Health Psychology 1 Health Psychology Health Psychology Resources for Effective Life Changes Making Positive Life Changes Photo credit: © Lauren Burke/Getty Images Psychology And your Good Life Toward a Healthier Mind and Body THE MIND-BODY RELATIONSHIP • The impact of the mind on the body choices & attitudes • The impact of the body on the mind physical stress & health • The impact of other things on the mind and body 80% of cancer is random (unaffected by what we do) HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY & BEHAVIORAL MEDICINE • Health Psychology – Emphasizes psychology’s role in . . . • Establishing and maintaining health • Preventing and treating illness – Focus on behavioral and cognitive factors • Behavioral Medicine – Interdisciplinary field to . . . • Promote health • Reduce illness – Focus on behavioral and biomedical knowledge 4 HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY & BEHAVIORAL MEDICINE • Biopsychosocial model – Integration of biological, psychological, and social factors in health • Relationship between mind and body – Strongly intertwined, and deeply connected – Psychological Processes → Health & Disease – Health & Illness → Psychological Experience 5 THEORETICAL MODELS OF CHANGE • Health Behaviors – Practices that have an impact on physical well-being • Theory of Reasoned Action – Effective change requires individuals to have specific intentions and positive attitudes about their behaviors. • Theory of Planned Behavior – Includes theory of reasoned action – Adds person’s perceptions of control over outcome 6 STAGES OF CHANGE MODEL • Describes process by which individuals give up bad habits and adopt healthier lifestyles • Precontemplation – Not yet genuinely thinking about changing • Contemplation – Acknowledge problem but not ready to commit to change • Preparation/Determination – Getting ready to take action • Action/Willpower – Commit to making real change, and enact plan • Maintenance – Avoid temptation, and pursue healthy behaviors 7 STAGES OF CHANGE MODEL • Relapse – Challenge during maintenance stage – Return to former unhealthy patterns – Common aspect of change • Evaluation of Stages of Change Model – Has been applied successfully to broad range of behaviors – But remains controversial 8 RESOURCES FOR EFFECTIVE LIFE CHANGE • Motivation • Social Relationships • Religious Faith • Personality Characteristics 9 MOTIVATION • ‘Why’ of behavior • Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation – Control, autonomy, and competence associated with enhanced outcomes for health behaviors • Implementation Intentions – Specific strategies for dealing with challenges of making life changes 10 RESOURCES FOR EFFECTIVE LIFE CHANGE • Social Relationships – tangible assistance – information – emotional support • Religious Faith – linked to longer, healthier life – primarily in religious nations Photo credit: Huntstock/Getty Images © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS • Social ties important in predicting health • Social Support – Information and feedback from others indicating . . . • Love and care • Esteem and value • Inclusion in network of communication and mutual obligation – Benefits include . . • Tangible assistance • Information • Emotional support – Social Sharing • Turning to others for sounding board or willing ear 12 RELIGIOUS FAITH • Strongly related to . . . – Maintaining healthy lifestyle – Good health • Related to social support • Sense of life meaning • Buffer against effects of stressful life events 13 PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS • Conscientiousness – Tendency to do things that are good for health • Personal Control – Can reduce stress and lead to problem solving • Self-Efficacy – Influences development of healthy habits, persistence in face of obstacles, and experience of stress • Optimism – Bad events as external, unstable, and specific 14 STRESS AND THE IMMUNE SYSTEM • Serious implications of chronic (vs. acute) stress • Psychoneurimmunology – Explores connections among brain and immune system • Stress . . . – Lowers efficiency of immune system – Directly promotes disease-producing processes – May activate dormant viruses 16 STRESS AND ITS STAGES • Stress – Response of individuals to stressors, circumstances and events that threaten them and tax their coping • General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) – Common effects on body when demands placed on it • Alarm • Resistance • Exhaustion 17 ALARM • Stage 1 – The first stage of the general adaptation stage, the alarm reaction, is the immediate reaction to a stressor. In the initial phase of stress, humans exhibit a "fight or flight" response, which causes one to be ready for physical activity. However, this initial response can also decrease the effectiveness of the immune system, making persons more susceptible to illness during this phase. RESISTANCE • Stage 2 – Might also be named the stage of adaptation, instead of the stage of resistance. During this phase, if the stress continues, the body adapts to the stressors it is exposed to. Changes at many levels take place in order to reduce the effect of the stressor. For example, if the stressor is starvation (possibly due to anorexia), the person might experienced a reduced desire for physical activity to conserve energy, and the absorption of nutrients from food might be maximized. EXHAUSTION • Stage 3 – At this stage, the stress has continued for some time. The body's resistance to the stress may gradually be reduced, or may collapse quickly. Generally, this means the immune system, and the body's ability to resist disease, may be almost totally eliminated. Patients who experience long-term stress may succumb to heart attacks or severe infection due to their reduced immunity. For example, a person with a stressful job may experience long-term stress that might lead to high blood pressure and an eventual heart attack. STRESS AND THE RISK OF A COLD 21 STRESS AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE • Chronic emotional stress associated with . . . – High blood pressure – Heart disease – Early death • Stress-related behaviors also risky • Personality characteristics – Impatient, quick to anger – Type A behavior pattern & hostility 22 STRESS AND CANCER • Association of stress with poor health behaviors • Physiological effects of stress inhibit cellular immune responses – Diminished natural killer (NK) cell activity in cancer patients 23 COGNITIVE APPRAISAL • Perception of events in determining stress • Interpretation of events and determination of resources to cope effectively • Coping as a form of problem solving • Primary Appraisal – Interpret event as harm, threat, or challenge • Secondary Appraisal – Evaluate resources and their effectiveness 24 COPING WITH STRESS • Problem-Focused Coping – Cognitive strategy of squarely facing troubles and trying to solve them – Works best over long term • Emotion-Focused Coping – Responding to stress by trying to manage emotional reaction, rather than confronting problem – Denial as main protective psychological mechanism for navigating overwhelming feelings 25 SUCCESSFUL COPING • • • • Sense of personal control Healthy immune system Personal resources Positive emotions • Optimism • Hardiness – Sense of commitment and of control – Perception of problems as challenges 26 STRESS MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS • Teach individuals how to . . . – Appraise stressful events – Develop coping skills – Put skills into use • May . . . – Be broad in scope – Teach specific technique • Often taught through workshops 27 TOWARD A HEALTHIER BODY • Becoming physically active – Exercise – Aerobic exercise • Eating right • Quitting smoking • Practicing safe sex – Preventing unwanted pregnancy – Protecting against sexually transmitted infections 28 PHYSICAL FITNESS & MORTALITY 29 LUNG CANCER RISK IN FORMER SMOKERS 30 * • Culture – shared norms or rules set by society shared by most members in that community. • Individualist Cultures – self is high priority; independence of the individual shines out. • Collectivist Cultures – group harmony takes precedence over individual wishes and goals. * • Focus on the unconscious * More power over our personality than we give it credit for. * Reveals itself in art, jokes, dreams, “apparent accidents”, and slips of the tongue (aka Freudian slips). * * Oral Stage - associated with the drive to "incorporate" objects through the mouth * Anal Stage – learn differences between boys and girls; potty training * Phallic Stage - when the sexual drive is focused on the genitals * Latency Stage - Interests in friends, school, and socialization are the main drives here. This stage often begins at six, and ends at puberty. * Genital Stage - child will form their sexual identity; the final stage, lasting until death * * Freud's hypotheses are neither verifiable nor falsifiable. It is not clear what would count as evidence sufficient to confirm or refute theoretical claims. * The theory is based on an inadequate conceptualization of the experience of women. * The theory overemphasizes the role of sexuality in human psychological development and experience. * • • • Present at birth Reservoir of unconscious psychological energies Motive to avoid pain and endure pleasure • 2 instincts * * * The life or the Sexual instinct-fueled by psychic energy called the libido The death or aggressive instinct • * Represents the part of: * * * * Reason * Both the unconscious and conscious Good sense Rational Self-Control • Which holds up certain norms of behavior, without regard to any difficulties coming from the id and the external world. Part of personality that represents the: • * * * * Reason Social standards Morality Conscience ✓ Partly conscious, but mostly the unconscious ✓ Offers feelings of pride when good is done, or guilt when bad is done. * • • a boy is fixated on his mother and competes with his father for maternal attention. * Freud puts the Oedipal stage as occurring between 3-5 years. The opposite, the attraction of a girl to her father and rivalry with her mother, is sometimes called the Electra complex. * • • • • • • • Repression Projection Displacement Reaction Formation Regression Denial Sublimation * • A child who is abused by a parent later has no recollection of the events, but has trouble forming relationships. • A woman who found childbirth particularly painful continues to have children (and each time the level of pain is surprising). • An optimist remembers the past with a rosy glow and constantly repeats mistakes. • A man has a phobia of spiders but cannot remember the first time he was afraid of them. • A person greets another with 'pleased to beat you' (the repressed idea of violence toward the other person creeping through). * • I do not like another person. But I have a value that says I should like everyone. So I project onto them that they do not like me. This allows me to avoid them and also to handle my own feelings of dislike. • An unfaithful husband suspects his wife of infidelity. • A woman who is attracted to a fellow worker accuses the person of sexual advances. * • The boss gets angry and shouts at me. I go home and shout at my wife. She then shouts at our son. With nobody left to displace anger onto, he goes and kicks the dog. • A man wins the lottery. He turns to the person next to him and gives the person a big kiss. • A boy is afraid of horses. It turns out to be a displaced fear of his father. • I want to speak at a meeting but cannot get a word in edgeways. Instead, I start scribbling furiously. • A religious person who is sexually frustrated focuses their attention on food, becoming a gourmet. • A woman, rejected by her boyfriend, goes out with another man 'on the rebound'. * • A person who is angry with a colleague actually ends up being particularly courteous and friendly towards them. • A man who is gay has a number of conspicuous heterosexual affairs and openly criticizes gays. • A mother who has a child she does not want becomes very protective of the child. • An alcoholic extols the virtues of abstinence. * • A wife refuses to drive a car even though it causes the family much disorganization. A result of her refusal is that her husband has to take her everywhere. • A person who suffers a mental breakdown assumes a fetal position, rocking and crying. • A child suddenly starts to wet the bed after years of not doing so (this is a typical response to the arrival of a new sibling). • A college student carefully takes their teddy-bear with them (and goes to sleep cuddling it). * • A man hears that his wife has been killed, and yet refuses to believe it, still setting the table for her and keeping her clothes and other accoutrements in the bedroom. • A person having an affair does not think about pregnancy or sexually transmitted diseases. • People take credit for their successes and find 'good reason' for their failures, blaming the situation, other people, etc. • Alcoholics vigorously deny that they have a problem. • Optimists deny that things may go wrong. Pessimists deny they may succeed. * * I am angry. I go out and chop wood. I end up with a useful pile of firewood. I am also fitter and nobody is harmed. * A person who has an obsessive need for control and order becomes a successful business entrepreneur. * A person with strong sexual urges becomes an artist. * A man who has extra-marital desires takes up household repairs when his wife is out of town. * A surgeon turns aggressive energies and deep desires to cut people into life-saving acts. * * OCEAN or CANOE (acronym) * Openness * Conscientiousness * Extraversion * Agreeableness * Neuroticism * * This trait features characteristics such as imagination and insight, and those high in this trait also tend to have a broad range of interests. People who are high in this trait tend to be more adventurous and creative. People low in this trait are often much more traditional and may struggle with abstract thinking. * * Standard features of this dimension include high levels of thoughtfulness, with good impulse control and goal-directed behaviors. Highly conscientiousness tend to be organized and mindful of details. * * Extraversion is characterized by excitability, sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness, and high amounts of emotional expressiveness. * People who are high in extraversion are outgoing and tend to gain energy in social situations. People who are low in extraversion (or introverted) tend to be more reserved and have to expend energy in social settings. * * This personality dimension includes attributes such as trust, altruism, kindness, affection, and other prosocial behaviors. People who are high in agreeableness tend to be more cooperative while those low in this trait tend to be more competitive and even manipulative. * * Neuroticism is a trait characterized by sadness, moodiness, and emotional instability. Individuals who are high in this trait tend to experience mood swings, anxiety, irritability and sadness. Those low in this trait tend to be more stable and emotionally resilient. * * Gordon Allport (1897-1967) is often called the father of personality theory: He was very much a trait theorist and believed in the individuality and uniqueness of the person and that people have consistent personalities. * Allport attempted to blend nomothetic and idiographic perspectives: he called this blend the morphogenic approach. * *The human capacity for self-reflection allows us to form a self-concept and develop a characteristic level of selfesteem. * * Collective Unconscious * Archetypes • Contains universal memories • Figures found in fairy tales, legends, and popular stories • • • symbols • Aspect of the self known as the shadow archetype Images Themes * Freud called these Archetypes * * Personality Types • Carl Rogers – sense of self; unconditional positive regard * Congruence -- genuineness, honesty with the client. * Empathy -- the ability to feel what the client feels. * Respect -- acceptance, unconditional positive regard towards the client. * 1. Congruence -- genuineness, honesty with the client. 2. Empathy -- the ability to feel what the client feels. * 3. Respect -- acceptance, unconditional positive regard towards the client. * * Horney is famous for her response to the Freudian idea of penis envy in women. * Neurotic Personality * people are unhappy and desperately seek out relationships in order to feel good abut themselves. Their way of securing these relationships include projections of their own insecurity and neediness which eventually drives others away. * Thematic Apperception Test Created by Henry Murray The rationale behind the technique is that people tend to interpret ambiguous situations in accordance with their own past experiences and current motivations, which may be conscious or unconscious. Murray reasoned that by asking people to tell a story about a picture, their defenses to the examiner would be lowered as they would not realize the sensitive personal information they were divulging by creating the story * Cobb-Clark, DA & Schurer, S. The stability of big-five personality * * * traits. Economics Letters. 2012; 115(2): 11–15. Lang, KL, Livesley, WJ, & Vemon, PA. Heritability of the big five personality dimensions and their facets: A twin study. Journal of Personality. 1996; 64(3): 577–591. Marsh, HW, Nagengast, B, & Morin, AJS. Measurement invariance of big-five factors over the lifespan: ESEM tests of gender, age, plasticity, maturity, and la dolce vita effects. Developmental Psychology. 2013; 49(6): 1194-1218. McCrae, R R, Terracciano, A., and Members of the Personality Profiles of Cultures Project. Universal features of personality traits from the observer's perspective: Data from 50 different cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2005; 88: 547-561. *
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