PCN-643 Lecture 5
Introduction
Planning is critical to community counseling. In order to plan successfully, it is important to
understand the levels of planning, as well as the steps of effective planning. It is also important
to anticipate and know how to respond to potential obstacles.
Levels of Community Planning
Community counseling cannot be effective without planning. Planning gives direction and
structure to the desired community change. An effective plan for community change must
include goals, objectives and activities. Goals are general descriptions of what you want to
achieve in your community. Goals have a broad, long-term focus (Homan, 2011). For example,
in Module 1, the school counselor identified a goal of providing meals to students during the
summer months.
By contrast, objectives are specific strategies and steps that are employed to reach the goals.
Objectives differ from goals in that they are specific, measurable, and time limited (Homan,
2011). Returning to the school meal example from Module 1, the school counselor could
identify a variety of objectives related to the goal described above. Here is an example of one
possible objective for the program. “By the end of the first week of the spring semester, a six
person committee will be formed which includes representation from parents, school
administration and community business owners.” This objective includes clearly measurable
components such as who is involved, what will be accomplished and when it will happen.
Several specific objectives will be needed in order to accomplish the goal described above.
The objectives must be supported by a variety of activities. These activities have specific steps
that must be taken to accomplish a given objective (Homan, 2011). Returning to the school
meal plan example, the counselor should identify what needs to be done to form a committee
by the end of the first week of the spring semester. Appropriate activities for this objective may
include planning an informational meeting, identifying a meeting place, sending invitations to
parents, visiting community businesses to invite business owners, and discussing committee
participation with school administrators.
Steps in Community Planning
In order for community change to be effective, those involved must understand the goals,
objectives and activities and how they are to be met. For this reason, a concrete, written plan is
very important. To this end, the community counselor should follow a series of steps such as
those provided by Flores (2003):
•
Identify Goals and Objectives. As discussed above, goals and objectives are central to a
successful program. While the community counselor may establish tentative goals and
objectives, it is important to involve community members in the establishment of the final
goals and objectives for the program. This empowers community members and increases
the likelihood that they will support the activities needed to effect community change
(Homan, 2011).
•
Develop Evaluation Strategies. The effectiveness of community change is measured by
evaluation processes. The information gathered from evaluation allows the counselor to
determine what is effective and what needs to be adjusted in future programming. To that
end, two types of evaluation are needed. Formative evaluation measures the effectiveness
of parts of the community change efforts as they occur. Summative evaluation measures
the result of the community change efforts.
•
Identify Priority Programs and Approaches. In this step, the specific program(s) to be
implemented is selected. While this may involve developing a program from scratch, that is
not always necessary. Those planning community change must remember that there are
resources and programs that already exist in the community. Finding ways to utilize and
enhance these programs may be a more efficient approach to addressing community
needs.
•
Develop Program and Participation Outcomes. After the programs have been planned and
selected, the community counselor should determine measurable outcomes. This is a
concrete measure of how the program will meet the specific objectives and goals
previously identified. This addresses the question of how program participants (individuals,
groups or the community) will be changed as a result of participation.
•
Create an Action Plan. The action plan includes manageable steps to accomplish the goals
and objectives of community change. The action plan should address four questions.
o Action Steps: What will be done?
o Responsible Parties: Who will do it?
o Schedule: When will it be done?
o Evidence: How will we know that it is done?
•
Develop a Plan for Collecting Evaluation Data. As discussed above, evaluation is key to
successful community change. Having previously identified strategies for formative and
summative evaluations, the community counselor should develop a specific plan for
executing the evaluation. In order to gather data in an efficient and objective manner,
evaluation should be conducted by in-house evaluators (those associated with the
program) as well as outside evaluators (consultants or others not directly connected to the
program).
•
Write a Multiyear Plan. Most community needs are ongoing. Therefore, the programs that
address the community needs must be designed to meet them on a continual basis. The
multiyear plan describes how the program will meet the community needs on a long-term
basis.
Obstacles to Community Planning
As the counselor works to implement change in the community, obstacles are bound to arise. It
is imperative that the counselor anticipates these obstacles and comes up with strategies to
address them. Homan (2011) identifies some common obstacles to effective community
change:
•
Future Changes. The community that the counselor serves is likely to change over time.
While some of these changes are unpredictable, others can be anticipated and plans can be
made accordingly. For example, it is likely that expenses will increase during each year of a
program. Funding plans and budgeting should occur with these increases in mind.
•
Lack of Skills. As discussed in previous modules, counselors have many of the skills needed
to effect community change, as do members of the community. Capitalizing on the skills of
community members is another reason to include them in the programs and plans for
community change. (See the previous lectures for a variety of other reasons.) It may also
be appropriate to recruit the assistance of those outside of the community when special
skills are needed. However, the counselor should be careful that an alleged lack of skills is
not used as an excuse to avoid the task at hand.
•
Lack of Interest. For many people, the process of planning is perceived as boring and
tedious. The counselor must actively combat disinterest as well as that found among others
involved in the planning process.
•
Desire for Immediate Action. Community change is usually related to an issue that is of
emotional and practical significance to those involved. Therefore, they are often excited to
get started. Thus they may want to skip assessment and planning and get straight to action.
Others have a tendency to use planning as a way to avoid action. The counselor’s goal is to
strike a balance between these two extremes. Using the planning steps described above,
the counselor can insure that appropriate plans are put in place and acted upon within a
reasonable timeframe.
•
Failure to Include People in Planning. Some leaders make all the plans without including
those who will execute and/or be impacted by the community change. This is sometimes
done without ever consulting key constituents. In other cases, the leader may ask key
constituents for ideas but fail to include any of them. In both cases, there is less likely to be
community acceptance and support for the plan. Therefore, the counselor must actively
involve members of the community in the planning process.
•
Groupthink. Groupthink is a social phenomenon that may occur when a group of people is
cohesive, isolated, and has a directive leader. The community counselor should be aware of
the symptoms of groupthink including:
o The illusion that the group is invulnerable
o The illusion that the group is morally superior
o Pressure toward conformity
o Self-censorship (members do not speak up against group ideas)
o The illusion of unanimity (Myers, 2013)
Upon observing such symptoms, the counselor should act to eliminate this limited way of
thinking. One possibility is to invite “outsiders” to attend planning meetings. Because they are
not part of the close knit planning group, they are more likely to challenge the group’s thoughts
and ideas.
Conclusion
Before community change can be implemented, a solid plan must be in place. A good plan
includes goals, objectives, and activities and is developed in a systematic way. An effective
community counselor will be familiar with the steps in developing a plan and be prepared to
address the obstacles that may arise.
References
Flores, R. J. (2003). Targeted community action planning toolkit. The Office of Juvenile Justice.
Homan, M. S. (2011). Promoting community change: Making it happen in the real world (5th
ed.) Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Myers, D. G. (2013). Social psychology (11th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
PCN-643 Lecture 1
Introduction
This course explores an important aspect of counseling, community counseling. In order to
understand the practice of this type of counseling, one must first understand some related
terms and theories. By exploring the meaning of communities, and various theoretical elements
of change, a counselor can better understand how to effect change in appropriate settings.
Community Resources, Needs, and Problems
Community can be defined as a group of people distinguished from others by differentiating
factors and connected to one another by common factors. Whenever people find themselves
together in such groups, many things work well and function to meet the needs of those in the
group. The resources in the community are often central to the effective functioning of the
community. Nonetheless unmet needs and problems are bound to arise. These community
needs and problems create a necessity for community change. Community change is the
process of addressing community needs and finding ways to eliminate community problems
(Homan, 2011).
Community problems are not individual problems. Thus, the counselor should not attempt to
solve problems individually without additional support, nor should the counselor approach
community counseling as individual counseling. In this type of counseling, the client is not an
individual, a family, or a group. The client is the community as a whole (Fulbright-Anderson &
Auspos, 2006).
Given that the client is the community and not an individual, the focus and goals of community
counseling are different from those the counselor is most familiar. Community counseling
should focus on goals that help improve the community (Homan, 2011). Six common goals are:
•
Community development. The community counselor can help connect people with
available resources that enhance the lives of the community members.
•
Neighborhood empowerment. The community counselor can take steps to help those in
the community recognize and utilize their right to manage resources and outcomes in their
community.
•
Community problem solving. The community counselor can bring together different
individuals and groups within a community to work toward the common goal of addressing
a specific problem.
•
Community support systems. The community counselor can facilitate the development of
relationships between individuals and groups in the community to decrease the sense of
isolation some may experience.
•
Community education. The community counselor can connect community members with
sources of information to enhance the quality of individual and community life.
•
Broad-based community organization. The community counselor can facilitate the
establishment of an organization that allows community members to work together in
addressing current and future needs (Homan 2011).
For example, a school counselor may notice that many students in his school depend on free
breakfast and lunch at school as a significant source of food throughout the school year. This
counselor may reason that these same students are likely to be without such meals over the
summer. This would lead the counselor to assess the situation, look for resources for feeding
the children over the summer, and create a plan for applying these resources to meet the need.
The counselor should include parents, teachers, and community members in this process. The
counselor should help organize these individuals into a group that will not only address this
issue, but advocate for the needs of the children on an ongoing basis. The counselor should
connect these individuals with businesses, governmental agencies, and private agencies that
have an interest in meeting the needs of children. The counselor should also connect these
individuals with sources of information and training related to topics such as nutrition, child
development, and grant writing. In so doing, he would accomplish the six goals mentioned
above.
Theories of Community Counseling
Theories are important in the practice of community counseling. They provide the basis, the
structure, and the plan by which community-based action is directed. As such, it is important
that a counselor have a fundamental understanding of specific theories relevant to community
change.
Systems theory states that any entity (animal, person, neighborhood, etc.) needs continual
input of energy and resources. The system then uses these resources to maintain balance, to be
productive, and to survive (Laszlo & Krippner, 1998). This system is subject to the impact of a
variety of forces both inside and outside of the system. The significance of this impact can be
explained by chaos theory.
Chaos theory states that a small change can have a large impact on a system (Danforth, 2013).
This is sometimes referred to as the “butterfly effect.” The idea is that something as simple as a
butterfly flapping its wings can have a significant impact on an environmental system (Lorenz,
2001). Similarly, there are a variety of factors that can impact the communities in which
counselors work. It is imperative that the counselor is aware of these factors and consider how
attempts at community change will interact with them (Homan, 2011).
In addition to systems theory and chaos theory, there are additional theories specific to
community counseling. “These include theories of power, organization, action, culture, and
change” (Homan, 2011, 47):
•
Power is the ability to motivate people to act in a manner that is consistent with a desired
outcome (Wrong, 2004). Legitimate power is not controlling, manipulating, or dominating
others.
•
Power is most effective when combined with organization. While passion and commitment
are important motivators, they will not lead to the most effective change unless power is
appropriately directed and organized around specific issues (Staples, 2004).
•
Once power has been appropriately organized and directed, meaningful action can begin.
Actions that promote effective community change are those that activate and empower
members of the community (Fulbright-Anderson & Auspos, 2006). Needs assessment,
budgeting, management skills, and other actions are essential in accomplishing community
change.
•
In order for action to have a meaningful impact in a community, it must occur in the
context of the community culture. The values, perceptions, rituals, and practices of
community members define what is meaningful and worthwhile to them (Homan, 2011).
Thus, it is imperative that the counselor be familiar with and respectful of the community
culture when proposing and implementing community change.
•
Change is an ongoing process that will occur in a community with or without the
intervention of community counseling. However, power, organization, and action
appropriately directed in the context of a community’s culture can lead to the changes that
a community needs and desires (Homan, 2011). This is the primary goal of community
counseling.
Conclusion
This course explores community counseling and its role in effecting community change. By
understanding the needs and resources of a community, the counselor can help develop a plan
for change and growth in the community. Seeing the community as a dynamic system and
acknowledging its culture the counselor can employ power, organization, and action to effect
change.
References
Fulbright, K., & Auspos, P. (2006). Aspen Roundtable on Community Change. Community
change: Theories, practice, and evidence. Washington, D.C.: Aspen Institute.
Homan, M. S. (2011). Promoting community change: Making it happen in the real world (5th
ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Laszlo, A., & Krippner, S. (1998). Systems Theories: Their origins, foundations and development.
In J. J. (Ed.), Systems theories and a priori aspects of perception (pp. 47-74). Amsterdam,
The Netherlands: Elsevier.
Lorenz, E. (2001). The butterfly effect. In R. Abraham, & Y. Ueda (eds.), The chaos avant-garde:
Memories of the early days of chaos theory (pp. 91-94). Hackensack, NJ: World Scientific.
Staples, L. (2004). Roots to power: A manual for grassroots organizing (2nd ed.). Westport, CT:
Praeger.
Wrong, D. (2004). Power: It's forms, bases and uses (3rd ed.). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
PCN-643 Lecture 6
Introduction
Resources in community counseling can be divided into three general categories. Human
resources, money, and community assets are all important in the successful planning and
implementation of programs for community change. Learning the skills for effectively utilizing
these resources is essential to successful community counseling.
Human Resources
The most valuable resources in community counseling are people. As discussed in the Module 3
lecture, the community counselor will be dealing with people in at least three segments of the
community. The benefit community, the action community, and the response community are
made up of people who have an interest in the program being implemented. The goal of the
community counselor is to recruit individuals from these segments of the community to work
for, volunteer for, and/or provide support for the program at hand. Once recruited, these
people must be managed in a way that motivates them to give their best to the program
(Homan, 2011).
In order to get people involved in a community program as employees, volunteers, or
supporters, Homan (2011) recommends that the community counselor takes four steps:
•
Contact People. There are a variety of ways to contact people. While advertisements,
mailings, and electronic media are mechanisms that allow for mass communication, they
may not be the best choice. Individual communication is often more effective in getting
people to understand the significance of the program at hand and developing an interest.
The counselor should network with those around him and should encourage current
employees and volunteers to do the same.
•
Give People a Reason to Join. Once the counselor has connected with potential
employees, volunteers, and supporters, it is imperative to secure their interest in the
community change program. This can be accomplished by showing them that the program
is important, well planned, and of interest. Imagine that each person is asking the question,
“Why is this important to me?” and give an answer.
•
Ask for Participation. Once interest has been secured, a request for participation should be
made. Making clear, specific requests that are related to the individual’s skill set and
resources will increase the likelihood of receiving a positive response.
•
Maintain Involvement. Once participation is secured, it is imperative to work closely with
employees, volunteers, and supporters to maintain commitment and involvement. An
intentional effort to make people feel welcome is important. The counselor should also be
sure to give people a task and clear directions for completion of the task. As employees,
volunteers, and supporters become more effective in their roles, it is appropriate to
increase responsibility. However, do not forget that people have the right to say, “No.”
Fundraising for Community Programs
Community change efforts cannot be effective without money. While there are a variety of
sources of funds, accessing them can be challenging. Therefore, it is imperative that the
community counselor learn the fundamentals of fundraising and grant writing.
Much like the community change program as a whole, the fundraising effort must be organized
and well-planned. The first step in successfully planning fundraising efforts is to establish a
team (Dustin, 2013). Each member of the team should have clearly defined roles that facilitate
the fundraising process. The executive director of the organization should provide the
leadership needed to direct and guide the team (Dustin, 2013).
The community organization for which funds are being raised is likely to have a board of
directors. (If the community counselor is establishing a new organization, it will be necessary to
recruit a board of directors.) The board of directors should “govern the organization and ensure
its ultimate success“ (Dustin, 2013, p. 17). As such, the board of directors has an important role
in fundraising. The involvement of the board of directors in fundraising efforts gives these
efforts credibility. Furthermore, board members often make donations and network with
others who are willing to do so.
The fundraising team will consist of various committees. Each committee should have a
chairperson. This individual is responsible for recruiting, organizing, and managing committee
members. The chairperson is also responsible for establishing and maintaining connections with
potential donors. Finally, the chairperson reports the efforts and outcomes of the committee to
the other chairs and to the team as a whole (Dustin, 2013).
While the specific committees will vary from one organization to another, Poderis (2009 as
cited in Dustin, 2013) suggests five committees based on the types of donations that are being
sought. The recommended committees include major corporate and business donations,
smaller corporate and business donations, foundations, major individual donations, and smaller
individual donations. Committee members should be selected based on passion, expertise, and
leadership skills related to the donation area. Committee chairs should have these
characteristics as well as organization skills and the ability to run effective meetings (Dustin,
2013).
Once the team is established, a fundraising plan must be put in place. Much like the plan for the
program, this begins with the establishment of goals, objectives, and activities. Fundraising
goals can be categorized as fixed or open. A fixed goal is a plan to raise a certain amount of
money for a specific purpose. An open goal has no specific amount and the funds may be used
for a variety of organizational needs (Dustin, 2013).
After goals, objectives, and actions have been established, it is recommended that a gift chart
be created. A gift chart is a visual aid that allows employees, volunteers, and donors to see the
fundraising goals and objectives and the progress made toward their completion. It is divided
into tiers showing the number of donors needed at each level to reach the overall goal. If the
anticipation is that most donations will come from large business and large private donors, then
the chart should include more tiers in the higher dollar amounts. If the anticipation is that most
donations will come from smaller donors, more tiers in lower dollar amounts may be
appropriate (Dustin, 2013). In addition to providing a visual representation of the fundraising
efforts, it is important to let donors know why they should support your organization. The case
statement is a “detailed written justification for the fundraising campaign” (Dustin, 2013, p.44).
Finally, remember that fundraising is not free. It is important to determine fundraising costs
ahead of time and take these into consideration as fundraising proceeds. Costs that are often
associated with fundraising efforts include printing/duplication costs, refreshments, postage,
travel, materials/equipment, communication costs, salaries/consultant fees, and registration
fees.
In addition to fundraising, community change efforts can benefit from grants, Grants are funds
given, usually by government organizations, for a specific purpose. The process of obtaining
grants involves writing and submitting a proposal/application in accordance with established
guidelines. Grant writing is a specialized skill. Unless the community counselor has specific
training in this area, it is highly recommended that a grant writer is hired (Dustin, 2013). While
the cost may seem prohibitive, the benefit, obtaining grant funds, is likely to be worth it.
Budgeting for Community Programs
A budget is a plan for using funds. It should include a list of expenses and income and the
balance between the two. Expenses include all of the ways in which the organization or
program will spend money. Employee related expenses are often one of the biggest costs for an
organization (Homan, 2011). This includes salaries and benefits. Other expenses include rent,
utilities, office supplies, insurance, and the fundraising costs mentioned above. Income can be
divided into two categories, revenue and support. Revenue is money that the organization
earns and support is money given to the organization through contributions and grants (Hutton
& Phillips, 2009). When writing a budget, it is important to anticipate and project changes in
both expenses and income. If a counselor is not familiar with the budgeting process, it may be
appropriate to hire a consultant.
Other Community Assets
In addition to human resources and funds, there are a variety of other assets that may prove
helpful in community change efforts. As discussed in Module 3, it is important to become
familiar with natural resources, commercial resources, educational resources, and
communication resources in a community. As the planning and implementation of the
community change program continues, the counselor must be aware of how these resources
can be utilized. Furthermore, it is necessary to build a rapport with those in the community who
control these resources so that they can be made available for use (Homan, 2011).
Conclusion
Community change can only be successful when resources are used effectively. The community
counselor must use a variety of skills to recruit and maintain a team of employees and
volunteers. In addition, the counselor should work with members of the organization to acquire
funds and other resources and manage them appropriately.
References
Dustin, J. C. (2013). Grant writing and fundraising tool kit for human services. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson.
Homan, M. S. (2011). Promoting community change: Making it happen in the real world (5th
ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Hutton, S., & Phillips, F. (2009). Nonprofit Kit for Dummies (3rd ed.) Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
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