2017–2018 Edition
American Government
and Politics Today
The Essentials
$
Bardes
Shelley
Schmidt
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A M E R I CA N
G OV E R N M E N T
and Politics Today
THE ESSENTIALS
2017–2018 Edition
Barbara A. Bardes
University of Cincinnati
Mack C. Shelley II
Iowa State University
Steffen W. Schmidt
Iowa State University
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
American Government
and Politics Today,
The Essentials
2017—2018 Edition
Bardes, Shelley, Schmidt
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Student Edition ISBN: 978-1-337-09121-3
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iii
BRIEF CONTENTS
Part 1 The American System
Chapter 1
The Democratic Republic 1
Chapter 2
The Constitution 29
Chapter 3
Federalism 59
Part 2 Civil Rights and Liberties
Chapter 4
Civil Liberties 85
Chapter 5
Civil Rights 115
Part 3 People and Politics
Chapter 6
Public Opinion and Political Socialization 149
Chapter 7
Interest Groups 179
Chapter 8
Political Parties 205
Chapter 9
Campaigns and Elections 235
Chapter 10 The Media 265
Part 4 Political Institutions
Chapter 11 The Congress 287
Chapter 12 The President 319
Chapter 13 The Bureaucracy 347
Chapter 14 The Courts 377
Part 5 Public Policy
Chapter 15 Domestic and Economic Policy 405
Chapter 16 Foreign Policy 435
Appendices
A The Declaration of Independence A-1
B
The Constitution of the United States A-3
C Federalist Papers Nos. 10, 51, and 78 A-19
D Justices of the United States Supreme Court since 1900 A-29
E
Party Control of Congress since 1904 A-33
F
Presidents of the United States A-34
Glossary G-1
Index I-1
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iv
D E TA I L E D C O N T E N T S
A Letter to Instructors
A Letter to Students
xii
MindTap QuickStart Guide
Resources
xiii
xvi
xvii
About the Authors
xviii
Career Opportunities
xix
Take Action: A Guide to Political Participation xxi
Part 1
The American System
Chapter 1
THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC
Democracy and Other Forms of Government
Types of Government 6
Direct Democracy as a Model 7
The Dangers of Direct Democracy 7
A Democratic Republic 8
What Kind of Democracy Do We Have? 9
1
The Difficult Road to Ratification 46
The Federalists Push for Ratification 46
The March to the Finish 48
Did the Majority of Americans Support
the Constitution? 49
The Bill of Rights 50
6
Altering the Constitution 51
The Formal Amendment Process 51
Informal Methods of Constitutional Change
Chapter 3
FEDERALISM
14
Political Ideologies 16
Conservatism 17
Liberalism 17
The Traditional Political Spectrum 18
Problems with the Traditional Political Spectrum
A Four-Cornered Ideological Grid 19
One Nation, Divided 20
The Changing Face of America 21
The End of the Population Explosion
Ethnic Change in America 22
Are We Better Off? 24
22
An Independent Confederation 35
The Resolution for Independence 35
July 4, 1776—The Declaration of Independence
The Rise of Republicanism 37
The Articles of Confederation: Our First Form
of Government 37
The Constitutional Convention 39
Who Were the Delegates? 40
The Working Environment 40
Factions among the Delegates 40
Politicking and Compromises 41
Working toward Final Agreement 43
The Final Document 45
Politics and Government 3
Government Is Everywhere 3
Why Is Government Necessary? 5
Limiting Government Power 5
Authority and Legitimacy 6
Fundamental Values 11
Liberty versus Order 11
Equality versus Liberty 12
The Proper Size of Government
29
The Colonial Background 31
Separatists, the Mayflower, and the Compact 31
More Colonies, More Government 32
British Restrictions and Colonial Reactions 33
The First Continental Congress 34
The Second Continental Congress 34
xiv
Acknowledgments
Reviewers
Chapter 2
THE CONSTITUTION
xi
19
59
Federalism and Its Alternatives 61
A Unitary System 61
A Confederal System 61
A Federal System 62
Why Federalism? 63
Other Arguments for Federalism 64
Arguments against Federalism 64
The Constitutional Basis
for American Federalism 65
Powers of the National Government
65
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54
35
v
Detailed Contents
Powers of the State Governments
Prohibited Powers 67
Concurrent Powers 67
The Supremacy Clause 67
Interstate Relations 69
66
Privacy Rights and the “Right to Die”
Defining Constitutional Powers—the Early Years
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) 70
Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) 70
States’ Rights and the Resort to Civil War 71
The Continuing Dispute
over the Division of Power 72
Dual Federalism 72
The New Deal and Cooperative Federalism 73
Methods of Implementing Cooperative Federalism
Fiscal Federalism and State Budgets 76
The Politics of Federalism 78
What Has National Authority Accomplished?
The “New Federalism” 78
The Politics of Federalism Today 79
Federalism and the Supreme Court 79
Recent Supreme Court Rulings 80
70
74
78
Part 2
Civil Rights and Liberties
Chapter 4
CIVIL LIBERTIES
85
The Constitutional Bases of Our Liberties 87
Protections Listed in the Original Constitution 87
Extending the Bill of Rights to State Governments 88
Incorporation under the Fourteenth Amendment 88
Freedom of Religion 89
The Separation of Church and State—
The Establishment Clause 89
The Free Exercise Clause 93
Freedom of Expression 94
No Prior Restraint 94
The Protection of Symbolic Speech 95
The Protection of Commercial Speech 95
Attempts to Ban Subversive or Advocacy Speech 96
The Eclipse of Obscenity as a Legal Category 97
Unprotected Speech: Slander 98
Student Speech 98
The Right to Assemble and to Petition
the Government 99
Freedom of the Press 100
The Right to Privacy 101
Privacy Rights and Abortion
101
102
Civil Liberties versus Security Issues 104
The USA Patriot Act 104
Roving Wiretaps 104
National Security Agency Surveillance 104
Recent Revelations of NSA Activity 104
National Security and the Civil Liberties
of Immigrants 105
The Great Balancing Act: The Rights
of the Accused versus the Rights of Society
Rights of the Accused 107
Extending the Rights of the Accused 107
The Exclusionary Rule 108
The Death Penalty 109
Chapter 5
CIVIL RIGHTS
106
115
The African American Experience
and the Civil Rights Movement 117
Ending Servitude 117
The Ineffectiveness of the Early
Civil Rights Laws 118
The End of the Separate-but-Equal Doctrine 120
De Jure and De Facto Segregation 120
The Civil Rights Movement 121
Modern Civil Rights Legislation 122
Consequences of Civil Rights Legislation 123
Civil Rights and the Courts 124
Standards for Judicial Review 126
The Courts Address Affirmative Action
127
Experiences of Other Minority Groups 129
Latinos and the Immigration Issue 129
The Agony of the American Indian 131
Asian Americans 132
Lingering Social and Economic Disparities 133
Women’s Struggle for Equal Rights 134
Early Women’s Political Movements 134
The Modern Women’s Movement 134
Women in Politics Today 136
Gender-Based Discrimination
in the Workplace 137
The Rights and Status of Gay Males
and Lesbians 138
Growth in the Gay Male and Lesbian Rights
Movement 138
State and Local Laws Targeting Gay Men
and Lesbians 139
Gay Men and Lesbians in the Military 139
Same-Sex Marriage 140
The Rights of Transgender Individuals 142
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vi
Detailed Contents
The Rights and Status of Juveniles 143
Voting Rights and the Young 143
The Rights of Children in Civil and Criminal
Proceedings 143
Indirect Techniques
Regulating Lobbyists 200
The Results of the 1946 Act
The Reforms of 1995 201
The Reforms of 2007 201
Part 3
People and Politics
Chapter 6
PUBLIC OPINION AND
POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION
Chapter 8
POLITICAL PARTIES
149
Public Opinion and Political Socialization 151
Consensus and Divided Opinion 151
Forming Public Opinion: Political Socialization 152
The Media and Public Opinion 154
Political Events and Public Opinion 155
Political Preferences and Voting Behavior 157
Party Identification and Demographic Influences 157
Election-Specific Factors 163
Measuring Public Opinion 163
The History of Opinion Polls 163
Sampling Techniques 164
The Difficulty of Obtaining Accurate Results
Additional Problems with Polls 166
Technology and Opinion Polls 168
165
Public Opinion and the Political Process 170
Political Culture and Public Opinion 170
Public Opinion about Government 172
Public Opinion and Policymaking 173
A Policy Example: Contraception Insurance 174
Chapter 7
INTEREST GROUPS
198
179
201
205
Political Parties in the United States 207
Functions of Political Parties in the United States
The Three Faces of a Party 208
The Party-in-the-Electorate 209
The Party Organization 209
The Party-in-Government 211
A History of Political Parties in the United States 212
The Formative Years: Federalists
and Anti-Federalists 213
Democrats and Whigs 213
The Civil War Crisis 214
The Post–Civil War Period 214
The Progressive Interlude 216
The New Deal Era 216
An Era of Divided Government 216
The Two Major U.S. Parties Today 217
A Series of Wave Elections 217
The Parties’ Core Constituents 219
Divisions within the Parties 220
Cultural Politics and Party Loyalty 222
Why Has the Two-Party System Endured? 223
The Historical Foundations
of the Two-Party System 223
Political Socialization and Practical Considerations 223
The Winner-Take-All Electoral System 223
State and Federal Laws Favoring the Two Parties 224
The Role of Minor Parties in U.S. Politics 225
Interest Group Fundamentals 181
Interest Groups and Social Movements 182
Why Do Americans Join Interest Groups? 182
Mechanisms of Political Change
Realignment 229
Dealignment 230
Tipping 231
Types of Interest Groups 184
Economic Interest Groups 185
Environmental Groups 189
Public-Interest Groups 189
Other Interest Groups 190
Chapter 9
CAMPAIGNS AND ELECTIONS
The Influence of Interest Groups 191
What Makes an Interest Group Powerful? 191
Interest Groups and Representative Democracy 193
Interest Groups and the Political Parties 194
Interest Group Strategies
Direct Techniques 196
196
207
229
The Twenty-First-Century Campaign
Who Is Eligible? 237
Who Runs? 238
Managing the Campaign 239
235
237
Financing the Campaign 241
The Evolution of the Campaign Finance System 241
The Current Campaign Finance Environment 243
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vii
Detailed Contents
Running for President: The Longest Campaign
Reforming the Presidential Primaries 247
The Invisible Primary 248
Primaries and Caucuses 249
Front-Loading the Primaries 251
On to the National Convention 252
The Electoral College 253
How Are Elections Conducted? 254
Office-Block and Party-Column Ballots
Voting by Mail 255
Voting Fraud and Voter ID Laws 255
254
The Roles of the Media 267
Entertaining the Public 267
Reporting the News 267
Identifying Public Problems 268
Socializing New Generations 268
Providing a Political Forum 268
Making Profits 269
Television versus the New Media 271
Government Regulation of the Media 278
Concentrated Ownership of the Media 278
Government Control of Content 278
The Issue of Net Neutrality 279
281
Part 4
Political Institutions
298
Chapter 12
THE PRESIDENT
310
319
Who Can Become President? 321
A “Natural Born Citizen” 321
Presidential Characteristics 321
The Process of Becoming President 322
The Many Roles of the President 323
Head of State 323
Chief Executive 323
Commander in Chief 325
Chief Diplomat 327
Chief Legislator 329
The President as Party Chief and Superpolitician
Presidential Powers 334
Emergency Powers 334
Executive Orders 335
Executive Privilege 336
Signing Statements 337
Abuses of Executive Power and Impeachment
287
The Nature and Functions of Congress
Bicameralism 289
The Lawmaking Function 290
The Representation Function 290
The Oversight Function 291
The Public-Education Function 291
House–Senate Differences
and Congressional Perks 293
Size and Rules 293
Debate and Filibustering 294
Congresspersons and the Citizenry:
A Comparison 296
Perks and Privileges 296
Lawmaking and Budgeting 310
How Much Will the Government Spend?
Congress Faces the Budget 313
Budget Resolutions and Crises 314
The Media and Political Campaigns 272
Television Coverage 272
The Internet, Blogging, and Podcasting 275
Chapter 11
THE CONGRESS
292
How Congress Is Organized 304
The Power of Committees 304
Types of Congressional Committees 305
The Selection of Committee Members 306
Leadership in the House 307
Leadership in the Senate 308
265
Opinion and Bias in the Media
Talk Radio 282
Bias in the Media 282
The Conflict-Resolution Function
The Powers of Congress 292
Congressional Elections and Apportionment
Candidates for Congressional Elections 298
Apportionment of the House 300
Turning Out to Vote 256
Factors Influencing Who Votes 258
Legal Restrictions on Voting 259
Chapter 10
THE MEDIA
247
289
The Executive Organization 338
The Cabinet 338
The Executive Office of the President
339
The Vice Presidency 341
The Vice President’s Job 341
Presidential Succession 342
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332
337
viii
Detailed Contents
Chapter 13
THE BUREAUCRACY
Court Procedures 388
Decisions and Opinions 388
347
The Selection of Federal Judges
Judicial Appointments 390
The Nature and Scope
of the Federal Bureaucracy 349
Public and Private Bureaucracies 349
Models of Bureaucracy 349
The Size of the Bureaucracy 350
The Federal Budget 352
The Organization of the Federal Bureaucracy
Cabinet Departments 353
Independent Executive Agencies 356
Independent Regulatory Agencies 357
Government and Government-Controlled
Corporations 360
Staffing the Bureaucracy 362
Political Appointees 362
History of the Federal Civil Service
353
363
Modern Attempts at Bureaucratic Reform 365
Sunshine Laws before and after 9/11 365
Privatization, or Contracting Out 366
Saving Costs through E-Government 366
Helping Out the Whistleblowers 366
Bureaucrats as Politicians and Policymakers 368
The Rulemaking Environment 370
Negotiated Rulemaking 371
Bureaucrats as Policymakers 371
Congressional Control of the Bureaucracy 373
Chapter 14
THE COURTS
Policymaking and the Courts 394
Judicial Review 394
Judicial Activism and Judicial Restraint 395
Strict versus Broad Construction 395
The Roberts Court 396
What Checks Our Courts? 399
Part 5
Public Policy
Chapter 15
DOMESTIC AND
ECONOMIC POLICY
405
The Policymaking Process:
Health Care as an Example 407
Health Care: Agenda Building 407
Health Care: Policy Formulation 410
Health Care: Policy Adoption 411
Health Care: Policy Implementation 412
Health Care: Policy Evaluation 413
Immigration 413
The Issue of Unauthorized Immigration
The Immigration Debate 414
414
Crime in the Twenty-First Century 415
Crime in American History 415
The Prison Population Bomb 417
377
Sources of American Law 379
The Common Law Tradition 379
Constitutions 380
Statutes and Administrative Regulations
Case Law 380
389
380
Energy and the Environment 418
Energy Independence—A Strategic Issue
Climate Change 421
418
The Politics of Economic Decision Making 422
Good Times, Bad Times 422
Fiscal Policy 424
Deficit Spending and the Public Debt 425
Monetary Policy 427
The Federal Court System 381
Basic Judicial Requirements 381
Parties to Lawsuits 382
Procedural Rules 382
Types of Federal Courts 383
Federal Courts and the War on Terrorism
385
The Supreme Court at Work 387
Which Cases Reach the Supreme Court?
387
The Politics of Taxes 429
Federal Income Tax Rates 429
Loopholes and Lowered Taxes 429
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ix
Detailed Contents
Chapter 16
FOREIGN POLICY
435
Facing the World: Foreign and Defense Policies
National Security and Defense Policies 437
Diplomacy 438
Idealism versus Realism in Foreign Policy 438
Terrorism and Warfare 439
The Emergence of Terrorism 439
Wars in Iraq 441
Afghanistan 442
The Civil War in Syria and the Rise of ISIS
437
The Major Foreign Policy Themes 456
The Formative Years: Avoiding Entanglements
The Era of Internationalism 456
Superpower Relations 458
456
Appendices
A
The Declaration of Independence A-1
B
The Constitution of the United States
C
Federalist Papers Nos. 10, 51, and 78 A-19
U.S. Diplomatic Efforts 444
Nuclear Weapons 444
The New Power: China 446
Israel and the Palestinians 447
Europe’s Economic Troubles 449
D
Justices of the United States
Supreme Court since 1900 A-29
E
Party Control of Congress since 1904 A-33
F
Presidents of the United States A-34
Who Makes Foreign Policy? 452
Constitutional Powers of the President 452
Other Sources of Foreign Policymaking 453
Congress Balances the Presidency 455
Glossary G-1
Index I-1
443
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A-3
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xi
A Letter to I N S T R U C TO R S
T
he fundamental theme of American Government and
Politics Today: The Essentials, 2017–2018 Edition continues to be the importance of participating in active
citizenship, emphasizing critical thinking about political
issues, and encouraging students to take action and become
involved in the political process. Whether the topic is immigration, trade deals, Supreme Court rulings, or taxation, we
constantly strive to involve students in the analysis. Our goal
is to make sure that politics is not just an abstract process,
but a very human enterprise. We emphasize how different outcomes can affect students’ civil rights and liberties,
employment opportunities, and economic welfare. To make
sure students understand the link between themselves and
the subject matter they are reading, new Why Should You
Care about...? features grab students’ attention while they
are reading the materials. We further encourage interaction with the political system by ending each chapter with
a feature titled How You Can Make a Difference, which
shows students how to become politically involved and why
it is important that they do so. Which Side Are You On?
features challenge students to find the connection between
a current controversy and their personal positions. And to
help students think critically about the world around them
and spark discussion in your classroom, we pose questions
for critical analysis with almost every boxed feature, table,
chart, exhibit, and photo.
The 2017–2018 Edition includes a separate Chapter 10
on The Media. Because the new media have become so
important, we felt it necessary to devote an entire chapter
to this topic. We look at content providers and aggregators. We look at the importance of media in campaigns.
Net neutrality is an important topic in this chapter. Finally,
we examine the issue of media bias and talk radio.
More demographics material is included throughout, particularly in Chapter 1, which presents material
on positive and negative trends, such as unemployment
and inequality, and falling crime and teen pregnancy
rates, and rising mortality rates among members of the
rural white working class.
Major updates to the content have been made in
the areas of public opinion, interest groups, modern
political parties, social media in politics, and the Obama
legacy. The chapters on Domestic and Economic Policy
and Foreign Policy have been completely updated and
modernized. The text reflects the current events that
most interest you and your students, including recent
Supreme Court rulings and state legislation on same-sex
marriage, marijuana, privacy and recent NSA revelation
coverage, current civil rights issues including the role of
the police, foreign policy coverage of Syria and Ukraine,
and more!
New to This Edition
MindTap
We have made numerous changes to this volume for the
2017–2018 Edition. We have rewritten the text as necessary, added many new features, and updated the book to
reflect the events of the past two years. For a detailed list of
changes, please contact your Cengage learning consultant.
MindTap is here to simplify your workload as an instructor, organize and immediately grade your students’ assignments, and allow you to customize your course as you see
fit. Through deep-seated integration with your Learning
Management System (LMS), grades are easily exported and
analytics are pulled with just the click of a button. MindTap
provides you with a platform to easily add in current events
videos and RSS feeds from national or local news sources.
Looking to incorporate more recent and late-breaking news
into the course? Add in our KnowNow American Government Blog link for weekly updated news coverage and
pedagogy.
Because we know that students respond to up-to-date
information about political events, we incorporate compelling, thought-provoking current examples throughout. We also include the results of the November 2016
elections and analyze how the rise of Donald Trump
will change the way we look at American politics. In
each new Election 2016 feature, we place the election results in the context of the chapter’s subject
matter.
Barbara A. Bardes, Mack C. Shelley II, Steffen W. Schmidt
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xii
A Letter to S T U D E N T S
T
he 2016 presidential elections proved to be the most
consequential in years. If Democrat Hillary Clinton
had been elected, the nation would have carried
on much as it had under the last six years of the Barack
Obama administration. We would have a Democratic president constrained by a Republican House of Representatives.
That is not what happened, however. Republican Donald
Trump is now president of the United States of America.
Republicans control both chambers of Congress. Furthermore, Trump is not a conventional Republican. Would he
really impose major restrictions on imports? Deport millions
of unauthorized immigrants? Snuggle up to Russia’s Vladimir Putin? Above all, how can he meet the expectations of
his millions of energized supporters? What will happen to
the economy? How far will Congress go in unraveling the
Obama legacy? Whatever Trump and the Republicans do,
the effect is likely to be felt by every citizen.
You’ll learn about all of these developments and more
in the 2017–2018 Edition of American Government and
Politics Today: The Essentials.
Our hope is that this book inspires you to join the
exciting process of being an active, informed citizen. Your
American Government course and the material you’ll read
here will give you the knowledge you’ll need to understand our political system and develop well-informed
opinions on the current issues and controversies you’ll
encounter in your daily life. We strive to highlight how
American government and politics directly affect you in
every chapter. We also suggest easy ways that you can
take action in your community and become involved in
the political process.
Special Features
Take Action: A Guide to Political Participation
is filled with resources and suggestions to help students stay informed and get involved in the political
process.
Thought-provoking What If . . . ?, Beyond Our Borders, and Consider the Source features help you
understand key concepts and current events as well as
develop a more informed and global perspective.
Why You Should Care about . . . ? marginal features
demonstrate why the topic at hand directly affects you
and matters in your life.
Which Side Are You On? sections challenge you to
take a stand on controversial issues.
How You Can Make a Difference features conclude
each chapter with ways in which you can become
actively involved in American politics.
Election 2016 features highlight the important impact
of the 2016 elections and include an analysis of the campaigns and election results.
now accompany almost
all boxed features, figures, tables, and photo captions, helping you apply and analyze the information
presented.
appear in each chapter opener,
correlate to each major section to help you target your
reading, and are revisited in each Chapter Summary and
end-of-chapter Quiz to help you assess your comprehension and master the book’s key concepts. Every chapter
also concludes with key terms and a list of additional
print and media resources. And the book is now seamlessly integrated with MindTap, directing you to a variety of online interactive activities that will help you test
yourself on the book’s Learning Outcomes.
The Benefits of Using MindTap
For you as a student, the benefits of using MindTap with
this book are endless. With automatically graded practice
quizzes and activities, an easily navigated learning path, and
an interactive eBook, you will be able to test yourself inside
and outside of the classroom with ease. The accessibility of
current events coupled with interactive media makes the
content fun and engaging. On your computer, phone, or
tablet, MindTap is there when you need it, giving you easy
access to flashcards, quizzes, readings, and assignments.
Barbara A. Bardes, Mack C. Shelley II, Steffen W. Schmidt
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Want to turn your
C into an A? Obviously, right?
But the right way to go about it isn’t always so obvious. Go digital to
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Engage with your course content, enjoy the flexibility of
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and most of all…EARN BETTER GRADES.
TO GET STARTED VISIT
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RESOURCES
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MindTap for American Government is a fully online,
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LLearning content and correlating to a core set of learniing outcomes. MindTap guides students through the
course curriculum via an innovative Learning Path Navigator where they will complete
reading assignments, challenge themselves with focus activities, and engage with interactive quizzes. Through a variety of gradable activities, MindTap provides students with
ample opportunities to check themselves for understanding, while also allowing faculty
to measure and assess student progress. Integration with programs like YouTube, Evernote, and Google Drive allows instructors to add and remove content of their choosing
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This Instructor Companion Web site is an all-in-one multimedia online resource for class
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AC K N O W L E D G M E N T S
I
n preparing this 2017–2018 edition of American Government and Politics Today: The Essentials, we were the
beneficiaries of the expert guidance of a skilled and dedicated team of publishers and editors. We have benefited
greatly from the supervision and encouragement given by
our Product Manager Bradley Potthoff. Alison Duncan, our
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undertook for us. We are grateful to our Senior Content
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Our gratitude goes to all of those who worked on the
various supplements offered with this text, especially the
test bank author, Scott Wallace from Indiana UniversityPurdue University Indianapolis, and the Instructor’s Manual author, Tamra Ortgies-Young from Georgia Perimeter
College. We would also like to thank Senior Marketing
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Many other people helped during the research and
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Any errors remain our own. We welcome comments
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and students.
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REVIEWERS
W
e would also like to thank the instructors who
have contributed their valuable feedback through
reviews of this text:
Pat Andrews, West Valley College
Marcos Arandia, North Lake College
Sara C. Benesh, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee
Sherman Brewer, Jr., Rutgers University, Newark
Martyn de Bruyn, Northeastern Illinois University
Gary Castaneda, Miracosta College
Ann Clemmer, University of Arkansas at Little Rock
Beatriz Cuartas, El Paso Community College
Jodi Empol, Montgomery County Community College
Crystal Garrett, Georgia Perimeter College, Dunwoody
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xviii
About the AU T H O R S
Barbara A. Bardes
Mack C. Shelley II
Steffen W. Schmidt
Barbara A. Bardes is professor emerita
of political science and former dean of
Raymond Walters College at the University of Cincinnati. She received her
B.A. and M.A. from Kent State University. After completing her Ph.D. at
the University of Cincinnati, she held
faculty positions at Mississippi State
University and Loyola University in
Chicago. She returned to Cincinnati,
her hometown, as a college administrator. She has also worked as a political consultant and directed polling for
a research center.
Bardes has written articles on public opinion and foreign policy and on
women and politics. She has authored
Thinking about Public Policy; Declarations of Independence: Women and
Political Power in Nineteenth-Century
American Fiction; and Public Opinion:
Measuring the American Mind (with
Robert W. Oldendick).
Bardes’s home is located in a very
small hamlet in Kentucky called Rabbit Hash, famous for its 150-year-old
general store. Her hobbies include
traveling, gardening, needlework, and
antique collecting.
Mack C. Shelley II is professor of political science and statistics at Iowa State
University. After receiving his bachelor’s degree from American University
in Washington, D.C., he completed
graduate studies at the University of
Wisconsin–Madison, where he received a master’s degree in economics and a Ph.D. in political science. He
taught for two years at Mississippi
State University before arriving at
Iowa State in 1979.
Shelley has published numerous articles, books, and monographs
on public policy. From 1993 to 2002,
he served as elected co-editor of
the Policy Studies Journal. His published books include The Permanent
Majority: The Conservative Coalition in
the United States Congress; Biotechnology and the Research Enterprise
(with William F. Woodman and Brian
J. Reichel); American Public Policy: The
Contemporary Agenda (with Steven
G. Koven and Bert E. Swanson); Redefining Family Policy: Implications for
the 21st Century (with Joyce M. Mercier and Steven Garasky); and Quality
Research in Literacy and Science Education: International Perspectives and
Gold Standards (with Larry Yore and
Brian Hand).
His leisure time includes traveling,
working with students, and playing
with the family dog and cats.
Steffen W. Schmidt is professor of
political science at Iowa State University. He grew up in Colombia, South
America, and studied in Colombia,
Switzerland, and France. He obtained
his Ph.D. in public law and government from Columbia University in
New York.
Schmidt has published 14 books
and more than 130 journal articles.
He is also the recipient of numerous
prestigious teaching prizes, including the Amoco Award for Lifetime
Career Achievement in Teaching and
the Teacher of the Year award. He is
a pioneer in the design, production,
and delivery of Internet courses and
a founding member of the American
Political Science Association’s section
on Computers and Multimedia. He
is known as “Dr. Politics” for his extensive commentary on U.S. politics
in U.S. and international media. He
is a weekly blogger for Gannett and
comments on CNN en Español and
Univision. He is the chief political and
international correspondent of the Internet magazine InsiderIowa.com.
Schmidt likes to snow ski, ride
hunter jumper horses, race sailboats,
and scuba dive.
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xix
CA R E E R O P P O R T U N I T I E S :
Political Science
Introduction
It is no secret that college graduates are facing one of the
toughest job markets in the past fifty years. Despite this
challenge, those with a college degree have done much
better than those without since the 2008 recession. One
of the most important decisions a student has to make is
the choice of a major. Many consider future job possibilities when making that call. A political science degree is
useful for a successful career in many different fields, from
lawyer to policy advocate, pollster to humanitarian worker.
Employer surveys reveal that the skills that most employers
value in successful employees—critical thinking, analytical
reasoning, and clarity of verbal and written communication—are precisely the tools that political science courses
should be helping you develop. This brief guide is intended
to help spark ideas for what kinds of careers you might pursue with a political science degree and the types of activities
you can engage in now to help you secure one of those
positions after graduation.
Careers in Political Science
Law and Criminal Justice
Do you find that your favorite parts of your political science
classes are those that deal with the Constitution, the legal
system, and the courts? Then a career in law and criminal
justice might be right for you. Traditional jobs in the field
range from lawyer or judge to police or parole officer. Since
9/11, there has also been tremendous growth in the area of
homeland security, which includes jobs in mission support,
immigration, and travel security, as well as prevention and
response.
Public Administration
The many offices of the federal government combined represent one of the largest employers in the United States.
Flip to the bureaucracy chapter of this textbook and consider that each federal department, agency, and bureau you
see looks to political science majors for future employees.
A partial list of such agencies would include the Department of Education, the Department of Health and Human
Services, and the Federal Trade Commission. There are also
thousands of staffers who work for members of Congress
or the Congressional Budget Office, many of whom were
political science majors in college. This does not even begin
to account for the multitude of similar jobs in state and
local governments that you might consider as well.
Campaigns, Elections, and Polling
Are campaigns and elections the most exciting part of political science for you? Then you might consider a career in the
growing industry based around political campaigns. From
volunteering and interning to consulting, marketing, and
fundraising, there are many opportunities for those who
enjoy the competitive and high-stakes electoral arena. For
those looking for careers that combine political knowledge
with statistical skills, there are careers in public opinion polling. Pollsters work for independent national organizations
such as Gallup and YouGov, or as part of news operations
and campaigns. For those who are interested in survey
methodology there are also a wide variety of non-political
career opportunities in marketing and survey design.
Interest Groups, International and
Nongovernmental Organizations
Is there a cause that you are especially passionate about?
If so, there is a good chance that there are interest groups
out there that are working hard to see some progress made
on similar issues. Many of the positions that one might find
in for-profit companies also exist in their non-profit interest group and nongovernmental organization counterparts,
including lobbying and high-level strategizing. Do not forget that there are also quite a few major international organizations—such as the United Nations, the World Health
Organization, and the International Monetary Fund—
where a degree in political science could be put to good
use. While competition for those jobs tends to be fierce,
your interest and knowledge about politics and policy will
give you an advantage.
Foreign Service
Does a career in diplomacy and foreign affairs, complete
with the opportunity to live and work abroad, sound exciting for you? Tens of thousands of people work for the State
Department, both in Washington, D.C., and in consulates
throughout the world. They represent the diplomatic interests of the United States abroad. Entrance into the Foreign
Service follows a very specific process, starting with the
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Career Opportunities
Foreign Service Officers Test—an exam given three times a
year that includes sections on American government, history, economics, and world affairs. Being a political science
major is a significant help in taking the FSOT.
fear among respondents. And yet oral communication
is a vital tool in the modern economy. You can practice
this skill in a formal class setting or through extracurricular activities that get you in front of a group.
Graduate School
Quantitative Analysis: As the Internet aids in the
collection of massive amounts of information, the
nation is facing a drastic shortage of people with basic
statistical skills to interpret and use this data. A political
science degree can go hand-in-hand with courses in
introductory statistics.
While not a career, graduate school may be the appropriate next step for you after completing your undergraduate degree. Following the academic route, being awarded
a Ph.D. or Master’s degree in political science could open
additional doors to a career in academia, as well as many of
the professions mentioned earlier. If a career as a researcher
in political science interests you, you should speak with your
advisors about continuing your education.
Preparing While Still on Campus
Internships
One of the most useful steps you can take while still on
campus is to visit your college’s career center to discuss an
internship in your field of interest. Not only does it give you
a chance to experience life in the political science realm, it
can lead to job opportunities later down the road and add
experience to your resume.
Skills
In addition to your political science classes, there are a few
skills any number of which will prove useful as a complement to your degree:
Writing: Like anything else, writing improves with
practice. Writing is one of those skills that is applicable
regardless of where your career might take you.
Virtually every occupation relies on an ability to write
cleanly, concisely, and persuasively.
Public Speaking: An oft-quoted 1977 survey showed
that public speaking was the most commonly cited
Foreign Language: One skill that often helps a student or future employee stand out in a crowded job
market is the ability to communicate in a language
other than English. Solidify or set the foundation for
your verbal and written foreign language communication skills while in school.
Student Leadership
One attribute that many employers look for is “leadership potential,” which can be quite tricky to indicate on
a resume or cover letter. What can help is a demonstrated
record of involvement in clubs and organizations, preferably in a leadership role. While many people think immediately of student government, most student clubs allow you
the opportunity to demonstrate your leadership skills.
Conclusion
We hope that reading this has sparked some ideas on
potential future careers. As a next step, visit your college’s
career placement office, which is a great place to further
explore what you have read here. You might also visit your
college’s alumni office to connect with graduates who are
working in your field of interest. Political science opens the
door to a lot of exciting careers; have fun exploring the
possibilities!
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TAKE
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A GUIDE TO POLITICAL
PARTICIPATION
Find Out Where You Fit
and What You Know
It’s easy to think of politics as a spectator sport—
something that politicians do, pundits analyze,
and citizens watch. But there are many ways to get
engaged with politics, to interact with the political
world and participate in it, and even to effect change.
GET
INFORMED.
litical issues. Do you have a sense of where your views
place you on the political map? Get a feel for your ideological leanings by taking The World’s Smallest Political
Quiz: www.theadvocates.org/quiz/.
Constitutional Center can help you with that. Go to
constitutioncenter.org/foundersquiz/ to discover
which Founding Father’s personality most resembles
your own.
in which American politics takes place. Do you know
what the Constitution says? Take the Constitution I.Q.
Quiz: www.constitutionfacts.com/. Was your score
higher than the national average?
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interactive Constitution and learn more about provisions
in that document: constitutioncenter.org/interactive
-constitution.
zens have to do—and what they have to know. Go to
the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services website
at www.uscis.gov/. What is involved in applying for
citizenship? Take the Naturalization Self-Test at https://
myuscis.gov/preptest/civics. How did you do?
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Take Action | A Guide to Political Participation
Think about How Your Political Views
Have Been Shaped
GET
CONNECTED.
how agents of political
socialization—your family,
your schools, your peers,
for example—have contributed to your political
beliefs and attitudes may
help you understand why
others might not share your views on politics. Then
have conversations with people in your classes or in
your residence hall about the people, institutions,
and experiences that influenced the way they view
the political world.
those of a majority of Americans. There are a number of
good polling sites that report public opinion on a range
of topics.
▫ The Pew Research Center for the People & the Press
conducts regular polls on politics and policy issues:
www.people-press.org/.
▫ Public Agenda reports poll data and material on major issues: publicagenda.org/.
▫ The results of recent polls and an archive of past polls
can be found at Gallup: www.gallup.com/.
▫ The Roper Center for Public Opinion Research is
a leading archive of data from surveys of public
opinion: ropercenter.cornell.edu/.
▫ PollingReport organizes public opinion data from
various sources by keyword: pollingreport.com/.
Remember that different news organizations (or
media brands) will report the same information in
different ways. Don’t avoid certain news sources because you think you might not agree with the way
they report the news. It’s just as important to know
how people are talking about issues as it is to know
about the issues themselves.
▫ One of the best ways to get to the source of the
news is to get your information from the same
place that journalists do. Often they take their
cues or are alerted to news events by news agencies like the nonprofit cooperative, Associated Press:
ap.org/.
▫ Installing a few key apps on your phone or tablet can
make all the difference in being informed. Try downloading the Associated Press (AP) app for short updates from news around the world, as they happen.
There are tons of other great political apps, some of
which are fairly polarized, others that are neutral,
and still others that are just plain silly.
Blogs
The blogosphere affords views of politics that may be
presented differently than the way the mainstream media
does it. In the last several decades, blogs have surged in
popularity as a source for political news and opinion.
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Take Action | A Guide to Political Participation
Social Media
Staying connected can be as simple as following
local, national, or international politics on social
media. U.S. House Majority Whip Kevin McCarthy,
President Barack Obama, Senator Elizabeth Warren,
House Speaker Paul Ryan, and even the White House
have Instagram accounts worth following. Numerous
politicians and political outlets are also on Twitter and
Facebook.
Check the Data
or public statement is accurate. PolitiFact, a project of
the Tampa Bay Times, is a good place to go to get the
facts: www.politifact.com/. Check out the Truth-OMeter, and get it on your smartphone or tablet.
www.
factcheck.org/ is a nonpartisan, nonprofit “consumer
advocate” for voters that monitors the factual accuracy
of what political players are saying in TV ads, speeches,
and interviews.
Keep Up During Election Season
candidates: votesmart.org/
in addition to covering sports and economics: www.
fivethirtyeight.com/
politics by tracking election polls. There are many good
sources:
▫ For a comprehensive collection of election polls,
go to the RealClearPolitics website:
realclearpolitics.com/polls/ .
RealClearPolitics is a good source
for other political news and
opinions as well.
▫ Polls for U.S. federal elections, including state-bystate polls, can be found at electoral-vote.com/.
▫ HuffPost Pollster publishes pre-election poll results combined into interactive charts: elections.huffington
post.com/pollster/. During presidential elections,
additional maps and electoral vote counts can be
found at HuffPost Politics Election Dashboard.
Monitor Money
and Influence in Politics
The Center for Responsive Politics website is an excellent
source for information about who’s contributing what
amounts to which candidates: www.opensecrets.org/.
You can also use the lobbying database to identify the top
lobbying firms, the agencies most frequently lobbied, and
the industries that spend the most on lobbying activities.
Explore the site’s information on the revolving door, which
identifies the lobbying firms, agencies, and industries that
have the highest numbers of people who have moved
between government and interest group positions.
Connect with Congress
You can, of course, learn a lot about what’s going on in
Congress from the websites of the House of Representatives and the Senate: www.house.gov/ and www.
senate.gov/. But check out GovTrack to find out where
your representative and senators fall on the leadership
and ideology charts, as well as their most recently sponsored bills and votes on legislation: www.govtrack.us/.
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Take Action | A Guide to Political Participation
GET INVOLVED.
Take an Interest in Your
Community—Offer to Help
Every community—large or small—can use energetic people willing to help where there is a need. Local nonprofit
agencies serving the homeless, battered women, or troubled teens often welcome volunteers who are willing to
pitch in. You can learn a lot about the public policies that
focus on social services while doing some good for others.
The Internet also has abundant resources about nonprofits and charities and how you can get involved:
is a great place to find organizations and
events that are looking for employees, interns, and volunteers. Filter by type and area of focus (women, disaster relief, animals, etc.) to find a cause that fits you.
is a watchdog for nonprofits and charity
organizations. It highlights individuals and groups that
are doing good things in communities and around the
globe and checks on those who may not be doing as
much good as you’d think. Tinyspark also has a podcast.
is another tool for checking on
charities. It reports on charities in terms of how much
of their donations go to the cause, which charities are
in the red, which are worth promoting, and so on—it’s
kind of like opensecrets.org for charities.
Design Your Own Ways
to Take Action
and those who want to help. For example, there may be
people on your campus who, because of a disability or
recent injury, need someone to help carry belongings,
open doors, or push wheelchairs.
a cause that you think needs attention? Talk with friends.
Find out if they share your concerns. Turn your discussions into a blog. Create videos of events you think are
newsworthy and share them online.
Join a Group on Campus
You probably see fliers promoting groups and recruiting members posted all over campus—in the student center, in the
residence halls, in classroom buildings. Chances are, there’s
a group organized around something you’re interested in or
care about. Maybe it’s an organization that works to bring
clean water to remote parts of the world. Perhaps it’s an organization that works to foster tolerance on campus. The American Civil Liberties Union may have a chapter on your campus.
The American Red Cross may be there, too. You’ll find College
Republicans, College Democrats, groups organized around
race or culture, groups that go on alternative spring break trips
to give direct service to communities in need, service organizations of all kinds; groups that serve to create community
among culturally underrepresented students, and groups that
care about the environment. The list goes on and on.
If you have an interest that isn’t represented by the
groups on your campus, start your own. Your college or
university should have an office of campus life (or something similar) that can help you navigate the process for
establishing a student organization.
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
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Take Action | A Guide to Political Participation
Remember, too, that there are hundreds of political
interest groups with national reach. Check out their Web
sites to see if you want to join.
Try Your Hand at Governing
Vote (But Don’t Forget
to Register First)
Engage with Political Institutions,
Government Agencies,
and Public Policymakers—
at Home and Abroad
ticipation in American democracy. You can learn about
the laws governing voting in your state—and all of
the others—by going to the Web site of the National
Conference of State Legislatures and its link to Voter
Identification Requirements: www.ncsl.org/research/
elections-and-campaigns/voter-id/
search engine. The office in your state that administers voting and elections (in some states it’s the office of the Secretary of State, in others it might be
the State Board of Elections) will have a website that
outlines the steps you will need to follow. If you need
to vote absentee, you’ll find out how to do that here,
too.
self with what you’ll be looking at when you go to the
polls, you will probably be able to view one online. Just
enter “sample ballot” in a search engine. Your local
election board, the League of Women Voters, or your
district library often post a sample ballot online.
your polling place.
Work for a Campaign
Get involved with student government. Serve on committees. Run for office.
offices—one may be in the town in which you live.
Your U.S. Senators also have offices in various locations
around the state. Check to see if internships are available or if there are opportunities for volunteering. If you
plan to be in Washington, D.C. and want to visit Capitol
Hill, you can book a tour in advance through your senators’ or representative’s offices. That’s where you get
gallery passes, too.
universities have established internship programs with
government agencies and institutions. Some have semester-long programs that will bring you into contact
with policymakers in Congress and in the bureaucracy,
with journalists, and with a variety of other prominent
newsmakers. Politics and government come alive, and
the contacts you make while participating in such programs can often lead to jobs after graduation.
planning a trip to Washington, try to watch oral argument. Go to the Court’s website to access the link
for oral arguments: www.supremecourt.gov/. You’ll
find the argument calendar and a visitor’s guide. (The
secret is to get in line early.)
Candidates welcome energetic volunteers. So do
groups that are supporting (or opposing) ballot measures. While sometimes tiring and frustrating, working in campaign politics can also
be exhilarating and very rewarding. Find the
contact information for a campaign you’re
interested in on their website and inquire
about volunteer opportunities.
Be Part of Campus Media
Do you have a nose for news and do you write
well? Try reporting for the university newspaper.
Work your way up to an editor’s position. If
broadcast media is your thing, get involved
with your college radio station or go on air
on campus TV.
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Take Action | A Guide to Political Participation
GET INFORMED.
GET CONNECTED.
GET INVOLVED.
long program or even a few days, become a virtual tourist. Take the U.S. Capitol Virtual Tour: www.aoc.gov/
virtual-tours/capitolbldg/tourfiles/.
Web site of the Oyez Project at IIT Chicago-Kent College
of Law: www.oyez.org/tour/. And you can listen to
Supreme Court oral arguments wherever you are. Go to
the Oyez site and check ISCOTUSnow (blogs.kentlaw
.iit.edu/iscotus/).
sues even if you stay stateside. Participate in the Model
UN Club on your campus (or start a Model UN Club if
there isn’t one). By participating in Model UN, you will
become aware of international issues and conflicts and
recognize the role that the United Nations can play in
forging collective responses to global concerns. Model
UN conferences are simulations of a session of the United Nations; your work as part of a country’s UN delegation will give you hands-on experience in diplomacy.
Rawpixel.com/Shutterstock.com
your horizons and to get a feel for different cultures and
the global nature of politics and the economy. There are
programs that will take you virtually anywhere in the
world. Check with the Study Abroad Office at your college or university to find out more.
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1
1
THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC
A voter-registration
drive on a university
campus. What do
we call a system
in which we elect
the people who
govern us?
Blend Images/Alamy
These five LEARNING OUTCOMES below are designed to help improve your understanding of this chapter:
1: Define the terms politics, government, order, liberty, authority, and legitimacy.
2: Distinguish the major features of direct democracy and representative democracy,
and describe majoritarianism, elite theory, and pluralism.
3: Summarize the conflicts that can occur between the values of liberty and order, and
between those of liberty and equality.
4: Discuss conservatism, liberalism, and other popular American ideological positions.
5: Explain how a changing American population and other social trends may affect the future
of our nation.
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
2
Part One | The American System
What if...
We Had No Bill of Rights?
Tom Carter/Alamy
Background
Image 1–1 A conservative
protester holds up a copy of
the Bill of Rights. Which of
the rights mentioned here
might be especially popular
with conservatives?
You know that you have the right to speak
freely about the government without fear of
being arrested for what you say. You have probably heard of the right to bear arms. These
rights come from the Bill of Rights, the first ten
amendments to the U.S. Constitution. Because
of these amendments, the government may
not pass laws that limit freedom of speech, religion, and many other freedoms. You will learn
more about the civil liberties guaranteed by the
Bill of Rights in Chapter 4.
The Bill of Rights is built into the founding
document that guides our government. As a
result, it commands a certain reverence. Merely
by its existence, it can dissuade citizens and
government leaders from impairing the civil liberties of fellow Americans.
What If We Had
No Bill of Rights?
Because the Bill of Rights protects our fundamental liberties, some people jump to the conclusion that, without it, we would have no
rights. Consider, though, that almost all state
constitutions enumerate many of the same
rights. It is true that if the rights of the people
were not written into state and national constitutions, these rights would be entirely dependent on the political process—on elections and
on laws passed by the U.S. Congress and state
legislatures. Popular rights would still be safe.
Unpopular ones would be in danger.
The Right To Bear Arms
Take as an example the Second Amendment,
which guarantees to citizens the right to bear
arms. If the Bill of Rights did not exist, would it
mean that individuals would be unable to keep
firearms in their homes? Probably not. Few
localities in the United States have tried to ban
handguns completely. Almost all states have
gun laws that are far more permissive than they
have to be under the Constitution. Indeed, it
was not until 2008 and 2010 that the highest
court in the land, the Supreme Court, even
addressed this issue. The Court ruled that complete bans on possessing handguns are
unconstitutional.
The Rights of
Criminal Defendants
According to the Sixth Amendment, accused
individuals have the right to a speedy and public trial. Also, according to the Fifth Amendment,
no accused “shall be compelled in any criminal
case to be a witness against himself, nor be
deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due
process of law.” These rules protect people who
are accused of crimes. Certainly, without the Bill
of Rights, we could imagine many more restrictions on the rights of criminal defendants. Why?
Because those accused of crimes are not a popular group of people. Many of the protections
now given to criminal defendants would probably not exist if there were no Bill of Rights.
Free Speech
Without the Bill of Rights, we would probably
see many more laws restricting political contributions and advertising. We could expect laws
against violent video games and pornography
on the Internet. In contrast, given current popular attitudes, it is unlikely that “subversive” speech
would be greatly restricted. Most Americans and
their elected representatives support the right
to denounce the government.
For Critical Analysis
The Fifth Amendment guarantees
that no one can lose her or his liberty
or property without due process. Yet,
during World War II, we imprisoned
tens of thousands of Japanese American
citizens, based solely upon their race.
Could that happen today to some other
group of citizens, such as Muslim
Americans? Why or why not?
Which of the rights mentioned in
this feature do you think are the most
important? Why?
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
3
Chapter 1 | The Democratic Republic
P
olitics, for many people, is the “great game”—better than soccer, better than
chess. Scores may be tallied only every two years, at elections, but the play continues at all times. The game, furthermore, is played for high stakes. Politics can
affect what you spend. It can determine what you can legally do in your spare time. (The
What If . . . feature that opened this chapter examined some of the ways in which your
freedoms might be restricted if the Bill of Rights did not exist.) In worst-case circumstances, politics can even threaten your life.
Few topics are so entertaining as politics—and so important. How did the great game
turn out in the elections held on November 8, 2016? We address that question in this
chapter’s Election 2016 feature.
In our democratic republic, citizens play an important role by voting. Although voting
is extremely important, it is only one of the ways that citizens can exercise their political
influence. Americans can also join a political organization or interest group, stage a protest, or donate funds to a political campaign or cause. There are countless ways to become
involved. Informed participation begins with knowledge, however, and this text aims to
provide you with a strong foundation in American government and politics.
Politics and Government
What is politics? Politics can be understood as the process of resolving conflicts and
deciding, as political scientist Harold Lasswell put it in his classic definition, “who gets
what, when, and how.”1 More specifically, politics is the struggle over power or influence
within organizations or informal groups that can grant benefits or privileges.
We can identify many such groups and organizations. In every community that makes
decisions through formal or informal rules, politics exists. For example, when a church
decides to construct a new building or hire a new minister, the decision is made politically.
Politics can be found in schools, social groups, and any other organized collection of individuals. Of all the organizations that are controlled by political activity, however, the most
important is the government.
What is the government? Certainly, it is an institution—that is, an ongoing organization that performs certain functions for society. An institution has a life separate from the
lives of the individuals who are part of it at any given moment in time. The government
can be defined as an institution within which decisions are made that resolve conflicts and
allocate benefits and privileges. The government is also the preeminent institution within
society because it has the ultimate authority for making these decisions.
Learning Outcome 1:
Define the terms politics,
government, order,
liberty, authority, and
legitimacy.
Government Is Everywhere
The government is even more important than politics. Many people largely ignore politics,
but it is impossible to ignore government. It is everywhere, like the water you drink and the
air you breathe. Both air and water, by the way, are subject to government pollution standards. The food you eat comes from an agricultural industry that is heavily regulated and
subsidized by the government. Step outside your residence, and almost immediately you
will walk down a government-owned street or drive on a government-owned highway.
From Your Birth. The county government records your birth. Your toys, crib, and baby
food must meet government safety standards. After a few years, you’ll start school, and 86
percent of all children attend public—which is to say, government—schools. Some children
attend private schools or are home schooled, but their education must also meet government
1. Harold Lasswell, Politics: Who Gets What, When, and How (Gloucester, Mass.: Peter Smith Publisher, 1990; originally published in 1936).
politics
The struggle over power or influence
within organizations or informal groups
that can grant benefits or privileges.
institution
An ongoing organization that performs
certain functions for society.
government
The institution that has the ultimate
authority for making decisions that
resolve conflicts and allocate benefits and
privileges within a society.
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4
Part One | The American System
standards. Public school students spend many hours in an environment designed and managed by teachers and other government employees. If you get into trouble, you’ll meet government employees you’d rather not see: the police, court employees, or even jail staff.
Throughout Your Life. Most young people eagerly look forward to receiving their
government-issued driver’s license. Many join the military on graduating from high school,
and for those who do, every minute of the next several years will be 100 percent government issue. (That’s why we call soldiers “GIs.”) A majority of young adults attend college
at some point, and if you are reading this textbook, you are probably one of them. Many
private colleges and universities exist, but 73 percent of all college students attend public
institutions. Even most private universities are heavily dependent on government support.
In nearly all states, you began paying sales taxes from the moment you had your own
funds to spend. Some of those funds are made up of currency issued by the government.
When you enter the workforce, you’ll begin paying payroll and income taxes to the government. If, like most people, you are an employee, government regulations will set many
of your working conditions. You might even work for the government itself—16 percent
of employees do. If you are unfortunate enough to lose a job or fall into poverty, government programs will lend you a hand.
To the Very End. Later in life, you may have health problems. Even before President
Barack Obama’s health-care plan went into effect on January 1, 2014, the federal government was already providing half of all the nation’s health-care funding. Much of that
spending came, and continues to come, from the federal Medicare program, which
funds health care for almost everyone over the age of sixty-five. At that point in your
life, you’ll probably receive Social Security, the national government’s pension plan that
Election 2016
The Outcome of the Elections
Republican Donald Trump’s victory in the 2016 presi-
Trump’s victory dragged down some Democratic sena-
dential elections came as a surprise to many. Most pub-
torial hopefuls, although the Democrats did add two Senate
lic opinion polls taken immediately before the elections
seats. The total was now 52 Republican senators versus 48
showed Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton with a 3
Democrats. The Democrats also picked up a net gain of eight
to 4 percentage point advantage. The polls were wrong.
seats in the House of Representatives, but the Republicans
Trump and Clinton wound up effectively tied in the popu-
retained their majority. Following runoff elections in
lar vote—the count right after the elections had Clinton
Louisiana, the House margin was expected to be 241 to 192.
ahead by 0.2 percent. U.S. presidential elections are
With Republicans in control of the presidency and both cham-
decided by the electoral college, however, not the popu-
bers of Congress, a blizzard of Republican legislation seemed
lar vote. There, Trump’s breakthrough in the Midwest pro-
certain. Possibilities included the repeal of the Affordable
pelled him to a decisive majority. Voter turnout was key.
Care Act (Obamacare), a reversal of Obama’s environmental
More Trump supporters voted than expected, and fewer
measures, and tax cuts aimed primarily at those with large
Democrats turned out. The Rocky Mountain and the Pacific
incomes. The actual outcome depended on negotiations
Coast states were relatively immune to Trump’s nationalist
between Trump’s team and the Republicans in Congress—
appeal.
the two groups did not entirely share the same goals.
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
5
Chapter 1 | The Democratic Republic
covers most employees. Eventually, the county government will record your death, and a government
judge will oversee the distribution of your assets to
your heirs.
Why Is Government Necessary?
SANA/AP Images
Perhaps the best way to assess the need for government
is to examine circumstances in which government, as
we normally understand it, does not exist. What happens when multiple groups compete violently with one
another for power within a society? There are places
around the world where such circumstances exist. A
current example is the Middle Eastern nation of Syria,
run by the dictator Bashar al-Assad. In 2011, peaceful
protesters were killed, which led to an armed rebellion.
The government lost control of much of the country,
and its forces repeatedly massacred civilians in contested areas. Some rebels, such as the so-called Islamic
Image 1–2 Syrians in a government-held district gather at the scene
State, were extreme Islamists. Others were more modof a suicide bombing. Members of the group known as ISIS blew themselves up during the morning rush hour. How would we describe
erate. By 2013, rebels were fighting each other as well
what is happening in Syria?
as the government. In much of Syria, law and order had
broken down completely. By 2016, as many as 400,000
people had been killed, and almost half of the country’s
people had been driven from their homes.
As the example of Syria shows, one of the original purposes of government is the
maintenance of security, or order. By keeping the peace, a government protects its
people from violence at the hands of private or foreign armies and criminals. If order is
not present, it is not possible for the government to provide any of the other benefits
that people expect from it. Order is a political value to which we will return later in this
chapter.
Limiting Government Power
A complete collapse of order and security, as seen in Syria, is actually an uncommon event.
Much more common is the reverse—too much government control. In 2016, the human
rights organization Freedom House judged that fifty of the world’s countries were “not
free.” These nations contain 36 percent of the world’s population. Such countries may be
controlled by individual kings or dictators. Saudi Arabia’s king Abdullah bin Abdulaziz and
North Korea’s dictator Kim Jong-un are obvious examples. Alternatively, a political party,
such as the Communist Party of China, may monopolize all the levers of power. The military may rule, as in Thailand since 2014.
In all of these examples, the individual or group running the country cannot be
removed by legal means. Freedom of speech and the right to a fair trial are typically
absent. Dictatorial governments often torture or execute their opponents. Such regimes
may also suppress freedom of religion. Revolution, whether violent or nonviolent, is often
the only way to change the government.
In short, protection from the violence of domestic criminals or foreign armies is not
enough. Citizens also need protection from abuses of power by their own government. To
protect the liberties of the people, it is necessary to limit the powers of the government.
Liberty—the greatest freedom of the individual consistent with the freedom of other
individuals—is a second major political value, along with order. We discuss this value in
more detail later in this chapter.
order
A state of peace and security. Maintaining
order by protecting members of society
from violence and criminal activity is one
of the oldest purposes of government.
liberty
The greatest freedom of the individual that
is consistent with the freedom of other
individuals in the society.
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
6
Part One | The American System
Authority and Legitimacy
Every government must have authority—that is, the right and power to enforce its decisions. Ultimately, the government’s authority rests on its control of the armed forces and
the police. Few people in the United States, however, base their day-to-day activities on
fear of the government’s enforcement powers. Most people, most of the time, obey the
law because this is what they have always done. Also, if they did not obey the law, they
would face the disapproval of friends and family. Consider an example: Do you avoid
injuring your friends or stealing their possessions because you are afraid of the police—or
because if you undertook these actions, you no longer would have friends?
Under normal circumstances, the government’s authority has broad popular support. People accept the government’s right to establish rules and laws. When authority is
broadly accepted, we say that it has legitimacy. Authority without legitimacy is a recipe
for trouble.
Events in several Arab nations since 2011 serve as an example. The dictators who
ruled Egypt, Libya, and Tunisia had been in power for decades. All three dictators had
some popular support when they first gained power. None of these nations had a tradition of democracy, and so it was possible for undemocratic rulers to enjoy a degree of
legitimacy. After years of oppressive behavior, these regimes slowly lost that legitimacy.
The rulers survived only because they were willing to employ violence against any opposition. In Egypt and Tunisia, the end came when soldiers refused to use force against massive demonstrations. Having lost all legitimacy, the rulers of these two countries lost their
authority as well. In Libya, the downfall and death of the dictator Muammar Gaddafi came
only after a seven-month civil war. (Egypt’s shaky new democracy collapsed in 2013 when
the army seized power.)
Learning Outcome 2:
Distinguish the major
features of direct democracy and representative
democracy, and describe
majoritarianism, elite
theory, and pluralism.
authority
The right and power of a government or
other entity to enforce its decisions.
legitimacy
Popular acceptance of the right and power
of a government or other entity to exercise
authority.
totalitarian regime
A form of government that controls
all aspects of the political, social, and
economic life of a nation.
authoritarianism
A type of regime in which only the
government itself is fully controlled by the
ruler. Social and economic institutions exist
that are not under the government’s control.
Democracy and
Other Forms of Government
The different types of government can be classified according to which person or group
of people controls society through the government.
Types of Government
At one extreme is a society governed by a totalitarian regime. In such a political system,
a small group of leaders or a single individual—a dictator—makes all decisions for the
society. Every aspect of political, social, and economic life is controlled by the government.
The power of the ruler is total (thus, the term totalitarianism). Examples of such regimes
include Germany under Adolph Hitler and the former Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin.
A second type of system is authoritarian government. Authoritarianism differs from
totalitarianism in that only the government itself is fully controlled by the ruler. Social and
economic institutions, such as churches, businesses, and labor unions, exist that are not
under the government’s control.
Many of our terms for describing the distribution of political power are derived from
the ancient Greeks, who were the first Western people to study politics systematically. One
form of rule was known as aristocracy, literally meaning “rule by the best.” In practice, this
meant rule by wealthy members of ancient families. Another term from the Greeks is theocracy, which literally means “rule by God” (or the gods). In practice, theocracy means rule by
self-appointed religious leaders. Iran is a rare example of a country in which supreme power
is in the hands of a religious leader, the Grand Ayatollah Ali Khamenei. One of the most
straightforward Greek terms is oligarchy, which simply means “rule by a few.”
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7
Chapter 1 | The Democratic Republic
Anarchy is a term derived from a Greek word meaning the absence of government.
Advocates of anarchy envision a world in which each individual makes his or her own rules
for behavior. In reality, the absence of government typically results in rule by competing
armed factions, many of which are indistinguishable from gangsters. This is the state of
affairs in Syria, which we described earlier.
Finally, the Greek term for rule by the people was democracy. Within the limits of
their culture, some of the Greek city-states operated as democracies. Today, in much of
the world, the people will not grant legitimacy to a government unless it is based on
democracy.
democracy
A system of government in which political
authority is vested in the people. The term is
derived from the Greek words demos (“the
people”) and kratos (“authority”).
direct democracy
A system of government in which
political decisions are made by the people
directly, rather than by their elected
representatives; probably attained most
easily in small political communities.
legislature
A governmental body primarily
responsible for the making of laws.
Direct Democracy as a Model
The Athenian system of government in ancient Greece is usually considered the purest
model for direct democracy because the citizens of that community debated and voted
directly on all laws, even those put forward by the ruling council of the city. The most
important feature of Athenian democracy was that the legislature was composed of all
of the citizens. (Women, resident foreigners, and slaves, however, were excluded because
they were not citizens.) This form of government required a high level of participation
from every citizen. That participation was seen as benefiting the individual and the citystate. The Athenians believed that although a high level of participation might lead to
instability in government, citizens, if informed about the issues, could be trusted to make
wise decisions.
Direct democracy also has been practiced at the local level in Switzerland and, in
the United States, in New England town meetings. At these town meetings, important
decisions—such as levying taxes, hiring city officials, and deciding local ordinances—
are made by majority vote. (In recent years, however, turnout for such meetings has
declined.) Some states provide a modern adaptation of direct democracy for their citizens. In these states, representative democracy is supplemented by the initiative or the
referendum. Both processes enable the people to vote directly on laws or constitutional
amendments. The recall process, which is available
in many states, allows the people to vote to remove
an official from state office before his or her term
has expired.
initiative
A procedure by which voters can petition
to vote on a law or a constitutional
amendment.
referendum
An electoral device whereby legislative or
constitutional measures are referred by
the legislature to the voters for approval or
disapproval.
recall
A procedure allowing the people to vote to
dismiss an elected official from state office
before his or her term has expired.
Although they were aware of the Athenian model,
the framers of the U.S. Constitution were opposed
to such a system. Democracy was considered to be
dangerous and a source of instability. But in the
1700s and 1800s, the idea of government based on
the consent of the people gained increasing popularity. Such a government was the main aspiration of
the American Revolution in 1775, the French Revolution in 1789, and many subsequent revolutions. At
the time of the American Revolution, however, the
masses were still considered to be too uneducated
to govern themselves. The masses were too prone
to the influence of demagogues (political leaders
who manipulate popular prejudices), and too likely
to subordinate minority rights to the tyranny of the
majority.
AP Images/Toby Talbot
The Dangers of Direct Democracy
Image 1–3 These Woodbury, Vermont, residents cast their ballots
after a town meeting. They voted on the school budget and sales taxes.
What type of political system does the town meeting best
represent?
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8
Part One | The American System
James Madison, while defending the new scheme of government set forth in the U.S.
Constitution, warned of the problems inherent in a “pure democracy”:
A common passion or interest will, in almost every case, be felt by a majority of
the whole . . . and there is nothing to check the inducements to sacrifice the
weaker party or an obnoxious individual. Hence it is that such democracies have
ever been spectacles of turbulence and contention, and have ever been found
incompatible with personal security or the rights of property; and have in general
been as short in their lives as they have been violent in their deaths.2
Like other politicians of his time, Madison feared that pure, or direct, democracy would
deteriorate into mob rule. What would keep the majority of the people, if given direct
decision-making power, from abusing the rights of those in the minority?
A Democratic Republic
republic
A form of government in which sovereign
power rests with the people, rather than
with a king or a monarch.
popular sovereignty
The concept that ultimate political
authority is based on the will of the
people.
democratic republic
A republic in which representatives
elected by the people make and enforce
laws and policies.
representative democracy
A form of government in which
representatives elected by the people make
and enforce laws and policies; may retain
the monarchy in a ceremonial role.
The framers of the U.S. Constitution chose to craft a republic, meaning a government
in which sovereign power rests with the people, rather than with a king or a monarch.
A republic is based on popular sovereignty. To Americans of the 1700s, the idea of a
republic also meant a government based on common beliefs and virtues that would be
fostered within small communities.
The U.S. Constitution created a form of republican government that we now call a
democratic republic. The people hold the ultimate power over the government through
the election process, but all national policy decisions are made by elected officials. For the
founders, even this distance between the people and the government was not sufficient.
The Constitution made sure that the Senate and the president would not be elected by
a direct vote of the people. Senators were chosen by state legislatures, although a later
constitutional amendment allowed for the direct election of senators. The founders also
established an electoral college to choose the president, in the hope—soon frustrated—
that such a body would prevent voters from ultimately making the choice.
Despite its limits, the new American system was unique in the amount of power it
granted to the ordinary citizen. Over the course of the following two centuries, democratic
values became more and more popular, at first in Western nations and then throughout
the rest of the world. The spread of democratic principles gave rise to another name
for our system of government—representative democracy. The term representative
democracy has almost the same meaning as democratic republic, with one exception.
Recall that in a republic, not only are the people sovereign, but there is no king. What if
a nation develops into a democracy but preserves the monarchy as a largely ceremonial
institution? That is exactly what happened in Britain. The British, who have long cherished
their kings and queens, found the term democratic republic unacceptable. A republic,
after all, meant there could be no monarch. The British therefore described their system as
a representative democracy instead.
Principles of Democratic Government. All representative democracies rest
on the rule of the people as expressed through the election of government officials.
In the 1790s in the United States, only free white males were able to vote, and in
some states they had to be property owners as well. Women in many states did not
receive the right to vote in national elections until 1920, and the right to vote was not
secured in all states by African Americans until the 1960s. Today, universal suffrage is
the rule.
universal suffrage
The right of all adults to vote for their
government representatives.
2. James Madison, in Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, The Federalist Papers, No. 10 (New York: Signet, 2003), p. 71.
See Appendix C of this textbook.
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9
Because everyone’s vote counts equally, the only
way to make fair decisions is by some form of majority will. But to ensure that majority rule does not
become oppressive, modern democracies also provide
guarantees of minority rights. If political minorities
were not protected, the majority might violate the
fundamental rights of members of certain groups—
especially groups that are unpopular or dissimilar to
the majority population, such as racial minorities.
To guarantee the continued existence of a representative democracy, there must be free, competitive
elections. Thus, the opposition always has the opportunity to win elective office. For such elections to be
totally open, freedom of the press and speech must
be preserved so that opposition candidates can present their criticisms of the government to the people.
Manny Hernandez/Getty Images
Chapter 1 | The Democratic Republic
Constitutional Democracy. Another key feaImage 1–4 The actor Wilmer Valderrama promotes National Voter
ture of Western representative democracy is that it
Registration Day at Miami Dade College in Florida. Why is voting so
is based on the principle of limited government.
important for democracy?
Not only is the government dependent on popular
sovereignty, but the powers of the government are
also clearly limited, either through a written document or through widely shared beliefs.
The U.S. Constitution sets down the fundamental structure of the government and
the limits to its activities. Such limits are intended to prevent political decisions based
on the whims or ambitions of individuals in government rather than on constitutional
principles.
What Kind of Democracy Do We Have?
Political scientists have developed a number of theories about American democracy,
including majoritarianism, elite theory, and pluralism. Advocates of these theories
use them to describe American democracy either as it actually is or as they believe it
should be.
Some scholars argue that none of these three theories, which we discuss next, fully
describes the workings of American democracy. These experts say that each theory captures a part of the true reality but that we need all three theories to gain a full understanding of American politics.
Democracy for Everyone. Many people believe that, in a democracy, the government ought to do what the majority of the people want. This simple proposition is the heart
of majoritarian theory. As a theory of what democracy should be like, majoritarianism
is popular among both political scientists and ordinary citizens. Many scholars, however,
consider majoritarianism to provide a surprisingly poor description of how U.S. democracy
actually works. They point to the low level of turnout for elections. Polling data have shown
that many Americans are neither particularly interested in politics nor well informed. Few
are able to name the persons running for Congress in their districts, and even fewer can
discuss the candidates’ positions.
Democracy for the Few. If ordinary citizens are not really making policy decisions with their votes, who is? One theory suggests that elites really govern the United
States. Elite theory holds that society is ruled by a small number of people who
majority rule
A basic principle of democracy asserting
that the greatest number of citizens in any
political unit should select officials and
determine policies.
limited government
A government with powers that are limited
either through a written document or
through widely shared beliefs.
majoritarianism
A political theory holding that, in a
democracy, the government ought to do
what the majority of the people want.
elite theory
A perspective holding that society is
ruled by a small number of people who
hold the ultimate power to further their
self-interests.
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10
Part One | The American System
exercise power to further their self-interests. American democracy, in other words, is a
sham democracy. Few people today believe it is a good idea for the country to be run
by a privileged minority. In the past, however, many people believed that it was appropriate for the country to be governed by an elite. Consider the words of Alexander
Hamilton, one of the framers of the Constitution:
All communities divide themselves into the few and the many. The first are the
rich and the wellborn, the other the mass of the people. . . . The people are turbulent and changing; they seldom judge or determine right. Give therefore to
the first class a distinct, permanent share in the government. They will check the
unsteadiness of the second, and as they cannot receive any advantage by a
change, they therefore will ever maintain good government.3
Some versions of elite theory posit a small, cohesive elite class that makes almost
all the important decisions for the nation,4 whereas others suggest that voters choose
among competing elites. Popu...
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