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Argumentation
Writing a persuasive
extended essay by
supporting a proposition or
claim
Created by Marta Magellan, 2014
The Goal
The
goal of a
written argument is
to persuade the
readers to do or
believe something.
It
is NOT to start a
fight, nor to merely
state your opinion.
Debatable or NOT?
You
can argue about anything
in a bar, but not so in an
academic essay.
Not
debatable:
1.
facts
personal taste
3. claims that are verifiable
2.
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Some arguments are hostile
Everyone
has an
opinion, but in
an academic
argument, avoid
being combative.
Persuasion that works
Not all arguments are
persuasive. To construct a
convincing academic
argument, state a clear
position and establish
credibility right from the start.
When your audience doesn‟t
share your views, build
common ground by finding
assumptions you do share.
A Good Argument: Support
Consider the kinds of
evidence that could be
useful to support your
opinion.
You‟ll never quote your
friends or use your class
notes.
You will use…
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Supporting Evidence
Facts:
A fact is something that is known with certainty
because it has been objectively verified.
Examples:
Use examples from your research, not
from your own life.
Studies:
A study is a detailed investigation and
analysis of a subject or situation.
Statistics: Statistics are numerical data and
facts, especially those computed from a sample.
Quotes: Use those from authorities and experts.
Aristotle‟s 3 Basic Tools for
Argument
Ethos
Pathos
Logos
Ethos: Appeal to Credibility
Greek for
'character„ -- the
writer's reputation
independent from
the message,
expertise in the
field, previous
record or integrity.
Ethos:
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As a student, you’re probably
not an expert yet.
That‟s why you do
not use personal
anecdotes. Also
avoid the use of the
first person singular
(“I”) in almost all
cases.
Establish your
credibility by being
fair, trustworthy, and
doing diligent
research.
Appeal to Emotions
Pathos (Emotional) means persuading by
appealing to the reader's emotions, such as
fear, compassion, disgust, and so on.
People are emotional
creatures
Appealing to emotion
is powerful, so use
pathos but…
Avoid becoming
maudlin
or foolishly sentimental
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Appeal to Reason
(Greek for 'word') Aristotle's
favorite, and best for academic papers
based on:
Logos:
The
clarity of the claim,
logic of its reasons
The effectiveness of its supporting
evidence
The
Know Your Audience
Be sensitive to your readers‟
interests
needs
backgrounds
Never insult your audience or use namecalling when referring to your opponents.
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ALWAYS: Draw attention to the
opposition’s point of view
It
shows you are
well informed and
you can…
Counter and refute
the opposing
viewpoints
Created by Marta Magellan 2014
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Created by Marta Magellan
In English class today,
Richard finally asked
me on a date. I’m glad
I brushed my teeth
with Smile before I
came to school.
Illogical due to a
fallacy in logic…
Fallacy:
What came before caused what
followed.
Post
Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc, Latin for after
this, therefore, because of this.
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Of
course he’ll like
bagels! He’s Jewish,
isn’t he?
Illogical
due to a
fallacy called…
Fallacy:
Hasty Generalization: When too few
examples are used to judge the entire group.
Fallacy:
Overgeneralization: When a
generalization, even a valid one, is used on
an individual.
Don’t
tell me you’re
going to go buy that
Wagner opera CD!
That man was antisemitic!
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Fallacy:
arguing against the man
The
issue is being ignored by attacking the
man. Wagner’s music might still be good if
you are discussing good music. His attitude
toward Jews is arguable when discussing his
character.
You
say there
wasn’t enough
evidence to
convict him? I
don’t understand
why people like
you want to see
criminals roam
free.
Fallacy:
This argument
invents a viewpoint that
the opponent does not
hold, or oversimplifies
the viewpoint, then
attacks him or her for it.
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If
we banned
Hummers because
they are bad for the
environment,
eventually the
government would
ban all cars because
all cars are bad for
the environment.
Fallacy:
The conclusion is
based on the premise
that if A happens, then
eventually B, C, D, E,
etc. will happen also,
equating event A to
event Z, which might
be completely
different.
We
can either stop
using cars or simply
allow the earth to
be destroyed.
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Fallacy:
A conclusion that reduces the
argument to only two choices (either/or).
Life being what it is, that is rarely the case,
and there is always a third or more
alternatives.
There
is intelligent
life on other planets
and you can’t prove
there isn’t.
Fallacy: The one who
makes the statement
must not shift
responsibility for its
proof. The writer who
states the premise
has the burden of
proving it.
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Combustion
engines
pollute our air, but
we can’t shift to
electric cars
because all those
people in the oil
industry will lose
their jobs.
Fallacy: Misleading the audience by switching the
stated argument to another argument or in another
way distracting from the original statement.
Everyone
knows it’s
cheaper to execute
a prisoner than to
incarcerate him for
life.
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Fallacy:
If everyone believes it, it must be
so-- not always true.
Ad
Populum: Latin for appeal to the people
known as
Also
appeal to the masses
appeal to the majority
jumping on the bandwagon.
If
we can license drivers, we should license
parents also.
Fallacy:
In an analogy, two objects (or
events), A and B are shown to be similar.
Then it is argued that since A has property P
(drivers’ licenses), so also B must have
property P (parents’ licenses). An analogy
fails when the two objects, A and B, are so
different as to not be comparable.
Example
2: Employees are like nails. You
have to hit the nail of the head, or it won’t
work, just like employees.
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There
isn’t one
college graduate
in the city finance
department. No
wonder the city is
bankrupt.
Fallacy: The premise doesn’t directly follow the
conclusion because the arguer has not revealed
his thought process. Non-sequitur: Latin for “It
does not follow.”
Jumping from one end of the argument (city is
bankrupt) to the conclusion (because of no
college graduates) can easily lead to nonsequiturs.
The city might be bankrupt due to theft,
corruption, whatever, but if it’s because of
untrained employees, the author needs to
explain how that conclusion arose, not just jump
to it.
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