldrid Scott, born in 1841, was also a Lynda Skipper Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jdh/article-abstract/30/3/315/2623687/The-Evolution-of-Wallpaper-Interior-Design-Schemes by Adam Ellsworth, Adam Ellsworth on 24 September 2017 323 prominent architect, and from 1864–1878 was an assistant to his father before inheriting the practice upon his father’s death.61 There are multiple references in the Gillow accounts in the ledger to Sir G Scott’s wallpapers, or to ‘your’ wallpapers, implying that they were often working with wallpapers supplied to them by Gilbert Scott, and evidence of this practice is reinforced by his own writings. In Remarks on Secular and Domestic Architecture, Present & Future (1857), Gilbert Scott briefly mentions the use of wallpapers, stating that ‘ . . . in all important buildings, the architect should always design them for himself, or at least have them designed under his own direction . . .’.62 It seems that even at this early stage in the building works, changes were being made to the interiors because of damage. Sang includes references to work additional to the original contract ‘Room 177 4th floor damaged by water & repapered . . . Room 172 damaged by gas, paper cleaned’. Gillow too refers to work carried out during the period of 1875–1877, where work was carried out in the sixth-floor tower rooms, including the removal of old wallpaper; ‘ . . . these rooms were flooded from the large Iron Tank on account of the defective construction of the waste pipe’. This is followed by a charge for ‘13 pieces of wallpaper 6/–‘.63 This provides further evidence that at least some of the walls were stripped of paper, instead of the paper being covered over during redecoration. Although the accounts for the Gillow contract relating to the west wing of the hotel (1873–1877) are less detailed than those provided by Sang, with no pattern names given, there are some entries which suggest at least the style of the hanging. Gillow mentions a frieze and dado on the second floor. This relates to a hanging style where the wall was divided into three sections—dado, filling and frieze, introduced by Owen Jones in The Grammar of Ornament (1856),64 and popularized by Charles Eastlake in his 1868 book, Hints on Household Taste in Furniture, Upholstery and other Details.65 Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co. used this style for the Green Dining Room at the South Kensington Museum (now the Victoria and Albert Museum) in 1867, and it is still viewable today in the Morris Room.66 By the late 1870s this style was widely utilised, with manufacturers producing full sets with complementary designs for each area.67 The Gillow accounts shows that wallpapers were used throughout the building in the west wing, from the ground floor to the sixth floor of the tower. This includes seventythree yards of border which were placed in the smoking and billiard rooms, and ‘hanging 18 pieces of paper in Manager Rooms & 46 pieces of Satin Paper, 30 pieces in Clerks Room’ in addition to ‘hang[ing] your own papers to walls of Rooms on 4th, 5th and 6th floor in tower . . . ‘. His accounts also provide the only mention of decorating materials, with a charge for a ‘firkin of size’, which is approximately forty-one litres of wallpaper paste.68 An overview of the wallpapers found at the hotel shows that they do appear to have followed the colour trends of the time for the rooms, perhaps as would be expected from a hotel aiming to present itself as both fashionable and luxurious. More muted colours, including many greens and blues, tended to be found in the bedrooms, while the brighter reds, oranges and pinks, and larger patterned designs, tended to be more predominant in the communal rooms and corridor spaces. The wallpaper designs found throughout the building were generally quite simple flat patterns, indicating that they were influenced by the Design Reform movement. From the mid-nineteenth century, this movement began to have an influence on the style of pattern, and the usage of wallpapers. Based around Pugin’s ideas of honesty with design, the movement advocated a departure from the ‘vulgar’ three-dimensional 324 The Evolution of Wallpaper Interior Design Schemes in a Commercial Setting Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jdh/article-abstract/30/3/315/2623687/The-Evolution-of-Wallpaper-Interior-Design-Schemes by Adam Ellsworth, Adam Ellsworth on 24 September 2017 representations of scenes on wallpaper, and instead promoted a return to simpler two dimensional patterns.69 These ideals reached wider coverage through Henry Cole and his colleagues, via the relatively new South Kensington Museum and Design School,70 and were further promoted to the wider public in magazines and books, such as Eastlake’s Hints on Household Taste. Their influence on the mass market for cheap wallpapers was limited; however, design reform did have an influence on the higherquality wallpaper market, working with designers such as William Morris.71 The designs found are generally floral patterns in an Aesthetic style, with only one wallpaper which could be described as being in a Gothic style, resembling an Owen Jones-type design [4b]. The Aesthetic Movement had a strong influence on design styles from the late 1860s. However, for a hotel known as a Gothic revival masterpiece, with extensive Gothic-style painted interiors, this choice of Aesthetic Movement wallpapers is perhaps rather surprising. The sole Gothic-style paper was found in a cupboard, part of a first-floor corridor near the grand staircase. Its position at the back of a cupboard had protected it during later redecorations. Perhaps it was felt that combining Gothic interior design with the Gothic furniture in all but the grandest of rooms would be too overpowering for guests, or perhaps this combination of the Gothic and the Aesthetic was also motivated by fashions of the time. Certainly, in the 1870s these styles were not seen as exclusive. This overlapping of Gothic and Aesthetic styles was further developed throughout the 1870s, by designers including Gilbert Scott’s son, George Gilbert Scott the younger, through his work with Watts & Co.72 Decorative schemes of the hotel 1877–1935 In contrast to the evidence for wallpaper use in the initial design and decor of the hotel, there appears to be little documentary evidence available detailing the changes made whilst the hotel was in use. We must therefore rely on information provided by surviving papers recovered from the building itself; understanding the extant material culture is the only viable way to retrieve this information. As a result of the conservation project, it was possible to locate forty-five wallpaper designs, Fig. 5. Wallpapers from the 1880s to1930s. a. Lindsay P. Butterfield wallpaper, designed in 1906 for Jeffrey & Co. or Essex & Co. b. 1920– 1930s machine-printed paper from a second-floor room. c. 1900–1910 block-printed paper from a first-floor room. d. 1920s geometric repeat, also found in red, from the thirdfloor corridors. Lynda Skipper Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jdh/article-abstract/30/3/315/2623687/The-Evolution-of-Wallpaper-Interior-Design-Schemes by Adam Ellsworth, Adam Ellsworth on 24 September 2017 325 which encompass the period while the hotel was in use. Four of these are shown in the photograph [5]. Eight of these wallpaper designs had varnish present on the surface. This was a common practice in the late nineteenth century, and would have allowed the papers to be washed. This was viewed as being more hygienic, given the high levels of pollution from both external sources and the internal coal fires and lamps, and improved the papers’ longevity.73 The varnished papers were found in areas with high traffic, like the corridors on levels 3 and 4, the luggage handling area, and smaller stairways. It seems that varnishing was not always applied immediately after the papers were hung. Wallpaper found in a number of fourth-floor corridors had some unvarnished sections which were exposed by the removal of ducting. Elsewhere in the corridors this paper was found varnished, suggesting the varnish had therefore been applied after the ducting was put in place [6]. This pattern matches one held by the Victoria and Albert Museum (E.2236-1913) and dated to 1890–1900.74 It may have been designed by Sidney Moreson and was produced by Jeffrey and Co.77 Fig 6. Unvarnished section of wallpaper on the fourth floor corridor, exposed by removal of ducting. Other corridors and rooms that needed long-lasting washable papers were decorated with hard-wearing embossed papers such as Salamander, Lincrusta and Anaglypta, that would most probably have been introduced between 1885–1914. A number of papers were found from the first floor upwards, including an example of Salamander, which was a washable fireproof paper first produced in 1896.75 Wallpaper in another second-floor room appears to be a Lincrusta or Anaglypta-type design. A photograph taken in 1967 shows a radiator with a Lincrusta design around it probably dating from around 1910.76 As these areas were all subject to high usage, it is likely that the hotel manager realized the need for the use of varnished or washable wallpapers to avoid the need for frequent redecoration. Although they had been repainted, the survival of many of these embossed wallpapers in relatively good condition compared to other papers demonstrates how hard-wearing these types were. Written descriptions of the appearance of the interiors of that time period come from the hotel’s guests. In his book Travels in South Kensington (1882), Moncure Daniel Conway describes the interiors and some of the wallpapers from his tour around the building: ‘the halls and corridors have a dado of fine dark brown tiles, and bright fleurde-lis paper above’. It is probable that he is referring to a brown tile paper, with a stencilled, pale brown fleur-de-lis on a peach colour background above, which was located by the author on a third-floor corridor. He describes a bedroom as having ‘deep-green paper, with gold lines and spots’, and as the furniture in that room was oak, we can surmise that this refers to one of the most expensive first-floor rooms. However he was rather unimpressed by the decor, describing it as an ‘exercise of ingenuity to find things costly than to find things beautiful’.77 By taking an overview of the styles, using information provided by the wallpaper designs and their locations within the building, it is possible to draw conclusions around the appearance of the hotel interiors through this period. In addition to a practical approach to decorating, as already discussed, with the use of varnish or embossed 326 The Evolution of Wallpaper Interior Design Schemes in a Commercial Setting Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jdh/article-abstract/30/3/315/2623687/The-Evolution-of-Wallpaper-Interior-Design-Schemes by Adam Ellsworth, Adam Ellsworth on 24 September 2017 papers in high-use areas, the preference for floral designs continued through this period, though a few other design styles were found, like stripes (which can be seen as a lower layer in [3]), simple repeats [5d], and fleur-de-lis. The wallpapers dating from the 1880s through to the early 1900s were generally bolder in colour, with large flowers and would have produced quite a striking effect, such as the paper shown in [5a], which was found in several areas on the third floor, including a corridor and two bedrooms. This is a 1906 Lindsey P. Butterfield design (pattern 463460), from either Jeffrey and Co. or Essex and Co.78 Perhaps reviews from visitors such as Conway, who felt the bedrooms should be ‘more quiet’,79 were taken into account during redecorations. The later wallpapers (post -910) found in the building were predominantly plainer in style, with paler or more subtle colours and smaller patterns. This is also in keeping with the claim by Simmons80 that the hotel’s flamboyant interiors were gradually toned down over time, though still using simple foliate patterns.81 Some designs were found in multiple areas, including a simple repeat of squares, which was found in both red and blue with a cream background. The blue version was varnished and located on a fourth-floor corridor, and the red was found varnished in a room on each of the first, second and fourth floors. The styles of the papers were clearly influenced by the fashions of the time. An example of this is the two wallpaper borders found from this period. One of these follows the trend for ‘cut out’ designs, which were fashionable in the period between World War One and World War Two.82 This cut out design is a stylized rose in an Arts and Crafts style, likely to date to the 1920s. Another border dating from the building’s last few years as a hotel has a much more subtle pattern of flowers and leaves on a textured paper, a style introduced by Sanderson in the 1930s.83 Although it is widely known that the furnishings and painted decoration were more expensive on the lower floors, the costs relating to use of wallpaper within the building had not been previously explored. The ledger covering the period from 1872 to 1877 demonstrates that this cost-gradient approach was also applied to the choice of wallcoverings throughout this period, and continued throughout the building’s use as a hotel. On the lower floors, many papers found were of the more costly hand-printed kind, or with more striking gold and silver backgrounds. Even the machine prints present on the lower floors were produced on thicker, higher-quality paper than those located higher in the building or in areas not used by the public. Lining paper or hessian was used as a backing for papers on lower levels, while higher in the building the wallpapers tended to be hung directly onto plaster, a cheaper method. Lining paper was used as a backing to protect the paper from damp, which would often discolour papers pasted straight onto walls. Hessian scrim covered with lining paper created an air space behind the paper, giving even greater protection from staining through contact with damp walls than lining paper alone,84 but consequently was a more expensive process in terms of materials and labour. Wallpapers from the offices and accommodation era, 1935 onwards During this period of use there appears to have been no cohesive decorative scheme, and the wallpapers used were a very eclectic mix of styles and designs. There was an equally eclectic mix of qualities, ranging from an expensive Cole & Son reproduction in one of the fifth-floor rooms to a poor-quality cheap paper just two rooms away. Many rooms were painted by British Rail in magnolia during this period,85 but wallpapers were still used in the building. The majority of the wallpapers from this time period Lynda Skipper Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jdh/article-abstract/30/3/315/2623687/The-Evolution-of-Wallpaper-Interior-Design-Schemes by Adam Ellsworth, Adam Ellsworth on 24 September 2017 327 were found on the second, fourth and fifth floors. The sixth floor was largely abandoned at this point, and no post-1935 wallpapers were found on this level. Indeed, almost all of the wallpapers found from this period are believed to date from the 1950s onwards, suggesting that when the rooms were first used as offices and accommodation, they were initially left with the same paint—or paper—that had been on the walls when the hotel finally closed. Earlier wallpapers had been a mix of block-printed and machine-printed, but all of these later papers were machine-made. A number of the wallpapers found were relatively plain, with quite subtle patterns compared to the earlier papers, while others had large, bold, floral patterns, more typical of the 1960s [7]. A number of rooms were still fully papered, so a full pattern repeat was retrieved for each design, plus borders where present. Although all the wallpapers found from this era were machine-made, there were still a mix of types. One of the wallpapers found in a second floor room was screenprinted, dating it to post-1950. Eight vinyl examples were found (one shown in [7b]), which can be dated to post-1960, when that form of printing was introduced.86 Textile wallcoverings, known as Strings paper or Novalin, were among the most recent wallpapers added to the building. They became popular from the 1970s onwards. This wallpaper was produced on a paper base covered with 100% linen yarns. The original papers were made by Kinnasand of Sweden, and introduced into the UK in 1979 by the distributor Turner Wallcoverings Ltd, London.87 These were found in two second-floor rooms, and were therefore likely to be part of the office space. A block design found in two rooms on the fifth floor had Crown stamped on the verso and the number P577 1711 [7d]. Pattern book SC87 (1962/3) at the Museum of Domestic Design and Architecture (MoDA) shows a selection of wallpapers from this Fig 7. Wallpapers from 1935 onwards. a. Abstract wallpaper from the fifth floor, dated to 1960s. b. Simpler patterned vinyl wallpaper from the second and fourth floors 1950s–1960s. c. Bold 1960s floral design wallpaper from second floor room, possibly used as offices. d. Crown wallpaper front and verso, 1960s. 328 The Evolution of Wallpaper Interior Design Schemes in a Commercial Setting Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jdh/article-abstract/30/3/315/2623687/The-Evolution-of-Wallpaper-Interior-Design-Schemes by Adam Ellsworth, Adam Ellsworth on 24 September 2017 maker, with pattern numbers beginning with P (P95731 onwards), as was the case with this piece. However, the number printed on the verso of this paper is unusually long, as most numbers in this archive have five digits. This may therefore be a factory number rather than a specific pattern. The style of this pattern is similar to that of another Crown series, the Palladio range. These were available from 1955, and were designed by leading figures in the art and design world, such as Terence Conran and Walter Hoyle.88 The prices reflected their prestige. This design has similar colours and format to a design by John Line (pattern SC64, MoDA), but this may have been a cheaper version of a similar date. Given that this floor was used for accommodation from 1967 onwards it seems likely that the room was redecorated around that time.89 This is consistent with the dates of the other wallpapers found on that floor. Later wallpapers are often overlooked when researching earlier designs and the histories of interiors, but it is important also to consider this time period and the use of more recent wallpapers as part of the overall history of the building. The presence of wallpapers across three floors of the building demonstrates that wallpapers were used as part of the commercial office areas as well as by staff in their own accommodation. Although there is a range of quality and designs of paper, from a wide range of manufacturers, the majority are a contemporary style for the dates, perhaps trying to give what was by then viewed as an outdated building a more modern appearance. The exception to this is the Cole & Son paper, which is more in keeping with the original look and style of wallpapers in the building, implying that at least one of the occupants was influenced by the historic nature of their surroundings. This may reflect an increasing awareness of the significance of Britain’s heritage from the 1970s onwards, as demonstrated by publications such as Wright’s On Living in an Old Country (1985). Manufacturers and suppliers A vast number of wallpaper designs were available to consumers throughout this period, but because of the lack of written records, finding the exact design and maker for a particular wallpaper piece from St Pancras is problematic. The majority of wallpapers found at St Pancras were therefore dated by comparison to wallpaper with known dates, through wallpaper design resources and original pattern books, in combination with the stratigraphy and position of wallpapers within the building itself. Discussions with Lesley Hoskins, editor of The Papered Wall (1994) were also helpful. It can be difficult to generalize about design styles as designs that were popular were not always designs that were at the forefront of fashion, and some styles were available for many years. However, it seems plausible that in the public spaces of the hotel at least there would have been an attempt to keep the hotel decoration in as modern a style as possible, in order to maintain its prestigious status. Jeffrey and Co. seems to be a likely candidate for the manufacturer of many of the early papers for the hotel, at least during the phase of decoration overseen by Sang. All Sang’s Morris papers would have been available through Jeffrey and Co., and they would certainly have supplied the Venetian pattern design. A small fragment of wallpaper found on the first floor is thought to be a Bruce Talbert design from the 1870s, again supplied by Jeffrey and Co.90 Using one main supplier would have been likely in order to reduce administration, and of course overall cost. However, the archival information also indicates that not all the papers were originally supplied by the contractors, Sang and Gillow, with Gillow’s ledger entries (1875–77) in particular showing a number of papers simply referred to as ‘your own papers’. Repeated references to hanging Lynda Skipper Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jdh/article-abstract/30/3/315/2623687/The-Evolution-of-Wallpaper-Interior-Design-Schemes by Adam Ellsworth, Adam Ellsworth on 24 September 2017 329 ‘your own’ or ‘hanging own paper and providing and hanging borders’ provides evidence that at least some of the papers were sourced elsewhere. Some were certainly supplied by Gilbert Scott, such as Sang’s reference to ‘Sir G Scott’s 31 pieces of French paper . . .’ mentioned previously.91 These may still have been obtained from Jeffrey and Co., as their business also involved the printing of designs based on French imported wallpapers,92 so it is possible that the references to French papers simply relate to a Jeffrey and Co. paper that had been ordered by George Gilbert Scott. Two of the slightly later papers (1900–1910) share strong similarities with wallpapers produced by Charles Knowles and Co, and the Butterfield design has been confirmed as either Jeffrey and Co. or Essex and Co. A later 1920s paper was most probably produced by Arthur Sanderson. The companies listed here were all very prestigious and at the forefront of design at the time. Jeffrey and Co. was renowned for its quality and produced wallpapers by many leading designers such as William Morris, Owen Jones and C.F.A. Voysey.93 Charles Knowles also employed prominent designers such as Voysey.94 Sanderson was awarded a Royal Warrant in 1924 as providers of wallpaper to the King, and still produces high-quality block printed wallpapers today, including Morris & Co. designs, having acquired the Morris business and stock in 1940.95 Once the building closed as a hotel, it seems sensible to suggest that the people using it as their personal accommodation would have decorated the rooms to their own personal taste, and the range of papers on the second-floor office rooms implies that there may have been some individual input in these areas too. It has been possible to identify wallpapers by Cole & Son, Kinnasand and Crown, but there is clearly no single supplier used at this stage; it was very much a personal decision for individuals living and working in the space. Conclusion The Midland Grand Hotel was designed to be a landmark, and a statement about the importance of the Midland Railway Company, emphasizing its superiority over the other railway companies offering accommodation in London. Designed to emphasize both comfort and luxury, it was a statement to potential investors in the company as well as to passengers.96 Because of this, it was important to ensure the hotel stayed at the forefront of modernity and fashion in terms of the facilities it offered guests, and the standard of the interiors, including, of course, the wallpapers. Gothic Revival, a style associated with good principles, truthfulness and Christianity, might have been chosen to represent the values and stability of the Midland Railway Company.97 The documentary evidence available for this building relates only to the initial phases of decoration, and information regarding later changes to the building’s interior is scant. This lack of documentary evidence has previously discouraged historians from discussing overall decorative schemes within the hotel. However, the refurbishment work led to removal of walls and ducting, exposing wallpapers that would otherwise not have been discovered. The retrieval of these wallpapers, and their study during the process of conservation, was able to add a great deal to our understanding of the interiors, and is a methodology which could be applied more widely to historic buildings. Ninety-nine different wallpapers were found during this investigation, with many designs being repeated across bedrooms or along several corridors. This examination 330 The Evolution of Wallpaper Interior Design Schemes in a Commercial Setting Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jdh/article-abstract/30/3/315/2623687/The-Evolution-of-Wallpaper-Interior-Design-Schemes by Adam Ellsworth, Adam Ellsworth on 24 September 2017 of the wallpapers sheds new light on the way in which the interior design of the building was approached. In some areas, it is clear that wallpapers were chosen for practical reasons, such as the use of hard-wearing and varnished papers in highuse areas. However, the use of more expensive, gold and silver papers shows that as one of the most expensive hotels at the time, it also needed to present itself as a luxurious building, and this meant the interiors also needed to be maintained in good condition. The range of wallpapers from the 1870s to the 1930s shows that redecoration was ongoing throughout the history of the building. Clearly the use of prestigious designers was important in maintaining the perception of the hotel’s luxury status, as shown by the choice of papers by designers like William Morris, Owen Jones and Bruce Talbert, and highlights the significance of the wallpapers in giving this impression of opulence. The rooms within the hotel, like the smoking room and coffee lounge, have parallels with the aristocratic houses of the time, with a smoking room and billiard room, and ladies coffee lounge.98 Bradley99 suggests that the painted decoration was intended to imitate that of the upper classes, but to also provide an area where the upper and upper-middle classes could mix on equal terms, and so it is likely that the wallpapers were chosen to aid the creation of this ambience. Floral designs were popular throughout the building’s use as a hotel, with larger floral patterns on the lower floors and cheaper, smaller floral pattern papers on the upper floors. Patterns associated with nature, and particularly florals, were perceived by the Victorians as being associated with ‘God’s work’,100 and as such could also be viewed as an expression of the Christian values of the commissioning company. The wallpapers found on the sixth floor suggest that the servant/staff areas had some papered decoration but the wallpapers were printed on such poor-quality paper that only a few examples have survived. In areas not intended for public access, it is unsurprising that economical decoration was employed. Although many of the painted schemes show a strong Gothic Revival influence, the wallpapers are generally less Gothic-influenced, and instead seem to follow the Aesthetic style. There is considerable evidence from the wallpapers that the hotel was decorated within a cost gradient, which is also reinforced by the pricings found in the documentary evidence. Only through studying examples of the wallpapers instead of images was it possible to understand the types of papers used (whether thin, cheaper wallpapers, or higher-quality expensive materials), and their printing methods. It became clear that it was not just the furniture types which followed a cost gradient within the hotel, but the whole approach to the interiors followed this pattern, with the most expensive items on the lower floors. This has parallels with the approach taken by Gilbert Scott at Kelham Hall, Nottinghamshire (completed 1861), where the decorative treatment of the corridors decreases in complexity and ‘richness’ as one ascends within the property.101 Through the uncovering of hidden wallpapers, one is given an insight into the hidden narrative of the building,102 and the choices made by the owners and occupiers during its evolving use from hotel to offices and accommodation. The conservation process, using the CoBRA methodology combined with archival research, provides a new perspective and understanding of the historic interior of this building, and enables us to provide a more complete historical record of the developments of the papered interiors over time. This case study demonstrates how these methodological principles can be applied elsewhere in order to improve our understanding of interiors. Lynda Skipper Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jdh/article-abstract/30/3/315/2623687/The-Evolution-of-Wallpaper-Interior-Design-Schemes by Adam Ellsworth, Adam Ellsworth on 24 September 2017 331 In addition to providing new information about the complex decorative choices made by the owners and occupiers of this building, the St Pancras Renaissance Hotel project has led to the creation of an archive of historic wallpapers that will be preserved at the University of Lincoln as part of the National Archive for Historic Decoration, offering access to this collection for researchers, owners, students and other interested parties. Dr Lynda Skipper Senior Lecturer. Department of Conservation, School of History and Heritage, University of Lincoln E-mail: lskipper@lincoln.ac.uk Dr Lynda Skipper is a Senior Lecturer in Conservation at the University of Lincoln and is programme leader for the BA in Conservation of Cultural Heritage. After studying Natural Sciences followed by a PhD in biochemistry at the University of Cambridge, she trained as a conservator at Lincoln on their MA in Conservation of Historic Objects. She then worked for the Science Museum and National Trust before returning to Lincoln as a lecturer in 2011. Her research interests include paints, pigments and historic wallpapers. If you have any comments to make in relation to this article, please go to the journal website on http://jdh.oxfordjournals.org and access this article. There is a facility on the site for sending e-mail responses to the editorial board and other readers. Acknowledgements: The author would like to thank Dr Jim Cheshire, Reader in the School of History and Heritage at the University of Lincoln, for his helpful comments, and also Helena Brazil for proofreading. 9 Ibid., 9–12. 10 Penny Sparke, Anne Massey, Trevor Keeble and Brenda Martin, eds., Designing the Modern Interior: From the Victorians to Today (Oxford: Berg, 2009), 22. 11 Saunders, op. cit., 16. Notes 1 Alastair Lansley, Stuart Durant, Alan Dyke, Bernard Gambrill and Roderick Shelton, The Transformation of St Pancras Station (London: Laurence King Publishing, 2012), 159–162. 12 Clare Taylor, Wallpaper (Princes Risborough: Shire, 1991) 20. 13 Saunders, op. cit., 18 14 Ibid., 25. 2 Jack Simmons and Robert Thorne, St Pancras Station 3rd edn,(London: Historical Publications, 2012), 52. 15 Lesley Hoskins, The Papered Wall: the History, Patterns and Techniques of Wallpaper (London: Thames & Hudson, 1994), 136. 3 Lansley, op. cit, 222. 16 Saunders, op. cit., 8. 4 Simon Bradley, St Pancras Station 2nd edn, (London: Profile Books, 2011), 191. 17 Thomas A. Markus, Buildings & Power: Freedom and Control in the Origin of Modern Building Types (New York and London: Routledge 199), 5–6. 5 Ibid., 109–119. 6 John Christopher, St Pancras Station Through Time (Stroud: Amberley Publishing, 2013), 50–51. 7 Allyson McDermott, ‘Wallpapers’, Journal of Architectural Conservation 11 (2005): 10–27. 8 Gill Saunders, Wallpaper in Interior Decoration (London: V&A Publications, 2002) 9. 332 18 Kate Clark, Informed Conservation–a Guide to Understanding Historic Buildings and their Landscapes (London: English Heritage, 2001), 19–21. 19 Simmons, op. cit., 52. 20 Ibid., 65. 21 Ibid., 68. The Evolution of Wallpaper Interior Design Schemes in a Commercial Setting Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jdh/article-abstract/30/3/315/2623687/The-Evolution-of-Wallpaper-Interior-Design-Schemes by Adam Ellsworth, Adam Ellsworth on 24 September 2017 22 Laura Microulis, ‘Gillow and the furnishing of the Midland Grand Hotel, London’, Magazine Antiques 165, issue 6 (2004): 108–117. 51 Victoria and Albert Museum, William Morris and Wallpaper Design, accessed 20 March 2016, http://www.vam.ac.uk/ content/articles/w/william-morris-and-wallpaper-design. 23 Simmons, op. cit., 69. 52 Victoria & Albert Museum, Catalogue numbers E.37–1945 (Talbert) and E. 513–1919 (Morris), accessed 10 August 2015, http://www.vam.ac.uk/users/node/8289. 24 Ibid, 69–70. 25 Ibid., 75. 26 Bank of England, Inflation Calculator, accessed 21January 2016, http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/education/Pages/ resources/inflationtools/calculator/flash/default.aspx. 27 Midland Grand Hotel London, Inventory of Furniture, Fittings, & c. Inventory No. 2003–8600, National Railway Museum, York, 4–7. 28 Historic England Archive, accessed 12 August 2014, http:// archive.historicengland.org.uk. 29 Midland Grand Hotel, op. cit, 164. 30 English Heritage, St Pancras Station and former Midland Grand Hotel, accessed 12 August 2014, http://list.englishheritage.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1342037. 31 Bradley, op. cit., 118. 32 Simmons, op. cit., 99. 33 Ibid. 34 Christopher, op. cit., 21. 35 Simmons, op. cit., 137. 36 English Heritage, op. cit. 37 Simmons, op. cit., 157. 38 Ibid. 53 Johanna Banham, Encyclopedia of Interior Design (London: Routledge, 1997), 15. 54 Midland Grand Hotel, op. cit., 195. 55 Ibid. 56 Ibid. 57 Ibid. 58 Ibid. 59 Bradley, op. cit., 107. 60 Simmons, op. cit., 69–70. 61 Ken Allinson, Architects and Architecture of London (Oxford: Elsevier, 2008), 164. 62 George Gilbert Scott, Remarks on Secular and Domestic Architecture, Present & Future (London: John Murray, 1857), 77. 63 Midland Grand Hotel, op. cit., 165, 192. 64 Owen Jones, The Grammar of Ornament (London: Bernard Quaritch, 1856), 40. 65 Charles Locke Eastlake, Hints on Household Taste in Furniture, Upholstery and other Details (London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1868), 111. 40 Lansley, op. cit., 166–167. 66 Charles Harvey and Jon Press, William Morris: Design and Enterprise in Victorian Britain (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1991), 55–56. 41 Simmons, op. cit., 162. 67 Hoskins, op. cit., 152. 42 Midland Grand Hotel, op. cit. 68 Midland Grand Hotel, op. cit., 49, 52. 43 Ibid. 69 Banham, op. cit., 13. 44 Christopher, op. cit., 50. 70 Ibid. 39 Bradley, op. cit., 109. 45 Ian Crick and Michael Smith, St Pancras Chambers, Architectural Paint Research Phase 1 Report. Unpublished consultancy report available from the University of Lincoln, 2001, 14–19. 46 Charles C. Oman & Jean Hamilton, Wallpapers – a History and Illustrated Catalogue of the Collection of the Victoria and Albert Museum. London: Sotheby, 1982. 47 Midland Grand Hotel, op. cit., 24, 195. 48 Midland Grand Hotel, op. cit., 25, 195. 49 Midland Grand Hotel, op. cit., 24. 50 Midland Grand Hotel, op. cit., 195. 71 Hoskins, op. cit., 143–145. 72 Watts & Co., Watts History and Timeline, accessed 18 April 2016, http://watts1874.co.uk/history. 73 Hoskins, op. cit., 154. 74 Oman, op. cit. 75 Pamela Simpson, ‘Embossed wall coverings’, The Wallpaper History Review (1996/7): 22–25. 76 Jean Hamilton, An Introduction to Wallpaper (London: H.M.S.O, 1983), 45. 77 Moncure Daniel Conway, Travels in South Kensington (London: Trubner & Co., 1882), 126–128. Lynda Skipper Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jdh/article-abstract/30/3/315/2623687/The-Evolution-of-Wallpaper-Interior-Design-Schemes by Adam Ellsworth, Adam Ellsworth on 24 September 2017 333 78 Michael Parry, Sanderson, personal communication to author, 6 April 2016. 89 Crick, op. cit., 7. 79 Conway, op. cit., 128. 90 Lesley Hoskins, personal communication to author, August 2007. 80 Simmons, op. cit., 99. 91 Midland Grand Hotel, op. cit, 195. 81 Bradley, op. cit., 107. 92 Banham, op. cit., 653. 82 Lesley Jackson, 20th Century Pattern Design: Textile and Wallpaper Pioneers (London: Mitchell Beazley, 2002), 61–62. 93 Jackson, op. cit., 19. 83 Ibid, 62. 84 Saunders, op. cit., .39. 85 Christopher, op. cit., 49. 86 Simpson, op. cit. 94 Ibid., 13. 95 Mary Schoeser, Sanderson: The Essence of English Decoration (London: Thames & Hudson, 2010), 90, 186. 96 David Dunning, Great British Railway Hotels, Createspace Publishing [Kindle edition], 2013. 87 Hoskins, op. cit., 229. 97 Mark Girouard, Life in the English Country House (New Haven & London: Yale UP 1978), 273. 88 Jackson, op. cit., 108. 98 Ibid., 292–295. 334 The Evolution of Wallpaper Interior Design Schemes in a Commercial Setting Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jdh/article-abstract/30/3/315/2623687/The-Evolution-of-Wallpaper-Interior-Design-Schemes by Adam Ellsworth, Adam Ellsworth on 24 September 2017 Copyright of Journal of Design History is the property of Oxford University Press / USA and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. Online Journal of Art and Design volume 5, issue 2, April 2017 Influence of Design Styles on User Preferences in Hotel Guestrooms Aysen OZKAN Department of Interior Architecture and Environmental Design, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey aysenoz@hacettepe.edu.tr, aysenoz@gmail.com Kemal YILDIRIM Department of Furniture and Decoration, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey kemaly@gazi.edu.tr Duygu TUNA Department of Instrument Manufacturing, Haydarpaşa Vocational and Technical High School, İstanbul, Turkey ABSTRACT In this study, the impact of the differences between the hotel guestroom design styles and the participants’ gender on the dependent variables including preference, complexity and impressiveness was investigated. In the experiment, 82 Turkish persons rated the nine guestrooms grouped in contemporary, traditional and classical styles on seven-point Semantic Differential Scales for a total of five bipolar adjective pairs. According to the results, linear relationships were found between preference and complexity with preference and impressiveness indicated that preference increases with low complexity (simplicity) in line with high impressiveness. Furthermore, contemporary style guestrooms have had more positive evaluations for all dimensions compared to traditional and classical style guestrooms. In addition, males responded more positively than females. In conclusion, avoiding designs with complex features or those with excessive classical forms and using less ornate, smooth and simple forms or materials may contribute to the more positive perception of guestrooms by guests. Keywords: interior design styles, preference, complexity, impressiveness, guestrooms INTRODUCTION Hotels must pay special attention to maintaining high quality standards in hotel service environments, such as the guestroom, guest bathroom and the exterior that have the greatest impact on financial return (Kimes, 1999). In addition to this, guest satisfaction can be improved by their initial visual comfort. Consequently, guests’ visual perceptions 53 Online Journal of Art and Design volume 5, issue 2, April 2017 of hotel guestrooms are important for pleasantness and satisfaction. With this in mind, this study focused on the perception of hotel guestrooms, which were designed with the same design features, but in different styles. Guestrooms are considered to be a private space for guests in the hotel service environments. However, guestroom design focuses on these basic functions: a sleeping zone that permits viewing television in bed, a working area, a resting area, a bathroom and a storage space for clothes (Pullman & Robson, 2005). Guestrooms have a deep influence on the guests’ relaxing and resting by creating a residential environment to make guests feel at home (Siguaw & Enz, 1999; Rutes, Penner & Adams, 2001; Lin, 2004). Today, the hospitality sector uses design and style as a way of differentiating itself from other hotels and of impressing the socially active hotel guests. In design, hotel services especially take into consideration decoration, ambience and furnishings along with developing all other elements and details to generate a homelike environment for guests (Siguaw & Enz, 1999; Bitner, 1992; Phillips, 2003; Countryman & Jang, 2006; Ryan & Huimin, 2007). Therefore, service providers and designers should pay special attention to the guestroom design from a guest’s perspective for using the right interior design style to create a pleasant environment (Pullman & Robson, 2005; Lin, 2004; Bitner, 1992). Many studies have shown that styles have common components and people are aware of them (Espe, 1981; Groat, 1982; Devlin & Nasar, 1989; Wilson & Canter, 1990). The physical properties of place and the persons’ experience have emerged as the variables of why persons may prefer some styles. At the same time, a contradiction of preference may occur in response to a known (experienced) style (Purcell, 1986). Design, with these variables, may be evaluated by these environmental data and consequently, the choice of formal and symbolic meanings. Meanings are diversified by experience and content. Some studies have shown that symbolic meanings comprised the differences (Nasar & Kang, 1989; Nasar, 1989). Other studies have evaluated according to formal meaning (Herzog, Kaplan & Kaplan, 1982). Lastly, Kempen (2008) found that people can infer meanings from the scene of spaces, and spaces can give meaningful information to persons within the psychological process. Styles in interiors that express the symbolic and formal meanings emerge as a need of a person’s physical and psychological requirements. In every culture and every period, interior design styles show differences with their periodical or personal needs. With these differences, the changes made to interiors by users can be considered as a search for individual appearance, i.e. the need for comfort, identity and personalization. Interior 54 Online Journal of Art and Design volume 5, issue 2, April 2017 elements, such as furniture, personalize the environment and further give a message about who lives there (Cooper, 1974). Several studies have shown that elements used in interior spaces have broad symbolic significance. Especially, furniture defines personal style and social class (Cooper, 1974; Ritterfeld, 2002; Lihra & Graf, 2007; Yoon, Oh & Cho, 2010). The preference of styles on architectural or interior environments has been supported by various studies (Nasar & Kang, 1989; Ritterfeld & Cupchik, 1996; Cupchik, Ritterfeld & Levin, 2003). Despite the importance of interior design styles, little is known about how people make preferences and which design styles they like in hotel guestrooms. The current study focuses on the preferences in complexity and impressiveness that might occur in hotel guestrooms when styles are considered. There are a number of studies on hotel guestroom evaluations, but they support the research that the degree of perceived complexity is an important part of preferences for interiors. However, visual information presented by an environment is referred to by complexity (Berlyne, 1971; Kaplan & Kaplan, 1982; Ham & Guerin, 2004), and interior preferences may be changed by the complexity within the interiors’ elements (Scott, 1993). Complexity occurs depending on the relation of the independent elements to each other, great differences in these elements and how they are used together. The perceived number of elements in an interior, particularly the noticeable differences among them, provides a measure of complexity. Perceived complexity correlates to the value at which usable information is made available to the person, or by the value of change in the noticeable differences (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989; Rapoport, 1990; Akalin, Yildirim, Wilson & Kilicoglu, 2009). Berlyne (1960) identified complexity as a dominant factor influencing a person’s level of arousal with the level of organization within elements. Many studies have investigated whether or not there was a correlation between complexity and preference (pleasantness) (Berlyne, 1974; Wohlwill, 1976; Oostendorp & Berlyne, 1978; Rapoport, 1990; Imamoglu, 2000; Herzog & Shier, 2000; Akalin, Yildirim, Wilson & Kilicoglu, 2009). There seems to be, however, a disagreement on the relationship between complexity and preference. While in some studies, preference increased or decreased in relation to complexity (Kaplan, Kaplan & Wendt, 1972; Wohlwill, 1976; Nasar, 1983; Devlin & Nasar, 1989; Capanoglu, 2014), in others, maximum preference for intermediate degrees of complexity have found, decreasing to unpleasantness at the high and low complexity (Wohlwill, 1968; Berlyne, 1974; Wohlwill, 1975; Imamoglu, 2000; Akalin, Yildirim, Wilson & Kilicoglu, 2009). Apart from these 55 Online Journal of Art and Design volume 5, issue 2, April 2017 studies, there have been few interior service environment evaluations (Lin & Worthley, 2012; Orth & Wirtz, 2014), but perceived complexity may change the interior design style preferences of hotel guestrooms. The current study aims to contribute to the above-mentioned literature by exploring the effect of the level of complexity on guestroom design styles for judgments of preference and complexity. It was expected that preference would be reduced due to an increase in complexity level as the guestroom design style changes (H1). Impressiveness has an identical meaning with individuality of details as defined by Berlyne (1974). However, perceived impressiveness and perceived complexity have a linear relationship one increases and the other decreases as the interior scene changes (Devlin & Nasar, 1989; Capanoglu, 2014). In this study, it was expected in line with the previous studies that impressiveness would be reduced due to an increase in complexity level as the guestroom design style changes (H2). An additional objective of the present study was to examine the role of gender as an important independent variable affecting preference. The concept of gender-role identification has been generally considered to be a major factor in the development of behavioral differences (Putrevu, 2001). According to some studies (Ritterfeld & Cupchik, 1996; Stamps & Nasar, 1997; Imamoglu, 2000; Putrevu, 2001; Yildirim, 2005; Yildirim, Akalin-Baskaya & Hidayetoglu, 2007), males and females perceived the environment differently and male users were usually more positive than female users. It is believed that males and females perceive the hotel guestrooms differently, i.e., male users are usually more positive in evaluating guestrooms than female users (H3). METHOD Participants For this study, two different groups were formed, consisting of experts and laypersons. In the first stage of the study, 10 professors participated from the Hacettepe, Selçuk and Gazi Universities, who are experts on the subject of architecture and furniture history. In the second stage of the study, 82 laypersons between 35-45 years of age participated, of which 43 were females (52.4%) and 39 were males (47.6%). Of these 82 participants, 29 (35.3%) had attended high school and 53 (64.7%) had attended university. Laypersons were randomly selected from among the public group. 56 Online Journal of Art and Design volume 5, issue 2, April 2017 Environmental Setting A total of nine different guestrooms were used at the Bilkent Hotel, which has been serving its guests with a five-star hotel comfort since 1991 in Ankara, Turkey. When grouping the guestrooms into the styles, experts paid attention to physical properties (i.e. form, material, details, function, layout, design idea, accessories, measurements, furniture density, decoration, flat surfaces, sharp corners and bow lines), for every guestroom. In this direction, the experts grouped nine guestrooms according to the most determinant and differential features of their styles as contemporary, traditional and classical. Experts grouped the rooms in a similar manner, with nine guestrooms numbered 1, 2 and 3 as contemporary, refers to as low complexity (combinations of contemporary design features, i.e. using plain and smooth forms, solid wood and plain fabric furniture); with the guestrooms numbered 4, 5, and 6 as traditional, refers to as intermediate complexity (adaptations of eighteenth century design features, i.e. using curved forms, solid wood furniture) and with the guestrooms numbered 7, 8, and 9 as classical, refers to as high complexity (adaptations of antique and classic features, i.e. flamboyant forms, using brass furniture). When grouping the guestrooms the expert group approved the other features i.e. nightstand, lighting, curtain, floor, layout, density as identical when grouping into the styles with complexity levels. In order to not affect the participants’ color preferences, the pictures were shown in black and white. The examples of images of the guestrooms have been shown in Figure 1 and were taken from a similar view angle – from the left front corner of the room. In the hotel service environments, the plan of the typical guestroom has determined the guestroom functions – sleeping, relaxing, working, entertaining, the bathroom and areas for dressing and clothes storage (see Figure 2). The sleeping area was at the center of the guestroom space, the seating and work areas were located near the window and the areas for dressing and clothes storage were grouped next to the entrance. Furnishings included a double bed, two nightstands, a dresser, a TV stand, a seating group, a minibar, a coffee table and accessories. 57 Online Journal of Art and Design O D v volume 5, issu ue 2, April 2017 Picture 1 Picture 4 Picture 7 Picture 2 Picture 5 Picture 8 Picture 3 Picture 6 Picture 9 Contem mporary style guestrooms g Traditioonal style gueestrooms Classicaal style guestrrooms Fig gure 1: Exe ecutive gue estrooms att the five-star Bilkent Hotel in An nkara, Turk key e 2: A stan ndard plan drawing d of the five-sta ar Bilkent Hotel H execu utive guestrrooms Figure 58 Online Journal of Art and Design volume 5, issue 2, April 2017 Questionnaire Design and Procedure In this study, two different questionnaires were used in the form of an expert questionnaire for the expert group, and a layperson questionnaire for the public group. The expert questionnaire was prepared by utilizing the data used in previous studies (Akalin, Yildirim, Wilson & Kilicoglu, 2009; Akalin, Yildirim, Wilson & Saylan, 2010; Erdogan, Akalin, Yildirim & Erdogan, 2010). The expert questionnaire form consisted of two parts: the first part asked for general information about the participants’ age and gender; the second part consisted of the physical features for their classification of the guestrooms’ design styles. The expert group questionnaire form was based on grouping judgments of 10 experts as styles of the panoramic virtual images of the nine executive guestrooms and commensally from the black and white photographs of the A4-sized printouts. The layperson questionnaire form consisted of two parts: the first part asked for general information about the participants (e.g., education, gender); the second part consisted of seven-point semantic differential scales about their perception of the guestroom design styles. The participants had to evaluate the importance of each of the bipolar adjective pairs on a 1-7 semantic differential scale where 1 = beautiful and 7 = ugly. The participants evaluated a total of five bipolar adjective pairs after familiarizing themselves with the items, three of which dealt with preference and the other two with complexity and impressiveness. Related bipolar adjective pairs were designated for each category; for preference: beautiful – ugly, pleasant – unpleasant, attractive – unattractive; for complexity: simple – complex, and for impressiveness: impressive – unimpressive. The technique of altering the sets of items from positive to negative, as previously done by Akalin et al. (2009), Berlyne (1974), Imamoglu (2000), Capanoglu (2014), Yildirim (2005), Yildirim et al. (2007), Akalin et al. (2010), Imamoglu (1979), Mattila and Wirtz (2001), Brennan et al. (2002), Kaya and Weber (2003), Leather et al. (2003), Lee and Brand (2005), Baskaya et al. (2006), Akalin-Baskaya and Yildirim (2007), and Yildirim et al. (2007) was adopted to reduce the probability of participants simply marking the scale on either of the extremes. A participant evaluation was carried out for determining the preference for complexity and impressiveness for each guestroom. After collecting general information about the participants, the 360° black and white panoramic views of the nine guestrooms were presented one-by-one in a mixed order to the participants on a notebook computer from the hotel website and they were asked to rate each with the five bipolar adjective pairs as grouped in three groups of scale items (preference, complexity and impressiveness). 59 Online Journal of Art and Design volume 5, issue 2, April 2017 The study was conducted at different times of the day. It took subjects approximately twenty minutes to complete each of the questionnaires. The data obtained from this part were referred to as the rating data. Data Analysis As a result of this study, the categorical means of the data have been defined with their standard deviations and the reliability of the semantic differential items was tested using the Cronbach’s alpha test. To examine the effect of differences, the appropriate techniques of the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) were used. Tukey's honestly significant difference (HSD) test has been used for the differences among the dependent variables belonging to the variance sources, which were found to be significant in the analysis. In addition, the Pearson’s correlation test was used to determine the relationship between the dependent variables. The data were given in graphs to compare the significant means of the variance in the analysis. RESULTS The reliability of the semantic differential items, including the participants’ perceptual evaluation of the guestroom design styles, was tested using the Cronbach’s alpha test and has been given in Table 1. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient estimates of internal consistency for the scale, including the average scores for the five bipolar adjective pairs grouped together in Table 1, were 0.90. The coefficient of the scale was above 0.70, which is a threshold for good reliability according to some researchers (Bagozzi &Yi, 1988; Bosma et al., 1997; Grewal, Krishnan, Baker & Borin, 1998). The scale may therefore be considered reliable. Table 1: Results of the reliability analysis for the dependent variables Dependent Variables Preference Complexity Impressiveness Scale Items Items’ Reliability Scale Reliability 0.87 0.88 0.86 0.90 0.88 0.90 beautiful – ugly pleasant – unpleasant attractive – unattractive simple – complex impressive– unimpressive Note: The scales’ reliability is given for each dependent variable. In this part, the statistical differences among the participants’ evaluations of the guestroom design styles (contemporary, traditional and classical) for the dependent variables were analyzed. The results have been given in Table 2 as the mean, standard deviation and homogeneous group for the three groups of scale items (preference, 60 Online Journal of Art and Design volume 5, issue 2, April 2017 complexity and impressiveness). Tukey’s HSD test was used for comparing the average values belonging to the differences among the guestroom design styles and for the differences among the dependent variables belonging to the variance sources. Therefore, Table 2 has indicated that perceptions of the guestroom design styles for the preference and impressiveness variables were statistically significant and the ordering of the design styles from the most positive to the most negative value have been given as follows: Contemporary > Traditional > Classical. Likewise, the evaluations of the participants including their perceptions of complexity for the design styles of the guestrooms were listed from simple to complex as follows: Contemporary (low complexity) > Traditional (intermediate complexity) > Classical (high complexity). Table 2:Means, SD and HG of the dependent variables for the guestroom design styles Guestroom Design Styles Dependent Variables Preference Complexity Impressiveness Contemporary M SD HG 3.22a 1.50 A 3.06 1.59 A 3.73 1.63 A M 3.60 3.17 4.27 Traditional SD HG 1.37 B 1.58 AB 1.50 B Classical SD 1.49 1.78 1.65 M 3.88 3.47 4.39 HG B B B Notes: M: Mean, SD: standard deviation, HG: homogeneous group a Variable means ranged from 1 to 7, with higher numbers representing more negative responses. The differences among the dependent variables for the guestroom design styles (contemporary, traditional and classical) were tested with the ANOVA (see Table 3). According to these results, the differences among the dependent variables including preference, complexity and impressiveness were found to be statistically significant (at a level of p
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