Module 5 Organic Chemistry

User Generated

unnyn7

Science

Description

Hello, i have homework, So can you help me? I need slides shorty

Day 35: Carbon & Hydrogen Compounds (Introduction, Functional Groups, Alkyl Groups, Saturated Hydrocarbons);

Day 36: CH Multiple Bonds (Unsaturated Hydrocarbons, Polymers, Aromatic Hydrocarbons, Ring Substitution);

Day 37: Compounds with a Single Oxygen (Alcohols, Ethers, Aldehydes, Ketones);

Day 38: Two Oxygen & Nitrogen compounds (Carboxylic Acids, Esters, Amines, Amides);

Day 39: Biochemistry (Carbohydrates, Fats, Proteins, DNA); 

Day 40: Spotting Functional Groups (Drugs, ID Functional Groups, Classifying Compounds, Classifying Properties);

Unformatted Attachment Preview

37 Alcohols • Alcohols are organic compounds containing the hydroxyl group, —OH, attached to an alkyl group. • General formula is R—OH • Their IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) names end in “-ol.” • The most simple alcohol is methanol • Also called methyl alcohol or wood alcohol. (poisonous) Alcohols • Another common alcohol is ethanol. (CH3CH2OH) Also known as ethyl alcohol or grain alcohol • Least toxic and most important of the alcohols Ethanol is used in alcoholic beverages, perfumes, dyes, and varnishes. • • 37 Other Alcohol Examples •• Rubbing alcohol isopropyl alcohol (2-hydroxypropane) • 37 Ethylene glycol is an alcohol used widely as an antifreeze and coolant. Naming Alkoxy Groups Alkyl Group Name Alkoxy Group Name CH3– CH CH – 3 2 (CH3)2CH– (CH3)3C– C6H5– Methyl Ethyl Isopropyl tert-Butyl Phenyl CH3O– CH3CH2O– (CH3)2CHO– (CH3)3CO– C6H5O– Methoxy Ethoxy Isopropoxy tert-Butoxy Phenoxy Naming Ethers Ethers are compounds having two alkyl or aryl groups bonded to an oxygen atom, as in the formula R1–O–R2. The smaller, shorter alkyl group becomes the alkoxy substituent. The larger, longer alkyl group side becomes the alkane base name. Each alkyl group on each side of the oxygen is numbered separately. The numbering priority is given to the carbon closest to the oxygen. The alkoxy side (shorter side) has an "- oxy" ending with its corresponding alkyl group. 37 1. Aldehydes take their name from their parent alkane chains. The -e is removed from the end and is replaced with -al. 2. The aldehyde functional group is given the #1 numbering location and this number is not included in the name. 3. For the common name of aldehydes start with the common parent chain name and add the suffix -aldehyde. Substituent positions are shown with Greek letters. 4. When the -CHO functional group is attached to a ring the suffix -carbaldehyde is added, and the carbon attached to that group is C1. 1. Ketones take their name from their parent alkane chains. The ending -e is removed and replaced with -one. 2. The common name for ketones are simply the substituent groups listed alphabetically + ketone. 3. Some common ketones are known by their generic names. Such as the fact that propanone is commonly referred to as acetone. http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/?title=Organic_Chemistry/Aldehydes_and_Ketones/ Nome nclature_of_Aldehydes_%26_Ketones Carboxylic Acids • • Carboxylic acids contain the carboxyl group (–COOH) They have the general formula RCOOH. 37 Carboxylic Acids • Formic acid is the simplest carboxylic acid. (This is the substance that causes the painful sting of insect bites). • Vinegar is a 5% solution of acetic acid. 37 Esters • Ester – a compound that has the following general formula RCOOR’ • In the general formula for an ester the R and R’ can be any alkyl group. • Although R and R’ can be identical, they are usually different. • Contrary to amines, most esters have pleasant odors. •Many flowers and ripe fruits have fragrances and tastes due to one or more esters. • Formation of an Ester Ester formation – the reaction of a carboxylic acid and an alcohol give an ester and water Heat is required and sulfuric acid is a catalyst. Note, in this reaction that the –OH from the carboxylic acid unites with the H from the alcohol to form H2O. The remaining two fragments bond together to form the ester. 37 •• Ester-Methyl Salicylate • Natural flavors and odors are generally complex mixtures of esters and other constituents Ester-Acetylsalicylic Acid (ASPIRIN) 37 Not Ester-Tylenol para-acetylaminophenol Amines • • Organic compounds that contain nitrogen and are basic (alkaline) are called amines. General formula for an amine is R—NH2. 37 • One or two additional alkyl groups could be attached to the N atom, in place of H atoms. • Examples are methylamine, dimethylamine, and trimethylamine. Amines – Strong Odors • Most simple amines have strong odors. • The odor given off by raw fish is due to an amine that it contains. • Two particularly foul smelling amines are formed by decaying flesh. • • Cadaverine (1,5-diaminopentane) Putresine (1,4-diaminobutane) Amines - Medicinal 37 • Many amines have medicinal applications. • Amphetamines raise the glucose level in the blood resulting in less fatigue and hunger. • • But can be addictive and lead to insomnia, excessive weight loss, and paranoia. Benzedrine is one type of amphetamine. Amides • Amides are nitrogen-containing organic compounds with the general formula RCONHR’. Amide Formation Amide formation is similar to ester formation. A carboxylic acid reacts with an amine to form water and an amide, as shown below. 37 Days 35 & 36 - Organic Chemistry CLASSIFICATION OF HYDROCARBONS The term HYDROCARBONS means organic compounds which contain only carbon and hydrogen. By using this definition, four classes of hydrocarbons are included: alkanes, alkenes, alkynes and aromatic. Alkanes SATURATED means that each carbon is bonded to four other atoms through single covalent bonds. Hydrogen atoms usually occupy all available bonding positions after the carbons have bonded to each other. Alkenes UNSATURATED hydrocarbons contain either double or triple bonds. Since the compound is unsaturated with respect to hydrogen atoms, the extra electrons are shared between 2 carbon atoms forming double or triple bonds. Alkenes are also PARAFFINS which is derived from a Latin called OLEFINS becaus word meaning "little activity", and means e they form oily liquids that the compounds are very unreactive. on reaction with chlorine gas. AROMATIC COMPOUNDS Alkynes Alkynes are also generally known as ACETYLENES fro m the first compound in the series. Aromatic compounds derive their names from the fact that many of these compounds in the early days of discovery were grouped because they were oils with fragrant odors, hence the name aromatic. The current definition of aromatic compounds includes only those with a benzene ring, which is a special six carbon ring compound with three alternating double bonds. This structure imparts unique properties to benzene which are different from other ring compounds. In prehistoric times, people tried to explain why different chemicals made them feel differently. The word αἰθήρ (aithēr) in Homeric Greek means "pure, fresh air" or "clear sky", imagined in Greek mythology to be the pure essence where the gods lived and which they breathed, analogous to the air breathed by mortals (also personified as a deity, Aether, the son of Erebus and Nyx). It is related to αἴθω "to incinerate." In Aristotle's system aether had no qualities (was neither hot, cold, wet, nor dry), was incapable of change (with the exception of change of place), and by its nature moved in circles, and had no contrary, or unnatural, motion. Medieval scholastic philosophers granted aether changes of density, in which the bodies of the planets were considered to be denser than the medium which filled the rest of the universe. The presence of dark matter in the universe is a recent theory that is based on the rotational velocities of the stars in galaxies, all of which appear to be moving at or near the same speed. It is thought that dark matter may simply be the "Luminiferous Aether Theory" that was first proposed by Newton in 1704. The Greeks called the planet Venus by the name Phosphorus because it was visible before the sunrise and after the sunset. In the evening though, it was referred to as Hesperus. The movements of the planets were thought to be governed by dark energy and matter somehow. The discovery of phosphorus, followed soon after the discovery of the induced phosphorescence of certain calcium salts. It had an enormous effect on contemporary chemists. Now, it is associated with the energetic of the atom. Organic phosphorescent materials were known to Aristotle, and new varieties of luminescent stones offered new yarns. Today, ether is just an alkoxyalkane. Alchemist Raymundus Lullus is credited with discovering the compound ether in 1275 AD, although there is no contemporary evidence of this. It was first synthesized in 1540 by Valerius Cordus, who called it "oil of sweet vitriol" (oleum dulcis vitrioli)—the name was because it was originally discovered by distilling a mixture of ethanol and sulfuric acid (then known as oil of vitriol, Abu Mūsā Jābir ibn Hayyān)—and noted some of its medicinal properties; at about the same time, Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, better known as Paracelsus, discovered ether's analgesic properties. The name ether (Spiritus Vini Æthereus) was given to the substance in 1730 by August Siegmund Frobenius (. . following a method of Isaac Newton. His first article about ether was published 1730 in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society under the title An Account of a Spiritus Vini Æthereus, Together with Several Experiments Tried). Sir Isaac Newton in 1679 at 37 years old wrote concerning the cosmic ether of space to Robert Boyle, a fellow scientist about 15 years older than Newton at the time. The letter clearly shows the young Newton had a firm belief and working grasp of the ether of space as a thing of substance and "ponderability," something which participated in the movement and ordering of the planets and universe, as a working force in optics, chemistry and gravitation. In this, Newton was continuing the conceptual ideas of Galileo. Later in life, Newton would drop ideas such as a ponderable and moving cosmic ether in favor of more abstract concepts, such as the divine "prime mover" or deified "absolute space," which was foundational for most later astrophysical investigations into the nature of the cosmos. Jean Hellot (1685-1766) is considered one of the founders of the chemical, metallurgical, and textile industry in France and Europe. Although he published little, his impact was significant in the chemical revolution that took place in the nineteenth century. Hellot investigated zinc and its compounds, the precious metals, the preparation of phosphorus and ethyl ether, the manufacture of porcelain and invisible inks, and the mechanism of dyeing. An important discovery was the photo sensibility of paper impregnated with silver nitrate. He made careful observations of chemical reaction too, “. . . Phosphorus dissolves in essential oils, yielding what is known as liquid phosphorus. It also dissolves in the ethereal liquid of Frobenius, which is also a kind of essential wine oil. Both solutions become luminous and are made to crystallize.” He took his first steps in chemistry through his friendship with Etienne-François Geoffroy (1672-1731), the inventor of the tables of affinities, and who in 1729 married one of Hellot’s nieces. As far as ether goes, it had attracted the attention of Daniel Newton, who around 1730 had published a procedure for its preparation. According to Hellot, ether, the most volatile and most inflammable of all known liquids, was known through the efforts of Duhamel and Grosse, who in 1734 published its composition and the procedure for manufacturing it. The ethereal liquor was obtained by heating gently a mixture of one part of white concentrated sulfuric acid and two parts of rectified wine sprit. After a few hours the mixture became red, even when using the best wine sprit. The retort was then heated in a sand bath and the different distillate fractions collected. Hellot examined all the fractions besides that of ether, which had been the sole objective of Duhamel and Grosse’s memoir. The first fraction was a flammable acid liquid, which Johann Heinrich Pott (1692-1777) had named acide vitriolique vineux, and proved to be only slightly related to ether. Other German scientists had named it spiritusnaphthæ, because it caught fire immediately when coming close to a lit candle. Hellot proposed naming it sprit acide vineux, to distinguish it from the ether or Frobenius’ liquor other fraction, which was even more volatile and more flammable. The taste for natural philosophy which Robert Boyle displayed throughout his life was acquired during his residence abroad under the care of his mentor Monsieur Isaac Marcombes. Robert Hooke (1635 – 1703) was one of his operators, and he helped to compliment his abilities in the mathematical sciences. Hooke eventually became Gresham Professor of Geometry. Gunther suggests that Hooke probably made the observations, and he may well have developed the mathematics of Boyle's Law. Regardless, it is clear that Hooke was a valued assistant to Boyle and the two retained a mutual high regard. Ambrose Godfrey Hanckwitz was born in Nienburg in Saxony. He was another operator of Boyle. In 1679 aged 19 he and his wife travelled to London where he was to work as an assistant to Robert Boyle, trying to produce phosphorus. Boyle is remembered as the first chemist, but his earliest interests were in alchemy, and he wanted to learn about the then new phosphorus. Boyle had employed German alchemist Johann Becher who was in London looking for work. Becher recommended Ambrose Godfrey as an assistant. Boyle knew from hints given by Daniel Kraft (when he had demonstrated phosphorus) that it was made from human urine or maybe faeces, but neither Boyle's first employee Bilger nor then Becher and Godfrey were able to make it. But Becher knew that its first discoverer Hennig Brandt had the secret. Godfrey was sent to Hamburg to see Brandt and came back with the missing key: that very high temperatures were needed. On his return Godfrey tried a new batch of urine. He used so much heat that it cracked the retort, but Boyle saw the residue in the broken container glowed faintly, so they were on the right track. Godfrey's job became making phosphorus for Boyle, and he acquired skill at it. His procedure was the same as Brandt's, namely to boil human urine down to a residue, then heat that strongly to give off phosphorus gas which would condense. Godfrey produced two forms, solid phosphorus (the white phosphorus allotrope), or a mix with oil of urine where it remains liquid at room temperature. Godfrey was not always careful handling phosphorus, his fingers were often blistered and slow to heal from touching the solid. On one occasion on his way to see Boyle a phial of phosphorus broke and burned holes in his breeches, which Boyle "could not look upon without some wonder as well as smiles.” Polymers were interesting. At first, people thought of empirical formula. The empirical formula for glucose is CH2O but this is not a monomer. Still, there are six units. The plastic bottles and containers that are used for packaging food should all be labeled with a recycle code. This is a number (between 1 and 7) that is surrounded by a small graphic of three arrows pointing at one another in a triangle. The following plastics have no known health hazards: Code 1: Polyethylene Terephthalate, or PET / PETE Code 2: High Density Polyethylene, or HDPE Code 4: Low Density Polyethylene, or LDPE Code 5: Polypropylene, or PP The following plastics do have known potential health hazards: Code 3: Polyvinyl Chloride, or PVC / Vinyl. This material, used often in flooring and shower curtains, as well as household water pipes (primarily for evacuation only - they should never be used to bring fresh water into the home), used to be used in cling wraps. The plastics industry is adamant that the type of PVC currently used in cling wraps does not contain the phthalates that are known endocrine disrupters. However, these phthalates may still be present in PVC bottles and toys. There was recent information that many baby teethers were also made from PVC, due to its soft flexibility. PVC or vinyl items should never be given to a baby or child who may put them in his or her mouth. Code 6: Polystyrene, or PS / Styrofoam. As well as being another endocrine disrupter, styrene is also believed to be a carcinogen. This plastic is used to make some types of disposable forks, spoons and knives and also the "foam" cups such as those sold under the name Styrofoam. Hot liquid can cause the styrene to leach out of these products, as can fatty oils or alcohol. Code 7: Other "resins" and Polycarbonate, or PC. This one has been hotly contested by the plastics industry because of the high heat required for the endocrine disruptor, Bisphenol - A (BPA), to be released. However, BPA is a primary component of PC plastics and is a verifiably dangerous compound. PC is largely used for water bottles of the type used for delivery services (multi-galon containers) that fit on the "water cooler" at home or office. Many clear baby bottles are made of PC and there is much in the news about the controversy of these bottles not being labled with any code so that consumers cannot tell what type of plastic is used. With baby bottles, this is a real concern, as many people boil the bottles with formula or milk inside them. PC is also used in food cans with a plastic lining. Whenever possible, it is recommended that these plastics not be exposed to high temperatures. The plastics industry insists that they are completely stable under most conditions but some studies suggest that leaching still occurs. Polyethylene can be produced through radical polymerization, anionic addition polymerization, ion coordination polymerization or cationic addition polymerization: How the reaction gets started (INITIATION) How the reaction keeps going (PROPAGATION) How the reaction stops (TERMINATION) Condensation Polymer: Cotton and nylon are both made up of giant polymer molecules. Polymer molecules are often long chains of atoms linked in repeating patterns. There are a lot of atoms bonded to one another in these molecules, giving a lot of places where sticky water molecules can find a place to bond. Cotton is pure cellulose, a naturally occurring polymer. Cellulose is a carbohydrate, and the molecule is a long chain of glucose (sugar) molecules. If you look at the structure of a cellulose molecule you can see the OH groups that are on the outer edge. These negatively charged groups attract water molecules and make cellulose and cotton absorb water well. Cotton can absorb about 25 times its weight in water. Chemists refer to substances like cotton as hydrophilic, which means that they attract water molecules. Nylon is a synthetic material, meaning that chemists create the polymer molecules that make up nylon. More than 100 repeating units of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen atoms make up the long chain nylon molecule. The strength of the long nylon molecule made it a great replacement for silk, which had a similar feel and texture. The nylon molecule, too, has a great number of places where it can form bonds with water molecules, but not as many places as the cotton molecule. Nylon absorbs water, but not nearly as much as cotton. It only absorbs about 10 percent of its weight in water. The Rubber people of ancient Mesoamerica were called the Olmec. They extracted latex from a rubber tree called Castilla elastica. Latex is the sap from the rubber tree that has matured for at least six years. To obtain the sap, the collector makes a thin, diagonal cut to remove a sliver of bark. The milky-white latex fluid runs out of the bark, much as blood would run out of a small superficial wound on your skin. The fluid runs down the cut and is collected in a bucket. After about six hours, the fluid stops flowing. In that six-hour period, a tree can usually fill a gallon bucket. The tree can be tapped again with another fresh cut, usually the next day. Natural rubber or caoutchouc, as initially produced, is a polymer made up of an organic monomer called isoprene with other organic compounds and water. Rubber is normally stretchy, but it gets very soft and sticky when hot and it gets hard and brittle when cold. The Mesoamericans would dry the collected rubber latex to make balls for games and other things like booties. To make a rubber bootie, the individual would dip each foot in the latex and allow it to dry. After several dips and dryings, the bootie could be peeled from the foot. The product was then hardened in smoke. A similar process was used to waterproof fabrics. Columbus brought back rubber balls after his second voyage to the New World, and in the early 1700s, rubber samples, seeds, and trees were brought back to Europe and later to rubber plantations in other tropical climates during the era of European colonialism. Joseph Priestley used it to erase mistakes made with lead pencils. In the 1800’s, sulphur was used in a hardening process called vulcanization. A process named after the Roman god of fire. Hevea braziliensis is the best rubber-producing tree. It is found in Brazil. Hevea guyanensis is found in French Guyana. Castilla elastica is found in Mexico and Panama. Landolphia owariensis is found in the Congo basin. Funtumia elastic grows in West Africa, and Ficus elastic is found in Java and Malaysia. Currently, most natural rubber comes from Latin American derived trees transplanted to Southeast Asia in Thailand, Indonesia, and Malaysia as well as India, Sri Lanka and Africa. The trees in North America had a different sap. This type of sap typically runs out of maple trees on days when the temperature is around 40 degrees following a night when the mercury dropped below freezing. As the pressure drops during the day, the sap flow slows down and stops. Negative pressure is then found within the tree, and it begins to absorb water through the root system. The next day, as the tree warms up, positive pressure is restored and the pumping action yields another flow. The process continues for about 6 weeks in early spring. At the end of that time the sap takes on a cloudy appearance and the sugar content drops off dramatically. The Ojibwa Native Americans called this the "sugaring off" period of the "maple moon" during the "sugar month." This became the celebration of the first moon of spring with a Maple Dance. Sometimes the syrup is dark and rich, sometimes pale gold and delicate. It all depends on the soil and terrain, the wind and the weather, a real challenge for agronomists to understand. It takes about 40 gallons of sap to make one gallon of maple syrup because the sap is about 98% water. When making the sweet syrup, the water is boiled off over a wood fire or with the use of special evaporators. If heating the sap continues, it will crystallize. Many of the tapped trees can be used for over 100 years old. During the height of the sugaring season, sap contains about between 2% and 5% sugar; towards the end of the season less than 1%. During the maple harvest, the tree will give up about 7% of its sap; tests confirm this does not harm the tree. 37-38 Alcohols • Alcohols are organic compounds containing the hydroxyl group, —OH, attached to an alkyl group. • General formula is R—OH • Their IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) names end in “-ol.” • The most simple alcohol is methanol • Also called methyl alcohol or wood alcohol. (poisonous) Alcohols • Another common alcohol is ethanol. (CH3CH2OH) Also known as ethyl alcohol or grain alcohol • Least toxic and most important of the alcohols Ethanol is used in alcoholic beverages, perfumes, dyes, and varnishes. • • 37-38 Other Alcohol Examples •• Rubbing alcohol isopropyl alcohol (2-hydroxypropane) • 37-38 Ethylene glycol is an alcohol used widely as an antifreeze and coolant. Naming Alkoxy Groups Alkyl Group Name Alkoxy Group Name CH3– CH CH – 3 2 (CH3)2CH– (CH3)3C– C6H5– Methyl Ethyl Isopropyl tert-Butyl Phenyl CH3O– CH3CH2O– (CH3)2CHO– (CH3)3CO– C6H5O– Methoxy Ethoxy Isopropoxy tert-Butoxy Phenoxy Naming Ethers Ethers are compounds having two alkyl or aryl groups bonded to an oxygen atom, as in the formula R1–O–R2. The smaller, shorter alkyl group becomes the alkoxy substituent. The larger, longer alkyl group side becomes the alkane base name. Each alkyl group on each side of the oxygen is numbered separately. The numbering priority is given to the carbon closest to the oxygen. The alkoxy side (shorter side) has an "- oxy" ending with its corresponding alkyl group. 37-38 1. Aldehydes take their name from their parent alkane chains. The -e is removed from the end and is replaced with -al. 2. The aldehyde functional group is given the #1 numbering location and this number is not included in the name. 3. For the common name of aldehydes start with the common parent chain name and add the suffix -aldehyde. Substituent positions are shown with Greek letters. 4. When the -CHO functional group is attached to a ring the suffix -carbaldehyde is added, and the carbon attached to that group is C1. 1. Ketones take their name from their parent alkane chains. The ending -e is removed and replaced with -one. 2. The common name for ketones are simply the substituent groups listed alphabetically + ketone. 3. Some common ketones are known by their generic names. Such as the fact that propanone is commonly referred to as acetone. http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/?title=Organic_Chemistry/Aldehydes_and_Ketones/ Nome nclature_of_Aldehydes_%26_Ketones Carboxylic Acids • • Carboxylic acids contain the carboxyl group (–COOH) They have the general formula RCOOH. 37-38 Carboxylic Acids • Formic acid is the simplest carboxylic acid. (This is the substance that causes the painful sting of insect bites). • Vinegar is a 5% solution of acetic acid. 37-38 Esters • Ester – a compound that has the following general formula RCOOR’ • In the general formula for an ester the R and R’ can be any alkyl group. • Although R and R’ can be identical, they are usually different. • Contrary to amines, most esters have pleasant odors. •Many flowers and ripe fruits have fragrances and tastes due to one or more esters. • Formation of an Ester Ester formation – the reaction of a carboxylic acid and an alcohol give an ester and water Heat is required and sulfuric acid is a catalyst. Note, in this reaction that the –OH from the carboxylic acid unites with the H from the alcohol to form H2O. The remaining two fragments bond together to form the ester. 37-38 •• Ester-Methyl Salicylate • Natural flavors and odors are generally complex mixtures of esters and other constituents Ester-Acetylsalicylic Acid (ASPIRIN) 37-38 Not Ester-Tylenol para-acetylaminophenol Amines • • Organic compounds that contain nitrogen and are basic (alkaline) are called amines. General formula for an amine is R—NH2. 37-38 • One or two additional alkyl groups could be attached to the N atom, in place of H atoms. • Examples are methylamine, dimethylamine, and trimethylamine. Amines – Strong Odors • Most simple amines have strong odors. • The odor given off by raw fish is due to an amine that it contains. • Two particularly foul smelling amines are formed by decaying flesh. • • Cadaverine (1,5-diaminopentane) Putresine (1,4-diaminobutane) Amines - Medicinal 37-38 • Many amines have medicinal applications. • Amphetamines raise the glucose level in the blood resulting in less fatigue and hunger. • • But can be addictive and lead to insomnia, excessive weight loss, and paranoia. Benzedrine is one type of amphetamine. Amides • Amides are nitrogen-containing organic compounds with the general formula RCONHR’. Amide Formation Amide formation is similar to ester formation. A carboxylic acid reacts with an amine to form water and an amide, as shown below. 37-38 Days 35 & 36 - Organic Chemistry CLASSIFICATION OF HYDROCARBONS The term HYDROCARBONS means organic compounds which contain only carbon and hydrogen. By using this definition, four classes of hydrocarbons are included: alkanes, alkenes, alkynes and aromatic. Alkanes SATURATED means that each carbon is bonded to four other atoms through single covalent bonds. Hydrogen atoms usually occupy all available bonding positions after the carbons have bonded to each other. Alkenes UNSATURATED hydrocarbons contain either double or triple bonds. Since the compound is unsaturated with respect to hydrogen atoms, the extra electrons are shared between 2 carbon atoms forming double or triple bonds. Alkenes are also PARAFFINS which is derived from a Latin called OLEFINS becaus word meaning "little activity", and means e they form oily liquids that the compounds are very unreactive. on reaction with chlorine gas. AROMATIC COMPOUNDS Alkynes Alkynes are also generally known as ACETYLENES fro m the first compound in the series. Aromatic compounds derive their names from the fact that many of these compounds in the early days of discovery were grouped because they were oils with fragrant odors, hence the name aromatic. The current definition of aromatic compounds includes only those with a benzene ring, which is a special six carbon ring compound with three alternating double bonds. This structure imparts unique properties to benzene which are different from other ring compounds. In prehistoric times, people tried to explain why different chemicals made them feel differently. The word αἰθήρ (aithēr) in Homeric Greek means "pure, fresh air" or "clear sky", imagined in Greek mythology to be the pure essence where the gods lived and which they breathed, analogous to the air breathed by mortals (also personified as a deity, Aether, the son of Erebus and Nyx). It is related to αἴθω "to incinerate." In Aristotle's system aether had no qualities (was neither hot, cold, wet, nor dry), was incapable of change (with the exception of change of place), and by its nature moved in circles, and had no contrary, or unnatural, motion. Medieval scholastic philosophers granted aether changes of density, in which the bodies of the planets were considered to be denser than the medium which filled the rest of the universe. The presence of dark matter in the universe is a recent theory that is based on the rotational velocities of the stars in galaxies, all of which appear to be moving at or near the same speed. It is thought that dark matter may simply be the "Luminiferous Aether Theory" that was first proposed by Newton in 1704. The Greeks called the planet Venus by the name Phosphorus because it was visible before the sunrise and after the sunset. In the evening though, it was referred to as Hesperus. The movements of the planets were thought to be governed by dark energy and matter somehow. The discovery of phosphorus, followed soon after the discovery of the induced phosphorescence of certain calcium salts. It had an enormous effect on contemporary chemists. Now, it is associated with the energetic of the atom. Organic phosphorescent materials were known to Aristotle, and new varieties of luminescent stones offered new yarns. Today, ether is just an alkoxyalkane. Alchemist Raymundus Lullus is credited with discovering the compound ether in 1275 AD, although there is no contemporary evidence of this. It was first synthesized in 1540 by Valerius Cordus, who called it "oil of sweet vitriol" (oleum dulcis vitrioli)—the name was because it was originally discovered by distilling a mixture of ethanol and sulfuric acid (then known as oil of vitriol, Abu Mūsā Jābir ibn Hayyān)—and noted some of its medicinal properties; at about the same time, Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, better known as Paracelsus, discovered ether's analgesic properties. The name ether (Spiritus Vini Æthereus) was given to the substance in 1730 by August Siegmund Frobenius (. . following a method of Isaac Newton. His first article about ether was published 1730 in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society under the title An Account of a Spiritus Vini Æthereus, Together with Several Experiments Tried). Sir Isaac Newton in 1679 at 37 years old wrote concerning the cosmic ether of space to Robert Boyle, a fellow scientist about 15 years older than Newton at the time. The letter clearly shows the young Newton had a firm belief and working grasp of the ether of space as a thing of substance and "ponderability," something which participated in the movement and ordering of the planets and universe, as a working force in optics, chemistry and gravitation. In this, Newton was continuing the conceptual ideas of Galileo. Later in life, Newton would drop ideas such as a ponderable and moving cosmic ether in favor of more abstract concepts, such as the divine "prime mover" or deified "absolute space," which was foundational for most later astrophysical investigations into the nature of the cosmos. Jean Hellot (1685-1766) is considered one of the founders of the chemical, metallurgical, and textile industry in France and Europe. Although he published little, his impact was significant in the chemical revolution that took place in the nineteenth century. Hellot investigated zinc and its compounds, the precious metals, the preparation of phosphorus and ethyl ether, the manufacture of porcelain and invisible inks, and the mechanism of dyeing. An important discovery was the photo sensibility of paper impregnated with silver nitrate. He made careful observations of chemical reaction too, “. . . Phosphorus dissolves in essential oils, yielding what is known as liquid phosphorus. It also dissolves in the ethereal liquid of Frobenius, which is also a kind of essential wine oil. Both solutions become luminous and are made to crystallize.” He took his first steps in chemistry through his friendship with Etienne-François Geoffroy (1672-1731), the inventor of the tables of affinities, and who in 1729 married one of Hellot’s nieces. As far as ether goes, it had attracted the attention of Daniel Newton, who around 1730 had published a procedure for its preparation. According to Hellot, ether, the most volatile and most inflammable of all known liquids, was known through the efforts of Duhamel and Grosse, who in 1734 published its composition and the procedure for manufacturing it. The ethereal liquor was obtained by heating gently a mixture of one part of white concentrated sulfuric acid and two parts of rectified wine sprit. After a few hours the mixture became red, even when using the best wine sprit. The retort was then heated in a sand bath and the different distillate fractions collected. Hellot examined all the fractions besides that of ether, which had been the sole objective of Duhamel and Grosse’s memoir. The first fraction was a flammable acid liquid, which Johann Heinrich Pott (1692-1777) had named acide vitriolique vineux, and proved to be only slightly related to ether. Other German scientists had named it spiritusnaphthæ, because it caught fire immediately when coming close to a lit candle. Hellot proposed naming it sprit acide vineux, to distinguish it from the ether or Frobenius’ liquor other fraction, which was even more volatile and more flammable. The taste for natural philosophy which Robert Boyle displayed throughout his life was acquired during his residence abroad under the care of his mentor Monsieur Isaac Marcombes. Robert Hooke (1635 – 1703) was one of his operators, and he helped to compliment his abilities in the mathematical sciences. Hooke eventually became Gresham Professor of Geometry. Gunther suggests that Hooke probably made the observations, and he may well have developed the mathematics of Boyle's Law. Regardless, it is clear that Hooke was a valued assistant to Boyle and the two retained a mutual high regard. Ambrose Godfrey Hanckwitz was born in Nienburg in Saxony. He was another operator of Boyle. In 1679 aged 19 he and his wife travelled to London where he was to work as an assistant to Robert Boyle, trying to produce phosphorus. Boyle is remembered as the first chemist, but his earliest interests were in alchemy, and he wanted to learn about the then new phosphorus. Boyle had employed German alchemist Johann Becher who was in London looking for work. Becher recommended Ambrose Godfrey as an assistant. Boyle knew from hints given by Daniel Kraft (when he had demonstrated phosphorus) that it was made from human urine or maybe faeces, but neither Boyle's first employee Bilger nor then Becher and Godfrey were able to make it. But Becher knew that its first discoverer Hennig Brandt had the secret. Godfrey was sent to Hamburg to see Brandt and came back with the missing key: that very high temperatures were needed. On his return Godfrey tried a new batch of urine. He used so much heat that it cracked the retort, but Boyle saw the residue in the broken container glowed faintly, so they were on the right track. Godfrey's job became making phosphorus for Boyle, and he acquired skill at it. His procedure was the same as Brandt's, namely to boil human urine down to a residue, then heat that strongly to give off phosphorus gas which would condense. Godfrey produced two forms, solid phosphorus (the white phosphorus allotrope), or a mix with oil of urine where it remains liquid at room temperature. Godfrey was not always careful handling phosphorus, his fingers were often blistered and slow to heal from touching the solid. On one occasion on his way to see Boyle a phial of phosphorus broke and burned holes in his breeches, which Boyle "could not look upon without some wonder as well as smiles.” Polymers were interesting. At first, people thought of empirical formula. The empirical formula for glucose is CH2O but this is not a monomer. Still, there are six units. The plastic bottles and containers that are used for packaging food should all be labeled with a recycle code. This is a number (between 1 and 7) that is surrounded by a small graphic of three arrows pointing at one another in a triangle. The following plastics have no known health hazards: Code 1: Polyethylene Terephthalate, or PET / PETE Code 2: High Density Polyethylene, or HDPE Code 4: Low Density Polyethylene, or LDPE Code 5: Polypropylene, or PP The following plastics do have known potential health hazards: Code 3: Polyvinyl Chloride, or PVC / Vinyl. This material, used often in flooring and shower curtains, as well as household water pipes (primarily for evacuation only - they should never be used to bring fresh water into the home), used to be used in cling wraps. The plastics industry is adamant that the type of PVC currently used in cling wraps does not contain the phthalates that are known endocrine disrupters. However, these phthalates may still be present in PVC bottles and toys. There was recent information that many baby teethers were also made from PVC, due to its soft flexibility. PVC or vinyl items should never be given to a baby or child who may put them in his or her mouth. Code 6: Polystyrene, or PS / Styrofoam. As well as being another endocrine disrupter, styrene is also believed to be a carcinogen. This plastic is used to make some types of disposable forks, spoons and knives and also the "foam" cups such as those sold under the name Styrofoam. Hot liquid can cause the styrene to leach out of these products, as can fatty oils or alcohol. Code 7: Other "resins" and Polycarbonate, or PC. This one has been hotly contested by the plastics industry because of the high heat required for the endocrine disruptor, Bisphenol - A (BPA), to be released. However, BPA is a primary component of PC plastics and is a verifiably dangerous compound. PC is largely used for water bottles of the type used for delivery services (multi-galon containers) that fit on the "water cooler" at home or office. Many clear baby bottles are made of PC and there is much in the news about the controversy of these bottles not being labled with any code so that consumers cannot tell what type of plastic is used. With baby bottles, this is a real concern, as many people boil the bottles with formula or milk inside them. PC is also used in food cans with a plastic lining. Whenever possible, it is recommended that these plastics not be exposed to high temperatures. The plastics industry insists that they are completely stable under most conditions but some studies suggest that leaching still occurs. Polyethylene can be produced through radical polymerization, anionic addition polymerization, ion coordination polymerization or cationic addition polymerization: How the reaction gets started (INITIATION) How the reaction keeps going (PROPAGATION) How the reaction stops (TERMINATION) Condensation Polymer: Cotton and nylon are both made up of giant polymer molecules. Polymer molecules are often long chains of atoms linked in repeating patterns. There are a lot of atoms bonded to one another in these molecules, giving a lot of places where sticky water molecules can find a place to bond. Cotton is pure cellulose, a naturally occurring polymer. Cellulose is a carbohydrate, and the molecule is a long chain of glucose (sugar) molecules. If you look at the structure of a cellulose molecule you can see the OH groups that are on the outer edge. These negatively charged groups attract water molecules and make cellulose and cotton absorb water well. Cotton can absorb about 25 times its weight in water. Chemists refer to substances like cotton as hydrophilic, which means that they attract water molecules. Nylon is a synthetic material, meaning that chemists create the polymer molecules that make up nylon. More than 100 repeating units of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen atoms make up the long chain nylon molecule. The strength of the long nylon molecule made it a great replacement for silk, which had a similar feel and texture. The nylon molecule, too, has a great number of places where it can form bonds with water molecules, but not as many places as the cotton molecule. Nylon absorbs water, but not nearly as much as cotton. It only absorbs about 10 percent of its weight in water. The Rubber people of ancient Mesoamerica were called the Olmec. They extracted latex from a rubber tree called Castilla elastica. Latex is the sap from the rubber tree that has matured for at least six years. To obtain the sap, the collector makes a thin, diagonal cut to remove a sliver of bark. The milky-white latex fluid runs out of the bark, much as blood would run out of a small superficial wound on your skin. The fluid runs down the cut and is collected in a bucket. After about six hours, the fluid stops flowing. In that six-hour period, a tree can usually fill a gallon bucket. The tree can be tapped again with another fresh cut, usually the next day. Natural rubber or caoutchouc, as initially produced, is a polymer made up of an organic monomer called isoprene with other organic compounds and water. Rubber is normally stretchy, but it gets very soft and sticky when hot and it gets hard and brittle when cold. The Mesoamericans would dry the collected rubber latex to make balls for games and other things like booties. To make a rubber bootie, the individual would dip each foot in the latex and allow it to dry. After several dips and dryings, the bootie could be peeled from the foot. The product was then hardened in smoke. A similar process was used to waterproof fabrics. Columbus brought back rubber balls after his second voyage to the New World, and in the early 1700s, rubber samples, seeds, and trees were brought back to Europe and later to rubber plantations in other tropical climates during the era of European colonialism. Joseph Priestley used it to erase mistakes made with lead pencils. In the 1800’s, sulphur was used in a hardening process called vulcanization. A process named after the Roman god of fire. Hevea braziliensis is the best rubber-producing tree. It is found in Brazil. Hevea guyanensis is found in French Guyana. Castilla elastica is found in Mexico and Panama. Landolphia owariensis is found in the Congo basin. Funtumia elastic grows in West Africa, and Ficus elastic is found in Java and Malaysia. Currently, most natural rubber comes from Latin American derived trees transplanted to Southeast Asia in Thailand, Indonesia, and Malaysia as well as India, Sri Lanka and Africa. The trees in North America had a different sap. This type of sap typically runs out of maple trees on days when the temperature is around 40 degrees following a night when the mercury dropped below freezing. As the pressure drops during the day, the sap flow slows down and stops. Negative pressure is then found within the tree, and it begins to absorb water through the root system. The next day, as the tree warms up, positive pressure is restored and the pumping action yields another flow. The process continues for about 6 weeks in early spring. At the end of that time the sap takes on a cloudy appearance and the sugar content drops off dramatically. The Ojibwa Native Americans called this the "sugaring off" period of the "maple moon" during the "sugar month." This became the celebration of the first moon of spring with a Maple Dance. Sometimes the syrup is dark and rich, sometimes pale gold and delicate. It all depends on the soil and terrain, the wind and the weather, a real challenge for agronomists to understand. It takes about 40 gallons of sap to make one gallon of maple syrup because the sap is about 98% water. When making the sweet syrup, the water is boiled off over a wood fire or with the use of special evaporators. If heating the sap continues, it will crystallize. Many of the tapped trees can be used for over 100 years old. During the height of the sugaring season, sap contains about between 2% and 5% sugar; towards the end of the season less than 1%. During the maple harvest, the tree will give up about 7% of its sap; tests confirm this does not harm the tree. 39-40 Ancient Egyptian bees may well have been more agressive than the placid Italian bee, which has become the the dominant variety in modern times. Their yummy product is still used today. Egyptian honey was one of the first types of sugar products. So when the Greek's invaded India, Alexander the Great's companions marveled at the "honey without bees" type of sugar cane they had. Sugar's Old World home was India, and it remained exotic in Europe until the Arabs began to cultivate it in Sicily and Spain. It was not until after the Crusades did it begin to rival honey as the West's sweetener, c.1289, from O.Fr. sucre "sugar" (12c.), from M.L. succarum, from Arabic sukkar. The plant is known today as sugar cane. Grapes were also popular in the ancient world. They were used to make wine as well as the medical cures like honey. Gleukos means "must, sweet wine," and the name glucose was coined in 1838 by Jean Dumas. Today, it is said that the name comes from the Greek word glykys (γλυκύς), meaning "sweet," and the suffix "-ose" which denotes a sugar. Glucose was first discovered by Andreas Sigismund Marggraf in 1747 in the white beet, the beet root and the red beet from which his student Franz Achard later extracted it in its pure form. This was perhaps the first use of a microscope for chemical identification. First Marggraf sliced, dried and pulverized the three beet plant parts. He then used boiling alcohol to extract their juice, by filtering and then letting the juices crystallize in corked tubes for several weeks as the liquid evaporated. Once the crystals formed, he examined them under a microscope. The crystals seen under the microscope were identical to those of cane sugar. His student, Achard, tried his experiment on a large-scale. He produced a significant amount of sugar, and estimated the cost to be six cents per pound. This interested the French Institute in investigating his claims which was enough to cause King William III of Prussia to finance a sugar beet factory. Grapes were really sweet, and people 39-40 always liked them. While in Spain, Proust also began studying different types of sugars. He was the first to identify the sugar that comes from grapes as glucose, Mémoire sur le sucre de raisin in 1808. And so, glucose was found in most living creatures. The structure for glucose was first discovered by Emil Fischer during the late 19th century and early 20th century. Though no mention of St. Martin's connection with viticulture is made by Gregory of Tours or other early hagiographers, he is now credited with a prominent role in spreading wine-making throughout the Touraine region and facilitated the planting of many vines. The Greek myth that Aristaeus first discovered the concept of pruning the vines after watching a goat eat some of the foliage has been applied to Martin. Amino acids were thought to be important nutrients from their first discovery. Little did people realize the similarities in the structures of proteins and DNA. The first amino acid was discovered in 1806 in asparagus juice by Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin (1763-1829) and Pierre Jean Robiquet (1780 -1840). It was called asparagine. The last of the twenty fundamental amino acids was discovered in 1935. It was called threonine. William Cumming Rose discovered and structurally characterized the amino acid threonine. Having found that the milk protein, casein, was essential in a healthy rat's diet, he discovered the threonine in the casein was an essential amino acid, i.e., not manufactured by the body, and must be obtained from the diet. The determination of the amino acid requirements of human subjects showed that histidine, which is an essential amino acid for all animals tested so far, is not essential for man. The results proved that only eight amino acids, isoleucine, leucine, tryptophan, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, and valine, are required in the human diet. Tyrosine is produced from phenylalanine, so if the diet is deficient in phenylalanine, tyrosine will be required as well. Two others, histidine and arginine are essential only in children. A good mnemonic device for remembering these is "Private Tim Hall", abbreviated as: PVT TIM HALL ammonio- is the name of the protonated amino group in a Zwitterion Every bond stores energy. In order to break a bond, it takes energy. In order to form a bond, energy is released. The DNA double helix is held together by hydrogen bonds. These hydrogen bonds break and form all of the time. Also, the structure of DNA is extremely important. In statistical mechanics, we call this W or the number of arrangements. In all pyrimidines, there is a carbonyl group between the two nitrogens. This encourages the condensation reaction between the base and sugar, and this driving force depends heavily upon entropy since one molecule of water ionizes out of 5.55 X 10^8 molecules.The stagecoach was first introduced in London in 1640s and in Paris 20 years later. Stage coaches became a common means of public transportation in the 1690s because they moved in several stages from stop to stop. Coaches had been in use in England for four hundred years at this point in time. A two-wheeled horse-drawn vehicle is a cart, and wagons have four wheels. A system of two shafts and poles was developed over time for the animals. The first Concord stagecoach was built in 1827 at a cost of $1200 to $1500. The differences between 39-40 an ox and horse have been recorded for some time. The ox would sell for a cheaper price than a horse. And so it was very popular on farms. One problem through was with the personality of the ox. The ox did not like to work alone. To get them to work in teams, they needed to be yoke together. The ox yoke (so called from 1368) was used to pair up two oxen to do about one acre of land per day. This is 10 square chains or 100 square rods (the three dimension measurement being an ox head or hoghead (1518), 63 gallons). Yoke seems to come from geoht which is thought to mean a pair of draft animals (domesticated animal used in drawing heavy loads, ~5 kya, with a harness (~1300)). This is only a vague relationship to the Indo-European word yugom (joke), and the Latin adverb tandem, meaning "finally, at length, at last, or I beseech you." Yet, the Germanic word tauma means to pull or draw. So, it is the personality of the draft animals which encourages the pairing, and the more generalized meaning of tandem as teaming up. An ox team was side-by-side, and they had to be harnessed from their front region. Research showed the horse to be more independent than the oxen. Also, the horse was found to tend more land when working with a human master. Harnessing the horse from the rear made it more productive. From 1735-45, tandem was used for two horse harnessed one in front of the other to pull a carriage as pun meaning lengthwise. This lead to James Watt's unit called horsepower, and eventually to a bicycle built for two. In 1900, Karl Landsteiner researched agglutinates in blood, and he eventually identified three blood groups labeled A, B, and O. During this time, people assumed proteins were amorphous or random. In the early 1930s, William Astbury showed that there were drastic changes in the X-ray fiber diffraction of moist wool or hair fibers upon significant stretching. However, around 1937, Linus Carl Pauling not Wolfgang Ernst Pauli attempted to explain Astbury's observations and show proteins had a structure. The problem was that Astbury's pictures needed to be taken at different angles. And so, eleven years later, Pauling had his model of hemoglobin in which the atoms were arranged in a helical pattern. By 1951, Robert Corey, Herman Branson, and Pauling corrected Astbury's ideas to explain the alpha helix and beta sheet as the primary motif in the protein's secondary structure. However, Pauling's concept of the triple helix for DNA needed to be corrected. Also during the year 1951, Frederick Sanger completed the amino acid sequence of the two chains of bovine insulin. This showed that they were arranged in tandem. In the early 1970s, Sanger sequenced DNA, and by 1975, he and his coworkers developed their chain-termination method. A later discovery, called variable number of tandem repeats, was discovered by Alec Jeffreys (9:05 am on Monday 10 September 1984) and his colleagues while they worked on the fundaments of DNA fingerprinting. DNA reproduces itself in a sequence, one after another, from the 5’ to 3’ direction. The mysterious force of the sequencing is still of interests today. Fats 39-40 Fats, or lipids, are important as an energy source, as the building blocks for hormones, as insulative cushions for organs, as part of cell structures and in the transport of fat soluble vitamins (A,D,E,K). Lipids are insoluble in water (or blood). In order for lipids to be carried in the blood stream, they must attach to proteins, forming lipoproteins. Lipoproteins carry fat to organs and tissue for cellular use. Lipoproteins then store excess fat in adipose tissue. Fat in the diet has increased to the extent that it now is the source of approximately 40-45 percent of our calories. This increase is partially attributable to increases in separated fats in our foods. Separated fats are fats that were extracted from their natural sources, such as those found in margarine, vegetable oils and shortening. Because these fats are of vegetable origin, they are lower in saturated fat and cholesterol than fats from other sources. We eat to many of these fats, however. We should pay attention not only to the kinds of fats we eat, but also to total fats from all sources. The most common forms of fat are triglycerides. Grams of fat in food as well as the fat stored in the body are triglycerides. Fats and oils are a group of organic substances that are important to diet and to uses in industry. Generally, if such a substance is solid at room temperature we call it a fat; if it is liquid at room temperature, we call it an oil. Saturated fats are usually solid and are most common in animal foods such as lard, meat, dairy products, and eggs. They are called “saturated” because they have the highest possible number of hydrogen atoms attached to their carbon atoms. Unsaturated fats are less common and are found in plant oils. In an unsaturated fat, at least one hydrogen atom is missing and a carbon-carbon double bond occurs in its stead. If there is only one double bond, the fat is monounsaturated; fats with two or more double bonds are polyunsaturated. It is generally recommended that people limit the amount of fat and cholesterol in their diets and substitute unsaturated fats for saturated fats. Fat is a vital nutrient that is high in caloric value. It contains about twice the amount of calories per gram as do proteins or carbohydrates. In addition to meats, other fatty foods include eggs, butter, cheese, milk, nuts, and processed foods. Relative to caloric value, fats are low in vitamins and minerals. For example, calories from nuts, cheese and the typical drivethrough hamburger are 65-75 percent from fat, which leaves little room for nutritional value from vitamins and minerals. When there is an excess of lipids beyond the energy needs of the body, the extra fat is stored as adipose tissue. Adipose tissue is the yellowish-white fat from animal sources, such as that we see on chicken. When we eat too much fat, adipose tissue stores the excess. When the body experiences nutritional deficiencies, it mobilizes adipose tissues to meet energy needs. 39-40 The key to reducing adipose tissue is to monitor the total amount of calories ingested (not just fat), and to keep physical exertion levels in synchronicity with this caloric input. If calorie ingestion is high in the form of carbohydrates, the body will use the carbohydrates as energy sources while leaving the adipose tissue be. Excess carbohydrates, from all good and bad sources, are converted to fat and stored as adipose tissue. Exercise a lot: 60% carbs 20% protein 20% fat Drop the carbs a bit more and up the protein to lose weight 45% carbs 35% protein 20% fat (no more than 150 g of carbohydrates a day) Drugs are defined as any chemical substance that affects the function of living things and is used to relieve pain, treat illness, improve health or well-being. Drugs can be obtained from plant sources, microorganisms, marine organisms, and synthetic sources. Paul Ehrlich determined that certain drugs are more toxic to disease organisms than to human cells. He first coined the term chemotherapy and was awarded the Nobel Prize in medicine/physiology in 1908. Drugs were made to help with the failing body: Bad diet, no exercises, smoking, and alcohol have been linked to poor health. It is impossible for us to avoid damage by free radicals. Free radicals arise from sources both inside (endogenous) and outside (exogenous) our bodies. Oxidants that develop from processes within our bodies form as a result of normal aerobic respiration, metabolism, and inflammation. Exogenous free radicals form from environmental factors such as pollution, sunlight, strenuous exercise, X-rays, smoking and alcohol. Our antioxidant systems are not perfect, so as we age, cell parts damaged by oxidation accumulate. Oxidative stress occurs when the production of harmful molecules called free radicals is beyond the protective capability of the antioxidant defenses. Free radicals are chemically active atoms or molecular fragments that have a charge due to an excess or deficient number of electrons. Examples of free radicals are the superoxide anion, hydroxyl radical, transition metals such as iron and copper, nitric acid, and ozone. Free radicals containing oxygen, known as reactive oxygen species (ROS), are the most biologically significant free radicals. 39-40 ROS include the radicals superoxide and hydroxyl radical, plus derivatives of oxygen that do not contain unpaired electrons, such as hydrogen peroxide, singlet oxygen, and hypochlorous acid. Because they have one or more unpaired electrons, free radicals are highly unstable. They scavenge your body to grab or donate electrons, thereby damaging cells, proteins, and DNA (genetic material). The same oxidative process also causes oils to become rancid, peeled apples to turn brown, and iron to rust. Antioxidants are substances that are capable of counteracting the damaging, but normal, effects of the physiological process of oxidation in animal tissue. Antioxidants are nutrients (vitamins and minerals) as well as enzymes (proteins in your body that assist in chemical reactions). They are believed to play a role in preventing the development of such chronic diseases as cancer, heart disease, stroke, Alzheimer's disease, Rheumatoid arthritis, and cataracts. Chemist did not fully understand this at first. They thought music could influence health. Famous minor modes are the Dorian, Aeolian, and Phrygian while famous major modes are Lydian, Ionian, and Mixolydian. The Locrian is the famous diminished mode. This can be applied to how the Greeks thought about health and the four elemental roots of life, water, air, fire, and earth. Health and spiritual well-being were thought to depend on the balance of four bodily fluids or humors. These humors correspond to the four elemental roots: Phlegm or Phlegmatic (water), Blood or Sanguine (air), Bile or Choleric (fire), and Black Bile or Melancholic (earth). The Greeks used music for healing and to influence the spiritual state or soul. Certain melodies were associated with the four humors, and were used to affect the soul. Music was thought to amplify or weaken the humors. Eight modes or musical scales were used. Dorian and Hypodorian modes correspond to the elemental root water (cool and moist) and govern the Phlegmatic humor. These modes lead to sleepiness, lethargy, laziness, slowness, mental dullness, and forgetfulness, but also tend to calm the body and promote internal equanimity and well-being. Lydian and Hypolydian modes correspond to the elemental root air (warm, moist) and influence the Sanguine humor, leading to good cheer, optimism, friendliness, laughter, love, and song. Phrygian and Hypophrygian modes correspond to the elemental root fire (warm, dry) and control the Choleric humor. It is opposed to Phlegm, and promotes boldness, exuberance, and passion. These modes lead to courage and leadership, but in excess promote pride, rashness, irritability, and violent anger.Mixolydian and Hypomixolydian modes correspond to the elemental root earth (cool, dry) and govern the Melancholic humor, the most complex humor. These modes are associated with the physical body and promote solidity, firmness, and steadfastness, but also a certain indolence and tenacity. These four groups are like a tetrachord. As the body was studied, the senses were explored to a greater extent leading to foods or natural medicines. With the discovery of synthesis, natural medicines such as aspirin became safer, and so other synthetic drugs were thought to be tested.
Purchase answer to see full attachment
User generated content is uploaded by users for the purposes of learning and should be used following Studypool's honor code & terms of service.

Explanation & Answer

Hey! Here you go. Please let me know if you need something fixed.

Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are compounds made entirely of carbon and hydrogen.



Saturated hydrocarbons
Only single bonds are present.

Alkanes



Unsaturated hydrocarbons
Single and double bonds are present.

Alkenes

Alkynes

General Formula:

General Formula:

General Formula:

CnH2n+2

CnH2n

CnH2n-2

Propane

Propene

Propyne

Hydrocarbons


Unsaturated hydrocarbons
Aromatic compounds



Compounds with multiple bonds in the shape of a ring



They follow Hückel rule: 4n+2 π electrons; n=1,2,3,…

Benzene

Naphtalene

(Monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbon)

(Polyciclic [bycyclic] aromatic hydrocarbon)

Substitued ar...


Anonymous
Awesome! Made my life easier.

Studypool
4.7
Trustpilot
4.5
Sitejabber
4.4

Related Tags