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Head of Programme
: Assoc Prof Kang Soon-Hock
Course Developer(s)
: Dr Adelyn Lim
: Siti Syuhada Binte Faizal
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: Wong Ling Ming, ETP
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: Eric Lau, ETP
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How to cite this Study Guide (APA):
Lim, A., & Siti Syuhada Binte Faizal. (2019). SSC211 Social science research methods (study
guide). Singapore: Singapore University of Social Sciences.
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Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Course Guide
1. Welcome.................................................................................................................. CG-2
2. Course Description and Aims............................................................................ CG-3
3. Learning Outcomes.............................................................................................. CG-5
4. Learning Material................................................................................................. CG-6
5. Assessment Overview.......................................................................................... CG-8
6. Course Schedule.................................................................................................. CG-10
7. Learning Mode.................................................................................................... CG-11
Study Unit 1: Introduction to Social Science Research
Learning Outcomes................................................................................................. SU1-2
Overview................................................................................................................... SU1-3
Chapter 1: Introduction........................................................................................... SU1-4
Chapter 2: Foundations of Social Research Methods....................................... SU1-20
Summary................................................................................................................. SU1-42
Quiz.......................................................................................................................... SU1-43
Formative Assessment.......................................................................................... SU1-45
References............................................................................................................... SU1-58
Study Unit 2: Quantitative Research Methods
Learning Outcomes................................................................................................. SU2-2
i
Table of Contents
Overview................................................................................................................... SU2-3
Chapter 1: Issues in Quantitative Measurement................................................. SU2-4
Chapter 2: Quantitative Research Designs and Methods................................ SU2-18
Chapter 3: Analysing and Reporting Quantitative Data................................. SU2-34
Summary................................................................................................................. SU2-49
Quiz.......................................................................................................................... SU2-50
Formative Assessment.......................................................................................... SU2-52
References............................................................................................................... SU2-68
Study Unit 3: Qualitative Research Design and Methods
Learning Outcomes................................................................................................. SU3-2
Overview................................................................................................................... SU3-3
Chapter 1: Qualitative Research Design and Methods...................................... SU3-4
Chapter 2: Analysing and Reporting Qualitative Data.................................... SU3-23
Summary................................................................................................................. SU3-32
Quiz.......................................................................................................................... SU3-33
Formative Assessment.......................................................................................... SU3-36
References............................................................................................................... SU3-52
ii
List of Tables
List of Tables
Table 1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Scientific Method in Social
Science Research............................................................................................................ SU1-6
Table 1.2 Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches to Social Science
Research.......................................................................................................................... SU1-7
Table 1.3 Risk-benefit analysis for research participants...................................... SU1-14
Table 1.4 Comparison of Basic and Applied Research......................................... SU1-24
Table 1.5 Questions on Doing Social Research...................................................... SU1-29
Table 1.6 Approaches to Social Research................................................................ SU1-34
Table 2.1 Four levels of measurement: NOIR........................................................ SU2-16
Table 2.2 Contrast of Experimental and Non-Experimental Designs................. SU2-19
Table 2.3 ...................................................................................................................... SU2-28
Table 2.4 ...................................................................................................................... SU2-32
Table 2.5 Example of dataset.................................................................................... SU2-35
Table 2.6 Dataset with an example of coded variable (gender)........................... SU2-36
Table 2.7 Examples of Null Hypothesis (H0) and Alternative Hypothesis
(H1)................................................................................................................................ SU2-39
Table 2.8 Common statistical techniques (in red) depending on the level of
measurement of IV and DV...................................................................................... SU2-41
Table 3.1 Understanding Field Research.................................................................. SU3-4
Table 3.2 Field Research Sites and Situations.......................................................... SU3-5
iii
List of Tables
Table 3.3 Field Research Process................................................................................ SU3-7
Table 3.4 Level of Involvement in the Field........................................................... SU3-10
Table 3.5 Recommendations for Taking Field Notes............................................. SU3-14
Table 3.6 Survey Research Interview versus In-depth Interview........................ SU3-17
Table 3.7 Steps in the Life History Interview......................................................... SU3-19
Table 3.8 The Ideal Informant.................................................................................. SU3-21
Table 3.9 Coding Qualitative Data........................................................................... SU3-25
Table 3.10 Suggestions for Analytic Memo Writing.............................................. SU3-27
iv
List of Figures
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 The Social Science Research Process....................................................... SU1-4
Figure 2.1 An example of a discrete variable (left: age group) in comparison with
a continuous group variable (right: age)................................................................ SU2-14
Figure 2.2 Process of NHST...................................................................................... SU2-39
v
List of Figures
vi
List of Lesson Recordings
List of Lesson Recordings
Introduction................................................................................................................... SU1-4
Foundations of Social Research Methods............................................................... SU1-20
Issues in Quantitative Measurement......................................................................... SU2-4
Quantitative Research Designs and Methods........................................................ SU2-18
Analysing and Reporting Quantitative Data......................................................... SU2-34
Qualitative Research Design and Methods.............................................................. SU3-4
Analysing and Reporting Qualitative Data............................................................ SU3-23
vii
List of Lesson Recordings
viii
Course
Guide
Social Science Research Methods
SSC211
Course Guide
1. Welcome
Presenter: Siti Syuhada Binte Faizal
This streaming video requires Internet connection.
Access it via Wi-Fi to avoid incurring data charges on your personal mobile plan.
Click here to watch the video. i
Welcome to the course SSC211 Social Science Research Methods, a 5 credit unit (CU) course.
This Study Guide will be your personal learning resource to take you through the course
learning journey. The guide is divided into two main sections – the Course Guide and
Study Units.
The Course Guide describes the structure for the entire course and provides you with an
overview of the Study Units. It serves as a roadmap of the different learning components
within the course. This Course Guide contains important information regarding the
course learning outcomes, learning materials and resources, assessment breakdown and
additional course information.
i
https://d2jifwt31jjehd.cloudfront.net/SSC211/IntroVideo/SSC211_Intro_Video.mp4
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2. Course Description and Aims
Social science research is an integral part of everyday life. It is pertinent to both academics
and those who are eager to understand the world around them. SSC211 Social Science
Research Methods will introduce students to the principles of social science research
and highlight its implications. It will provide students with the necessary foundation on
research methodology by covering both quantitative and qualitative approaches to social
science research. By the end of this course, students will be able to appreciate the research
process, distinguish between good and poor research, as well as analyse and communicate
research findings to different audiences.
Course Structure
This course is a 5-credit unit course presented over 6 weeks.
There are three Study Units in this course. The following provides an overview of each
Study Unit.
Study Unit 1 – Introduction to Social Science Research
This study unit introduces you to social science research, where you will learn its
fundamental characteristics as well as discuss its limitations, the differences between its
approaches, implications in everyday life, and ethical concerns. You will also have a better
understanding of the foundations of social science research methods, which focus on
the dimensions of social science research as well as their philosophical assumptions and
principles. This will be useful when you want to design a research study and explain your
choice of research method. Lastly, you will learn the process of research report writing.
Study Unit 2 – Quantitative Research Methods
This study unit introduces you to quantitative research methods, where you will learn the
fundamentals of quantitative measurement, research designs, data analyses, and report
writing, as well as related issues.
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Study Unit 3 – Qualitative Research Methods
This study unit introduces you to field research and in-depth interviewing, as well as to
facilitate you to analyse qualitative data and report the findings of qualitative research.
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3. Learning Outcomes
Knowledge & Understanding (Theory Component)
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
• Recognize and explain the importance of social science research to everyday life
• Distinguish between the three main school of thoughts within social science
research: positivist, interpretive, and critical
• Describe the key components and process of social science research
• Appraise both quantitative and qualitative approaches in social science research
• Recognize and appreciate the ethical issues within social science research
Key Skills (Practical Component)
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
• Discuss the key tenets of social science research
• Evaluate published research with a critical eye
• Apply concepts, theories, and research methodology to social phenomena in your
respective programs
• Develop a research proposal in your respective area of study
• Analyse quantitative and/or qualitative data in your respective area of study
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4. Learning Material
The following is a list of the required learning materials to complete this course.
Required Textbook(s)
Neuman, W. L. (2014). Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches (7th
ed.). UK: Pearson Education Limited.
Other recommended study material (Optional)
Damisch, L., Stoberock, B., & Mussweiler, T. (2010). Keep your fingers crossed! How
superstition improves performance. Psychological Science, 21(7), 1014-1020.
Golub, S. A., Gilbert, D. T., & Wilson, T. D. (2009). Anticipating one's troubles: The costs
and benefits of negative expectations. Emotion, 9(2), 277-281.
Hyman Jr, I. E., Boss, S. M., Wise, B. M., McKenzie, K. E., & Caggiano, J. M. (2010). Did
you see the unicycling clown? Inattentional blindness while walking and talking
on a cell phone. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24(5), 597-607.
Sutin, A. R., & Terracciano, A. (2015). Body weight misperception in adolescence
and incident obesity in young adulthood. Psychological science,
26(4), 507-511. Retrieved from https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/
full/10.1177/0956797614566319
All other journal articles are available via SUSS library.
Website(s):
SUSS library: https://library.suss.edu.sg/
SAGE Research Methods: https://go.openathens.net/redirector/suss.edu.sg?url=http
%3A%2F%2Fmethods.sagepub.com
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Google Forms: http://forms.google.com
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5. Assessment Overview
The overall assessment weighting for this course is as follows:
Assessment
Description
Weight Allocation
Assignment 1
Pre-Class Quiz 01
5%
Assignment 2
Pre-Class Quiz 02
5%
Assignment 3
Tutor Marked Assignment 01
20%
Assignment 4
Tutor Marked Assignment 02
20%
Examination
Written examination
50%
TOTAL
100%
The following section provides important information regarding Assessments.
Continuous Assessment:
There will be continuous assessment in the form of two pre-class quizzes (PCQ) and two
tutor-marked assignments (TMA). In total, this continuous assessment will constitute 50
percent of overall student assessment for this course. The assignments are compulsory
and are non-substitutable. These assignments will test the conceptual understanding of
both the fundamental and more advanced concepts and applications that underlie social
science research. It is imperative that you read through your assessment questions and
submission instructions before embarking on them.
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Examination:
The written examination will constitute the other 50 percent of overall student assessment
and will test the ability of students to discuss, analyse, and apply the concepts of social
science research methods.
Passing Mark:
To successfully pass this course, students must obtain at least 40 percent for the combined
assessments (OCAS) and also obtain at least 40 percent for the final exam. Please be
reminded that you should not take the final exam if you do not obtain a minimum of 40
percent for the two TMAs and PCQs combined. For detailed information on the Course
grading policy, please refer to The Student Handbook (‘Award of Grades’ section under
Assessment and Examination Regulations). The Student Handbook is available from the
Student Portal.
Non-graded Learning Activities:
Activities for the purpose of self-learning are present in each study unit. These learning
activities are meant to enable you to assess your understanding and achievement of the
learning outcomes. The type of activities can be in the form of Quiz, Review Questions,
Application-Based Questions or similar. You are expected to complete the suggested
activities either independently and/or in groups.
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6. Course Schedule
To help monitor your study progress, you should pay special attention to your
Course Schedule. It contains study unit related activities including Assignments, Selfassessments, and Examinations. Please refer to the Course Timetable in the Student Portal
for the updated Course Schedule.
Note: You should always make it a point to check the Student Portal for any
announcements and latest updates.
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7. Learning Mode
The learning process for this course is structured along the following lines of learning:
a.
Self-study guided by the study guide units. Independent study will require at
least 3 hours per week.
b.
Working on assignments, either individually or in groups.
c.
Classroom Seminar sessions (3 hours each session, 3 sessions in total).
d.
Online Chat Sessions (Half an hour to 1 hour each, 3 sessions in total).
e.
Actively participate in online discussion boards as directed by your instructors.
iStudyGuide
You may be viewing the iStudyGuide version, which is the mobile version of the
Study Guide. The iStudyGuide is developed to enhance your learning experience with
interactive learning activities and engaging multimedia. Depending on the reader you are
using to view the iStudyGuide, you will be able to personalise your learning with digital
bookmarks, note-taking and highlight sections of the guide.
Interaction with Instructor and Fellow Students
Although flexible learning – learning at your own pace, space and time – is a hallmark
at SUSS, you are encouraged to engage your instructor and fellow students in online
discussion forums. Sharing of ideas through meaningful debates will help broaden your
learning and crystallise your thinking.
Academic Integrity
As a student of SUSS, it is expected that you adhere to the academic standards stipulated
in The Student Handbook, which contains important information regarding academic
policies, academic integrity and course administration. It is necessary that you read and
understand the information stipulated in the Student Handbook, prior to embarking on
the course.
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Study
Unit
Introduction to Social Science
Research
1
SSC211
Introduction to Social Science Research
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this Study Unit, you should be able to:
1.
describe the basic characteristics of social science research
2.
explain the theoretical and practical importance of social science research
3.
discuss ethical concerns pertaining to social science research
4.
describe the five (5) dimensions of social science research
5.
identify the philosophical assumptions and the principles behind research
methods
6.
explain the reasons for writing a research report and describe the writing process
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Introduction to Social Science Research
Overview
T
his study unit introduces you to social science research, where you will learn
its fundamental characteristics as well as discuss its limitations, the differences
between its approaches, its implications in everyday life, and its ethical concerns. You will
also have a better understanding of the foundations of social science research methods,
which focus on the dimensions of social science research as well as their philosophical
assumptions and principles. This will be useful when you want to design a research study
and explain your choice of research method. Lastly, you will be introduced to the process
of research report writing.
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Introduction to Social Science Research
Chapter 1: Introduction
Lesson Recording
Introduction
1.1 What is Social Science Research?
In this topic, we will familiarise ourselves with social science research: its basic
characteristics, methods, and approaches.
1.1.1 The Basic Characteristics of Social Science Research
The goal of social science research is to study and understand the social world, i.e.,
human behaviour and society, through the scientific method. In order to do this,
researchers specialize in certain fields and form specific research questions in various
fields: Psychology, Sociology, Anthropology, Political Science, and Economics.
Figure 1.1 The Social Science Research Process
(Source: Neuman, 2014)
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Social science research is thus as follows:
• Theoretical: It relies on theories to explain social phenomena and guide research
questions.
• Empirical: It relies on observed and verifiable data to test theories (i.e., deductive
research) and/or provide evidence that builds theories (i.e., inductive research). This
data can be either quantitative or qualitative.
• Skeptical: It does not accept new and/or counter-intuitive evidence uncritically.
Every aspect of the social science research process (as seen in Figure 1.1) is carefully
examined, challenged, and questioned by both the researcher himself and other
researchers as part of the peer review process. This ensures that the method used
and data collected in social science research can stand up to close scrutiny.
• Systematic: The method and findings of a study in social science research should be
systematic such that they are easily replicated by other researchers. This provides
greater confidence in the reliability of the method and findings of the study.
• Parsimonious: Also known as “Occam’s Razor” (see http://what-when-how.com/
social-sciences/occams-razor-social-science/), it uses the simplest and most
elegant research designs, methods, data analysis, and data interpretation.
Explanations of a research question should be as parsimonious as possible.
The above characteristics of social science research make it different from liberal arts or
humanities research, e.g., philosophy, theology, literature, etc.
1.1.2 The Scientific Method
By now, you should already be familiar with the scientific method and its steps. To be
considered scientific, claims must be testable and supported by empirical evidence that is
systematically and methodically collected under controlled environments (Perry & Perry,
2014).
It should be noted that although the scientific method seems wonderful, there are still
limitations, especially when one is using it to study the social world. Table 1.1 discusses
these advantages and disadvantages.
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Table 1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Scientific Method in Social Science Research
Advantages
Disadvantages
Researchers are humans influenced by
culture and values → There is always
Attempts to be as objective and
a degree of subjectivity in the social
emotionally-detached as possible
science research process, e.g., when
operationalising a variable or when
interpreting data.
Methods and findings can be
independently tested and verified, as
well as replicable → More reliability
Statements are supported by empirical
and observable data → Increases
confidence in research. This is especially
useful when one needs to convince
others in policy-making or in changing
social norms.
Social world is constantly changing and
diverse
→ It may be difficult to replicate
and generalise certain findings across
different cultures, contexts, time periods,
etc.
→ Not everything in the social world can
be easily operationalised and measured,
e.g., morality.
1.1.3 Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches to Social Science Research
Social science research comprises two major approaches: Quantitative and Qualitative.
Although they may differ in many dimensions (see Table 1.2), it is important to note that
both have their advantages and disadvantages. They also share fundamental scientific
principles according to the scientific method mentioned above. Choosing a particular
approach depends on the research question of the researcher and the methodology he
wants to use to examine that research question. In fact, it is possible for researchers to
combine both approaches in their research.
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Table 1.2 Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches to Social Science Research
Dimension
Quantitative
Qualitative
Research Question
“What”
“Why” or “How”
Goal
To measure objective
To provide a descriptive
facts about a particular
explanation about
social phenomenon or a
a particular social
relationship
phenomenon or a
relationship
Observation
Variables
Interactive processes,
events
Typical Method
Experiment; survey
Field research; in-depth
interview
Type of Data
Numerical
Non-numerical
Data Analysis
Statistical
Thematic
Involvement of
Usually detached; attempts
Usually involves the
Researcher
to be as value-free as
researcher; context- and
possible
value-dependent
Usually includes many
Usually includes few cases
cases or involves many
or involves few participants
Sample Size
participants
(Source: Modified from Table 2 in Neuman, 2014, p. 17)
In Study Units 2 and 3, you will be learning more about how researchers apply these two
approaches in the social science research process as seen in Figure 1.1.
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Introduction to Social Science Research
1.2 Importance of Social Science Research
In this topic, we shall discuss the importance of social science research, both theoretically
and practically.
1.2.1 Theoretical Importance of Social Science Research
As part of the scientific method, social science researchers not only use theories to
guide them in their research questions and study design, but the data they collect and
the findings they interpret also help to test and inform many of these theories, thus
improving the field as a whole. Researchers should disseminate the knowledge they gain
through their research via journal publications and conferences, thus contributing to the
advancement of their fields.
Furthermore, there are increasingly more interdisciplinary fields in the social sciences.
This means that researchers do not just limit themselves to using theories from only their
fields, but also from other social science fields. For example, economic research used to
be based on a framework of rational decision making, which virtually ignores any social
or cognitive factors that psychologists proposed. Today, we have behavioural economics,
which applies psychological theories to economic research (Thaler & Mullainathan, 2008).
Behavioural economic research also helps to inform psychological theories such as in
the area of personality (e.g., Borghans, Duckworth, Heckman, & Ter Weel, 2008) and
vice versa. The social scientific community (and the world) can only benefit from these
interdisciplinary collaborations of theories and research.
1.2.2 Practical Importance of Social Science Research
Social science research also plays a practical role in our lives. The implications of the
findings of social science research on everyday life are far-reaching in many levels, both
directly and indirectly, from the kinds of policies the government implements to the
teaching style of a lecturer.
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Keep in mind that these implications are not always positive. Social science research,
when done wrongly intentionally or unintentionally, can also have a negative impact on
people’s lives. For example, the invention of intelligence testing led to anti-immigrant
and sterilisation policies just because people were thought to be “feeble-minded” and
“morons” (Quigley, 1995; Benjamin, 2009). This further emphasises the point about
educating ourselves regarding the methods and findings of social science research and
being able to critique them, not just as future researchers but also as consumers of social
science research.
Here are other examples of how social science research can affect our everyday lives:
• Economics
Research in economics helps us to understand fluctuations in the prices of certain
goods and currency exchange, the amount of money we should save towards our
retirement, and many others.
• Political Science
Research in political science helps us to understand the way our government works
and whether it is good or bad for us, the importance of voting, our rights as citizens,
and many others.
• Psychology
Research in psychology can have an impact on many aspects of lives, such as
helping us to understand ourselves and our mental health, study for an exam
effectively, learn a foreign language, know whether our children are developing
normally, and many others.
Reflect
Can you think of other ways how social science research can influence your lives?
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Read
You should now read: Neuman (2014), pp. 1-24.
1.3 Ethics in Social Science Research
1.3.1 Importance of Ethics
As mentioned earlier, social science research can have a negative impact on the lives
of people. Social science researchers especially, need to consider the ethics of their
research before, during, and after they conduct their research because they deal with human
participants. Before conducting their research, social science researchers often have to fill
up extensive forms to get approval for their research from the Institutional Review Board
(IRB), a.k.a. Human Subjects Research Committee. The IRB serves to review the research
so as to protect the rights and welfare of participants.
Ethics are important in social science research due to the following reasons:
1.
As researchers, we should always uphold the integrity and values of ethical
scientific research.
We tend to overestimate the integrity of social science researchers. We think that
by virtue of their research field and higher education as compared to the general
public, they are more likely to be morally conscious and behave in an ethically
responsible manner. However, researchers constantly feel an enormous amount
of pressure to produce new results to publish, leading some of them to take
ethical shortcuts. Even today, we still have cases of scientific misconduct such as
research fraud and plagiarism (see further readings).
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2.
We cannot abandon the rights of those being studied, i.e., research
participants, or of others in the society for the sake of pursuing scientific
knowledge.
Ethical issues are often about balancing between the pursuit of scientific
knowledge and the rights of participants. We tend to think that this means ethical
issues are straightforward and commonsensical. Unfortunately, this is not always
the case. Some ethical issues (as we will examine in the following section) are not
always as clear cut as we think they are. In fact, we often call these issues “ethical
dilemmas”. Different researchers across cultures may view the same ethical issue
differently.
Sadly, there are many cases in history where the rights of participants have
been grossly violated in the name of science, e.g., Nazi experiments on Jewish
prisoners (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_human_experimentation) and
the Tuskegee Syphilis study (Video: https://youtu.be/qNa8CnC4sSU?t=1m35s;
01:35 - 21:48). As social science researchers, we must be aware of the rights of our
participants and protect them.
3.
Unethical research can affect not only the reputation of the researcher but also
other researchers and the field as a whole.
In the case of ethical misconduct such as research fraud where one fakes one’s
data, it may lead to distrust of the findings of social science research by the public
and other fields of research. People may not take any recommendations from
social science researchers as seriously as before.
In the case of ethical misconduct such as abusing the rights of the participants,
not only does moral and physical harm last, it may also lead to distrust in the way
social science researchers conduct their studies, which may affect participation in
future studies (and social science researchers always need participants for their
research). For example, cases of abuse of African American participants such
as in the Tuskegee Syphilis study has caused distrust as well as fears of abuse
and exploitation by the government and medical community. That led to the
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low participation rates of African American participants in clinical trials today
(Harris, Gorelick, Samuels, & Bempong, 1996).
For further reading, Roediger (2012) discussed the problems the field of
psychology has been facing due to unethical research (e.g. research fraud). He
also suggested a possible solution: replication.
1.3.2 Ethical Concerns in Social Science Research
Ethical concerns in social science research have to be considered from the rights of research
participants as well as the professional conduct of the researcher as a member of the
scientific community.
Ethical Concerns Relating to the Rights of Research Participants
Current ethical guidelines are based on the principles proposed in the Belmont Report,
created in 1979 in response to the gross violations of basic human rights in scientific
research (see http://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/humansubjects/guidance/belmont.html).
The ethical principles are:
1.
Respect for Persons (autonomy)
Participants are treated as autonomous, i.e., capable of making deliberate
decisions about whether or not to participate in the research.
This leads to the ethical issue of providing informed consent. As part of
informed consent, potential participants should be provided with all the
information that may influence their decision to participate. Such information
include the purposes of the study, the risks and benefits of participation, and
the rights to refuse or terminate participation. A written informed consent form
should thus be written so that participants understand the information in the
form. This means that the consent form should be written using simple and
straightforward language as well as in the second person. There should also be
a translated version of form for non-English speakers.
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We might think that this is straightforward—surely participants would stand
up for themselves and refuse to do anything they are not comfortable
with. However, we can see that in the infamous Milgram experiment on
obedience (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fCVlI-_4GZQ), participants
see researchers as people of authority and tend to obey them—many participants
still went on to “deliver” electric shocks to confederates despite feeling awful
about it. Informed consent thus play an important role in influencing a
participant’s decision to participate and continue in a study.
Researchers also need to consider the ethical issues relating to special
populations where the participants may lack the ability to make a free and
informed decision to voluntarily participate and continue in a study. These
special populations include minors, patients in psychiatric hospitals, and
adults with cognitive impairment. These special populations require assent, i.e.,
informed consent by their parents, legal guardians, caregivers, or powers of
attorney.
Researchers should thus avoid coercion, which refers to any procedure that
limits an individual’s freedom to consent, such as withholding information about
the study. Note that coercion can also be subtle in the form of benefits, e.g.,
by offering a huge amount of compensation that does not commensurate with
local rates to attract participants to a research study. This might exert undue
pressure on potential participants to consent and/or continue to participate in a
research study, which goes against the idea of voluntary participation. It is also
unethical for an instructor to tell students that they will get extra course credit
for participating in his research. Students who do not participate should also be
given the opportunity to earn extra course credit in other ways. Otherwise, it
would put the non-participating students in a disadvantage, as compared to the
participating students, and put undue pressure on them to participate in order
to get extra course credit. This also pertains to the ethical principle of justice,
which we will discuss below.
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Beneficence
This refers to the need for research to maximise benefits and minimise any
possible harmful effects of participation in research. Researchers need to
undertake a risk-benefit analysis of their research for the participants as seen in
Table 1.3, and ensure that the ethical principle of beneficence is preserved.
Any remaining risk has to be assessed whether the scientific worth of the
study justifies the potential risk to participants. For example, if deception
of participants by using a cover story is absolutely necessary to gain the
scientific knowledge from the study and there are no alternative manipulations
or methodologies, extra safeguards have to be put in place, such as disclosing
the deception to participants in the debriefing, explaining why the deception
was necessary, and providing extra resources for the psychological care of the
participants. The goal is to ensure that participants leave the study feeling the
same as when they arrived, without any ill feeling toward the field of research.
Table 1.3 Risk-benefit analysis for research participants
Potential Risks
Potential Benefits
Physical harm
Direct benefits
Psychological stress
(e.g. educational benefit, new skill,
Loss of confidentiality, anonymity,
and privacy
or treatment for a psychological or
medical problem)
Material benefits
Personal satisfaction
Other educational benefit
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Important distinctions need to be made between privacy, anonymity, and
confidentiality.
Protecting participants’ right to privacy means that we cannot probe into
sensitive and intimate details of the lives of participants, unless there is informed
consent.
Participants also have the right to anonymity, which means that one should not
be able to identify participants in the study. Ways to protect participants’ identity
and preserve anonymity include referring to participants by a code number
or pseudonym and collecting anonymous responses without any identifying
information such as names and addresses. Researchers who need to collect
identifying information to link participants to responses, such as in longitudinal
studies, need to ensure that the key linking code numbers to participants’
identities is not released to anyone.
Last, participants have the right to confidentiality, which means keeping any
identifying information of participants a secret. This is especially important
when it comes to sensitive information that may cause physical, psychological,
or even legal harm to the participants.
3.
Justice
This refers to ensuring the following:
• There is fairness in receiving the benefits of research by the participants.
• All (groups of) participants share the burdens of accepting risks equally,
i.e., no participant (group) is more advantaged or disadvantaged over
another participant (group).
• All participants should have an equal chance of being selected for a
study and earn the potential benefits from the study, e.g., being randomly
selected for a new but potentially beneficial curriculum.
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Ethical Concerns Relating to the Professional Conduct of Researchers
As members of the scientific community, social science researchers need to uphold the
norms and values of the scientific community by conducting themselves professionally
and following a certain code of conduct. For example, the APA Ethics Code (http://
www.apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx), which is based on the general principles of
responsibility, integrity, justice, beneficence, and respect for the rights and dignity of
others, outlines ten ethical standards that address specific issues concerning the conduct
of psychologists in teaching, research, therapy, counselling, testing, and other professional
roles and responsibilities.
Some of these ethical issues are as follows:
• Misrepresentation: This includes misrepresenting one’s findings by fabricating
one’s data (i.e. research fraud) and misrepresenting one’s work by using another’s
work as one’s own without proper acknowledgement (i.e. plagiarism). The
scientific community strongly frowns upon these actions and if a researcher is
caught, it can create a major negative impact on the researcher, such as retraction of
publications, ruining of the researcher’s reputation, or even loss of one’s job.
• Publication credit: This means that all researchers who have substantially
contributed to a piece of research should be given authorship credit in all
publications. Authorship credit can be an ethical dilemma sometimes, especially
when higher-ranked researchers insist on authorship credit even though they have
not contributed much to the research.
• Whistle-blowing: This means that researchers should act morally and end
unethical behaviour; whether that is done by their supervisors, their sponsors, or
their organisation. This is a major ethical dilemma that requires a lot of courage
from the whistle-blower, especially as it may result in them losing their jobs and
trust from colleagues, or even getting into a lawsuit that may take years to resolve.
At the end of the day, it can be difficult and time-consuming to supervise every single
researcher and ensure that their research is conducted ethically. It is, thus, up to the
researcher’s conscience to be ethical in his conduct and research.
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Read
You should now read: Neuman (2014), pp.145-164.
Additional readings:
http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/massive-fraud-uncovered-in-work/
http://www.theguardian.com/science/2012/sep/13/scientific-research-fraud-badpractice/print
http://www.nature.com/news/nobel-laureate-challenges-psychologists-to-cleanup-their-act-1.11535
http://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/03/health/research/noted-dutch-psychologiststapel-accused-of-research-fraud.html
Activity 1
It’s now your chance to play the role of a member of the Institutional Review Board!
Your goal is to decide whether or not the following studies should or should not
be approved. Approval can be contingent on the resolution of any ethical problems.
Keep these questions in mind:
- What is the level of risk to participants and what specific risks exist?
- Is the value of the study sufficient to offset any potential risk to participants?
- What safeguards must be in place to protect the participants?
- Is there anything that ought to be stressed in the consent form?
- Would some individuals be unsuitable as participants in the study?
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Study #1
A researcher wants to examine factors leading to bystander intervention. To do this,
he will observe helping behaviours of MRT passengers in response to staged crises in
which his research assistant, acting as a victim, feigns a collapse and either appears to
bleed or does not appear to bleed.
Study #2
A researcher believes that if people are feeling moderately anxious, adding a sense of
crowding can heighten their anxiety. She designs a study in which participants sign
up for a study on the effects of anxiety on spelling. They are informed that shock will
be present in the study. One of the groups is told that when they make a mistake
on a spelling test, they will receive a small amount of shock (“it will feel like your
skin is buzzing”). The other group is told that the shocks will not be severe but they
will be moderately painful (without causing permanent tissue damage). Half of the
participants in each group are asked to wait for the study to begin in a waiting room
that is no bigger than a closet. The remaining participants wait in a much larger room.
After spending 10 minutes in the waiting room, participants are asked to fill out an
“anxiety” survey, and their blood pressure and pulse are recorded. No spelling test
occurs and no shock is administered. The researcher expects the maximum anxiety to
be felt by those expecting moderate shock and waiting in the closet-sized room.
Study #3
A researcher wants to examine factors influencing rape victims’ perceptions towards
abortion. To do this, he plans to seek out potential participants at rape recovery clinics
and ask them personally if they want to join his study. He then records their names
and personal information during the interviews.
Study #4
A researcher wants to study the social adjustment of infants of single parents. In his
experiment, he will ask the parent to leave the infant in a room that has a microphone
installed in it. The researcher will then time how long it will take for the child before
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he/she cries out for his/her parent. He expects infants of single parents to cry out
faster for his/her parent as compared to infants who have two parents.
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Chapter 2: Foundations of Social Research Methods
Lesson Recording
Foundations of Social Research Methods
2.1 Dimensions of Social Research
We can organise social research in five (5) dimensions:
• Use and audience of research
• Purpose of research
• Within or across cases
• Single or multiple points each time
• Data collection techniques
Identifying dimensions and examining their interrelationships to one another is
constructive. First, recognising the dimensions of a research study allows you to assess
governmental, organisational, and academic research reports. Second, comparing the
advantages and disadvantages of each dimension is necessary in developing your
research study plan. This is because the dimensions are interrelated, you can, therefore,
also evaluate the different combinations to address specific research questions.
2.1.1 Use and Audience of Research
Social research has two orientations (refer to Table 1.4). Basic research is designed to
advance fundamental knowledge about the social world and to build, support, or refute
theoretical explanations about social organisation and relations. The scientific community
is its primary audience. Basic research establishes a foundation for knowledge and
understanding about the social world, but it often lacks immediate, practical applications
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to social events and issues. For example, a basic research question such as, “Why does
deviant behaviour occur?” may result in new insights into juvenile delinquency; police
officers and social workers may disregard its relevance if there is limited direct impact on
public policies and social services.
Applied research is designed to offer practical solutions to a concrete problem or
address immediate or specific needs. Decision makers in government agencies, legal
bodies, community clubs, hospitals, educational institutions, and private corporations
commission applied research studies; with practitioners and participants like civil
servants, judges, social workers, doctors, teachers, and managers as the primary audience
of applied findings. Applied research studies shape many different decisions but, as
we will observe with the different forms of applied research, some complications may
arise with these studies. Hence, a comprehensive applied research report should interpret
scientific findings in the language of lay decision makers and practitioners, detailing the
strengths and limitations of the study’s design and/or findings so as to meet the academic
rigour and practical needs.
Evaluation research determines how well a policy or programme is effective in achieving
its objectives – does the social security system enable citizens to set aside financial
resources for retirement? Will the legislation to criminalise human trafficking reduce
sexual exploitation? Will a helpline reduce gambling issues? There are two types of
evaluation research. Formative evaluation monitors continuous feedback, while summative
evaluation reviews final policy or programme outcomes. Ethical conflicts are commonly
developed during evaluation research. Decision makers, in providing funds for applied
research, may place restrictions on a study by specifying the scope of research questions
and methods, as well as the presentation of findings. Practitioners, who generally lack
research background may only be interested in the findings. They may even selectively
use or ignore certain findings. For instance, evaluation researchers have experienced
pressures to falsify the findings of a study, especially for controversial issues like abortion
and euthanasia. Corresponding to these limitations, evaluation research is seldom widely
circulated for replication or scrutiny.
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Action research facilitates social-political change. It combines the acquisition of new
knowledge and the utilisation of this knowledge to accomplish a specific purpose,
and routinely involves social-political issues like environmental protection, equitable
development, and human rights. A feminist action researcher may perceive a study
on domestic violence as both advancing knowledge on gender relations and creating
a law enforcement programme to reduce emotional, physical, and sexual abuses. With
participatory action research, action researchers engage with research participants to design
and conduct the research study and, through the process, promote consciousness raising
and collective actions. This means action researchers must balance scientific standards and
the concerns and needs of research participants. Subsequently, it is important to obtain
permission from research participants before publishing these studies. Individuals and
groups with opposing interests to that of the research participants may also challenge the
published findings of these studies.
Social impact assessment evaluates potential consequences of a planned change on
various aspects of the society. It is usually part of an environmental impact statement
required by government agencies. For example, an environmental impact statement
is required for locating and building airports, factories, highways, hospitals, housing,
parks, power plants, prisons, reservoirs, schools, and shopping malls. When social
impact assessment is part of the environmental impact statement, it reviews the
consequences of such action, for instance the impact on the survival and continuity
of indigenous communities that have established historical and cultural roots. The
tools and effectiveness of social impact assessment researches are widely documented,
but underutilised. First, social impact assessment is not mandatory in environmental
impact statements. This is reinforced by the limited knowledge of social science research.
Decisions concerning large-scale projects are made on the basis of economic and political
interests rather than social impact. Second, social impact assessment requires financial and
human resources that may, in turn, delay the decision-making process, impose excessive
modifications, and/or disrupt plans with the identification of social concerns.
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Researchers use needs assessment and cost-benefit analysis as tools in applied research
studies. A needs assessment gathers descriptive information – the extent, intensity, and
impact – about a need, concern, or an issue. It is part of the initial phase in which a decisionmaker is determining whether to implement a support programme or conduct further
study. Community relations commonly complicate needs assessments and researchers
may encounter the following dilemmas. The first dilemma: who defines what is the
most serious issue for which needs should be assessed? Every community confronts
several challenges – teenage boys engaged in violence, young executives and professionals
inclined to drinking and driving, elderly women living in poverty – which issue requires
needs assessment? The most visible problem may not be the most serious one or one
that causes public concern. The second dilemma: to whom should the researcher ask to
find out about the needs of a group of people? When conducting a needs assessment
for a programme to support elderly women in poverty, should the researcher ask service
providers to these women (healthcare providers, retirement homes, and social workers),
family and friends, or the women themselves? The researcher should ideally include
all sources of information but, in reality, this requires commitment and time. The third
dilemma: should the researcher consider both explicit and implicit needs? In the analysis
of elderly women living in poverty, a researcher may determine that they have lacked
access to education, credit and/or land, and healthcare, their labour has been unrewarded
and not recognised, and their participation in decision making at home and in the
community is to the minimal. Explicit needs may not illuminate diverse implicit needs or
relate them to long-term resolutions. The final dilemma: should the researcher consider
all possibilities or limit resolutions for needs to what can be realistically accomplished?
Needs assessment may specify resolutions that are impractical and/or unrealistic. They
may also generate political controversy – publicising the situation of elderly women in
poverty challenges a government that purports to support gender equality and human
rights.
Economists developed the cost-benefit analysis in which the researcher assigns a
monetary value to the inputs and outcomes of a project, then examines the balance
between them. This includes the tangibles – housing development, job creation, social
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service provision; and the intangibles – a clean and green environment, equality and
justice, freedom of public assembly and speech. Like needs assessment, cost-benefit
analysis is controversial as diverse individuals and groups have different perspectives
on the importance or relevance of a project. For instance, business owners and taxpayers
perceive the opening of a casino as providing economic benefits, such as employment,
profits, and tax revenues. However, police officers and social workers perceive it as a
social cost such as gambling addiction, crime, and family breakup. In this way, cost-benefit
analysis can obscure the moral dimension of decision-making. The individuals and groups
incurring the costs may not be the ones reaping the benefits.
Table 1.4 Comparison of Basic and Applied Research
Aspect
Basic Research
Applied Research
Purpose
Create new knowledge
Resolve a practice problem
Primary audiences
Scientific community
Practitioners or participants
Evaluators
Research peers
Practitioners or participants
Research autonomy
High
Low to moderate
Research rigor
Very high
Varies
Priority
Verified truth
Relevance
Accomplishment
Publication and impact on
Direct application to
knowledge
address a practical problem
(Source: Neuman 2011: 28)
2.1.2 Purpose of Research
There are three purposes of social research. Exploratory research examines a new issue
or phenomenon so as to become familiar with the general circumstances and/or the
needs, concerns, and interests of the community. For example, it addresses “what” is
cyber bullying. This allows researchers to generate new ideas, formulate questions,
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and develop methods for more systematic and extensive research. Researchers who
conduct exploratory research must be creative and flexible with the multifaceted sources
of information and frequent changes in the direction of inquiry. Descriptive research
presents the details of a social issue or phenomena. It addresses the “who” that is engaged
in cyber bullying, as well as the “when”, the “where”, and the “how” does cyber bullying
occur. In contrast to exploratory research, descriptive research begins with a definite issue
or question to render a detailed representation of the issue or derive an answer to the
question. This encompasses documenting new data that contradicts previous data, a set
of categories or a classification of types, a sequence of steps or stages, and a process or
mechanism. Explanatory research explains why events occur. It addresses “why” cyber
bullying occurs. It builds on exploratory and descriptive research to identify motives and
intentions. This includes supporting or refuting a hypothesis, elaborating its explanation,
and extending it to new issues or phenomena.
2.1.3 Within or Across Cases
Research studies vary according to the number of cases we examine and the depth of
analysis into characteristics of these cases. A case is part of a category that we study to
develop knowledge about causes of similarities and differences. For instance, a researcher
would examine the 9-11 attack in the United States, but it would be a case within a category
of cases to understand sovereignty, power, and national interest in international relations.
In a research study, researchers should inquire both the number of cases involved and
whether the emphasis is more on a detailed analysis within a few cases or across many
cases. Case study research is an in-depth analysis of the characteristics of limited cases
at a single point in time or duration of time. The cases can be individuals, groups,
organisations, movements, countries, events, or situations. Case-study research effectively
incorporates diverse perspectives within one case as well as complex, multi-faceted cases
across space and time. It tends to be qualitative in nature as it examines the context, as
well as the details of each case to relate macro-level or broad structures and processes
to micro-level or individual actions. Consequently, it allows us to understand abstract
theories on the basis of our in-depth knowledge of social organisation and relations of
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the cases. It also enables us to develop current theories, construct new theories, or relate
different theories with the actual, live experiences of the cases. In contrast, across-case
research compares select characteristics across numerous cases. It tends to be quantitative
in nature as it focuses on the relation among characteristics, rather than the circumstances
of each case.
2.1.4 Single or Multiple Points in Time
Research studies incorporate time in two ways. Cross-sectional research collects and
analyses data on many cases at one point in time. It tends to be descriptive in purpose,
although it can be exploratory or explanatory. It is straightforward and cost-effective, but
inapt in depicting social processes or changes. For example, a researcher may examine
religion and beliefs about marriage and family in Asia in 2014.
Longitudinal research collects and analyses data on many cases at multiple points
in time. It can be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory in purpose. It tends to be
more complicated and costly in administration, but it can portray social organisation
and relations across time. There are three types of longitudinal research. In time-series
research, data is gathered on a category of cases across multiple points in time to enable
researchers to analyse stability or change in the conditions or characteristics of the cases
over time. An example is a survey of marriage and divorce rates in Japan across the 1900s.
In a panel study, data is gathered on identical cases across multiple points in time. While
analysing the same individuals, groups, or organisations over time is challenging and
expensive. A panel study clearly reveals the effects of a particular social event. In this
instance, a researcher may study the impact of divorce on children and their decision
to marry by observing the same children from ages 11 to 40. In a cohort study, data is
gathered about a distinct category for significant characteristics across multiple points in
time. The commonly used cohorts include all individuals who were born in the same year,
all individuals who graduated in a given year, or all individuals who retired at age 65. In
contrast to a panel study, researchers do not locate the same individuals for each year in a
cohort study, but identify only those who experience a common social event. For example,
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a researcher can compare three marriage cohorts – people married in 1970, 1990, and 2010
– to observe the age of marriage, age at the birth of the first child, and other characteristics.
2.1.5 Data Collection Techniques
This section is an overview of data collection techniques. We organise them into two
categories on the basis of the type of data collected: quantitative, gathering data in the
form of numbers, and qualitative, gathering data in the form of words or pictures. Certain
techniques are more appropriate for specific research questions or topics and, in later
study units (study units 2 and 3), you will learn to use them effectively.
Quantitative research. In experimental research, the researcher divides research
participants into two or more groups. The researcher manipulates conditions for one
group but not the other and compares group responses to see whether doing so made a
difference. In survey research, the researcher uses questionnaires or interviews to gather
information from a statistically representative sample of a population. In contrast to an
experiment, the researcher does not manipulate a condition to observe the responses of
individuals; they only document information on backgrounds, beliefs, and attitudes. The
researcher then analyses survey data with statistics and presents them in charts, graphs, or
tables. Hence, experiments are effective for explanatory research, while surveys are useful
for descriptive research.
Qualitative research. In field research, the researcher begins with a broad idea, selects
and gains access to a group or site for study, and directly observes and records notes on
the members in their natural setting for an extended period. The researcher continually
reflects on his or her observations and refines ideas about their significance. Eventually,
the researcher leaves the group or site, review the notes, and prepares reports. In-depth
interviews differ from survey interviews. They can be employed independently or as
part of the field research. Such interview is informal, unstructured, and nondirective. It
involves mutual sharing between a researcher and one or more members from the group
or site. However, it is not a friendly conversation; the researcher has an explicit purpose
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to learn about members of the group or site, and the setting. Both field researches and indepth interviews are utilised for exploratory and descriptive researches.
This section presented an overview of the dimensions of social research. In the next
section, we shall turn to the philosophical foundations of social research to learn how
social theory and social research work together.
2.2 Meanings of Methodology
In this section, we relate abstract philosophical issues to concrete research methods.
The abstract issues explain why we perform social research, articulate what research
involves, illuminate moral-political values in research, and guide ethical research conduct.
Consequently, you can identify the bases of diverse perspectives in research reports and,
more importantly, explain your choice of research method among the various alternatives.
Two areas of philosophy – ontology and epistemology – and two positions within
philosophy – the realist and the nominalist – provide the context for major approaches in
social research. Ontology is concerned with the fundamental nature of social reality. It is
the area of philosophy that questions what reality is and what the fundamental categories
of reality are. The realist assumes that the “real world” exists independently of humans
and our interpretations of it. In contrast, the nominalist assumes that humans never
directly experience the real world; our experiences with the real world occur through
a scheme of interpretations. In social research, the realist observes an individual’s hair
colour, facial features, and skin tone and characterises an individual as belonging to one
of the many racial categories. When the nominalist observes an individual’s hair colour,
facial features, and skin tone, they “interrogate” the categories of racial distinction and
their contents based on their personal biography and cultural worldview. Epistemology
is concerned with the creation of knowledge. It is the area of philosophy that questions
what is involved in the production of knowledge. The realist produces knowledge by
making careful observations of social reality. As he or she gathers empirical evidence, they
will learn broad assumptions and principles to explain what social reality encompasses,
and how it works. Because our interpretations influence all observations, the nominalist
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produces knowledge by making considered interpretations of specific individuals in
specific settings.
These two areas of philosophy relate directly to the major approaches to social research
– positivist social science, interpretative social science, and critical social science. These
approaches represent alternative assumptions and principles of observing, measuring,
and understanding social reality (Refer to Table 1.5) but, in practice, researchers combine
elements from each approach.
Table 1.5 Questions on Doing Social Research
What is the ultimate purpose of conducting social scientific research?
What is the fundamental nature of social reality?
What is the basic nature of human beings?
What is the view on human agency (free will, volition, and rationality)?
What is the relationship between science and common sense?
What constitutes an explanation or theory of social reality?
How does one determine whether an explanation is true or false?
What does good evidence or factual information look like?
What is the relevance or use of social scientific knowledge?
Where do sociopolitical values enter into science?
(Source: Neuman 2011: 94)
2.2.1 Positivist Social Science
Positivist social science is “an organised method for combining deductive logic with
precise empirical observations of individual behaviour in order to discover and confirm
a set of probabilistic casual laws that can be used to predict general patterns of human
activity.” (Neuman 2011: 95) It comprises the following principles and assumptions. The
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purpose of social science is to discover and document universal causal laws of human
behaviour. On the basis of realist ontology, social reality is empirically evident – it exists,
is systematic, and has a natural order. It assumes humans are rational-thinking and selfinterested.
Positivist social science emphasises a deterministic approach to human agency and
causality in which external processes and structures shape human actions. It perceives
scientific knowledge as different from and superior to all other forms of knowledge.
Explanations are nomothetic – law-like statements and interrelations. They are also
deductive – a few high-level abstract theories explain many low-level concrete situations.
These explanations are verified using replication by other researchers. Evaluation
of empirical evidence is dependent on inter-subjectivity or the shared subjective
acknowledgment of observable facts.
Positivist social science adopts an instrumental orientation towards knowledge, such that
its relevance enables individuals to control their environment or achieve some goals. It
also advances a technocratic perspective in the application of this knowledge, wherein the
researcher adheres to any research problem and constraint on the scope of study requested
by governments and corporations, compliantly conducting applied research for them and
producing the information they need to make decisions. It argues for value-free science,
to which social research is conducted in an objective manner based on assiduous empirical
observations without inference from moral-political values.
2.2.2 Interpretative Social Science
Interpretative social science is “the systematic analysis of socially meaningful action
through the direct detailed observation of people in natural settings in order to arrive
at understandings and interpretations of how people create and maintain their social
worlds” (Neuman 2011: 101-2). It encompasses the following principles and assumptions.
The purpose of social science is to understand meaningful social action, not just external
human behaviour. This is social action within social contexts in which individuals
subjectively attach importance. On the basis of nominalist ontology, it embraces a
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constructionist orientation such that the beliefs and meanings individuals create and
employ shape their social reality. It assumes that humans are interacting social beings
who generate and reinforce shared meaning. It emphasises a voluntaristic approach to
human agency and causality wherein human actions are based on subjective dispositions
and motivations of individuals.
Interpretative social science recognises scientific knowledge as a different from but
no better than other forms of knowledge. Explanations are idiographic – an in-depth
description or picture with specific details. They are also inductive – limited abstraction
about a concrete situation. These explanations are verified using the postulate of
adequacy – the language of the individuals being studied. Evaluation of empirical
evidence is contingent, context specific, and often entails bracketing, identifying and
detaching taken-for-granted beliefs, values, and norms so that the researcher can
understand the significance of these beliefs, values, and norms in daily life. It espouses
a practical orientation towards knowledge, in which its value is the ability to be
incorporated with an individual’s practical everyday understandings, and interpretations.
It also implements a transcendent perspective such that the researcher develops research
together with the individuals being studied, observes their personal lives to gain
an intimate familiarity with them, and works closely with them to create shared
understandings. It asserts relativism in science, wherein all perspectives or worldviews
are equally valid for those who hold them.
2.2.3 Critical Social Science
Critical social science is “a critical process of inquiry that goes beyond surface illusions to
uncover the real structures in the material world in order to help people change conditions
and build a better world for themselves.” (Neuman 2011: 108) It involves the following
principles and assumptions. The purpose of social science is to reveal the underlying
sources of inequality, power relations, and social control to empower individuals,
specifically those who are disadvantaged and disaffected. On the basis of critical realist
ontology, it discerns social reality as constituting multiple layers: the empirical, the real,
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and the actual. It embodies aspects of positivist social science’s assumption that we
can observe an empirical reality independent of our interpretations. However, it also
subscribes to interpretative social science in that social research over time can help us
understand how this superficial layer we observe is generated by structures operating at
the real level that are, in turn, produced by causal mechanisms at the actual level.
Critical social science perceives humans as having unrealised potential, but subject to
reification, which occurs when we disengage from and overlook our connection to
our own creations. It combines determinism and voluntarism to emphasise a bounded
autonomy approach to human agency and causality in which human actions are based on
subjective dispositions and motivations, but only within identifiable material or cultural
boundaries. It recognises scientific knowledge as imperfect but can be employed to
overcome false consciousness or misleading ideas about humans’ empirical conditions
and their best interests.
Instead of beginning with a theoretical premise or many observations, critical social
science employs abduction, such that several alternative frameworks are applied to theory
and data, which are re-described in each and evaluated to create explanatory critiques.
Explanations are verified through praxis, wherein theoretical explanations are applied
to real-life practice and the subsequent outcome is utilised to refine existing theoretical
explanations. Evaluation of empirical evidence is dependent on theory, although some
theories reveal deeper types of evidence. It adopts a reflexive-dialectic orientation
towards knowledge, linking objective conditions and subjective understandings to
provide insights unavailable from either side alone. It also implements a transformative
perspective, in which the researcher probes beyond the superficial layer of empirical
reality in ways that can shift subjective understandings and provide insights into how
engaging in social-political actions may advance empowerment. Social research is a moralpolitical activity that necessitates the researcher to commit to an opinion.
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2.2.4 Feminist and Postmodern Research
Feminist and postmodern researches are critical of positivist social science and offer
alternatives developed from interpretative and critical social sciences. In feminist
research, gender is a fundamental social division. It comprises the following principles
and assumptions. The purpose of social science is to empower individuals to advance
values of collaboration and equality. The social world is a web of interconnected relations
and emphasis is placed on the subjective and empathetic connections between the
researcher and those they study. Gender-structured power relations permeate all spheres
of social reality and shape beliefs, values, and norms that must also be incorporated in the
processes of scientific inquiry. It perceives humans as gendered beings with unrealised
potential. The structural constraints of gender confines choices, but feminist thinking and
action can challenge these constraints. There is flexibility in selecting research techniques
and traversing boundaries between academic fields. If and when illuminating true
conditions, scientific knowledge and corresponding explanations provide ideas and tools
to help liberate individuals from oppressive relations. Empirical evidence is informed by
theory that reveals gender structures and knowledge raises awareness and empowers
individuals to make changes. Feminist values are preferred for research that endeavours
to facilitate personal and societal change.
In postmodern research, knowledge takes on various forms. It encompasses the following
principles and assumptions. The purpose of social science is to express the subjective self,
as well as to excite and inspire. Social reality is complex, chaotic, and fluid without any
distinct characteristics or configurations. Consequently, common sense is the essence of
social reality that is superior to scientific forms of reasoning and humans are creative,
dynamic beings with great volition. Scientific knowledge is an artistic form of presentation
that provides entertainment, arouses curiosity, and evokes response. Explanations are
relative; there are infinite interpretations, all of which are equally valid. Empirical
evidence has aesthetic properties and incorporates imagination, intuition, emotion, and
experience. It is anti-elitist and censures the use of science to reinforce bureaucratic forms
of control over society. Correspondingly, values are central to research, but all value
positions are equal.
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This section provides an overview of the philosophical foundations of social research.
We learn that there are distinct approaches to social research based on philosophical
assumptions about the purpose of science and the nature of social reality (Refer to Table
1.6).
Table 1.6 Approaches to Social Research
Positivist
Interpretative Critical
Social Science Social
Social
Science
Science
Feminist
Postmodern
Research
Research
Express the
Reason for
Discover
Understand
Shatter
Empower
research
natural
and describe
myths
individuals subjective
laws so
meaningful
and
to
self, to be
individuals
social action
empower
inculcate
playful, and
can predict
individuals the
to entertain
and control
to change
values of
and
events
the
nurturing
stimulate
society
others
society
and
equality
Nature
Stable pre-
Fluid
Multiple
Gender-
Chaotic
of social
existing
definitions
layers and
structured
and fluid
reality
patterns or
of a situation
governed
power
without
order that can
created
by
relations
real
be discovered
by human
hidden,
that keep
patterns or
interaction
underlying individuals a master
structures
oppressed
plan
Human
Self-interest
Social beings
Creative,
Gendered
Creative,
nature
and rational
who create
adaptive
beings
dynamic
individuals
meaning
individuals with
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beings with
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Introduction to Social Science Research
Positivist
Interpretative Critical
Social Science Social
Social
Feminist
Postmodern
Research
Research
Science
Science
who are
and who
with
unrealised
unrealised
shaped by
constantly
unrealised
potential,
potential
external
make sense
potential,
trapped
forces
of their
trapped
by unseen
worlds
by
forces
illusion
Human
Powerful
Individuals
Bound
Structural
Individuals
agency
external
have
autonomy
limits
have great
social
significant
and free
based on
volition,
pressures
volition;
choice
gender
and all
shape
they develop
structurally confines
structures
people’s
meanings
limited,
choices,
are illusory
actions; free
and have
but the
but new
will is largely
the freedom
limits can
thinking
an illusion
to make
be moved
and
choices
action can
breach the
limits
Role of
Clearly
Powerful
False
False
The essence
common
distinct from
everyday
beliefs
beliefs
of social
sense
and less valid
theories
that hide
that hide
reality
than science
used by
power
power
that is
ordinary
and
and
superior to
individuals
objective
objective
scientific or
conditions
conditions
bureaucratic
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Positivist
Interpretative Critical
Social Science Social
Social
Science
Feminist
Postmodern
Research
Research
Science
forms of
reasoning
Theory
A logical,
A
A critique
A critique
A
looks
deductive
description
that
that
performance
like…
system of
of how a
reviews
reviews
or work
interconnected group’s
true
true
of artistic
definitions,
meaning
conditions
conditions
expression
axioms, and
system is
and helps
and helps
that can
laws
generated
individuals individuals amuse,
and
take
see the
shock, or
sustained
action
way to
stimulate
a better
others
world
An
Logically
Resonates
Supplies
Supplies
All
explanation connected
with or feels
individuals ideas/
explanations
that is
to laws and
right to
with tools
tools to
are true to
true…
based on
those who
needed
liberate
those who
facts
are being
to change
individuals accept them
studied
the world
from
oppressive
relations
Good
Based on
Embedded
Informed
Informed
Has
evidence…
precise
in the
by a
by theory
aesthetic
observations
context of
theory
that
properties
that others
fluid social
that
reveals
and
can replicate
interactions
penetrates
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resonates
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Introduction to Social Science Research
Positivist
Interpretative Critical
Social Science Social
Feminist
Postmodern
Research
Research
the
gender
with
surface
structures
individuals’
Social
Science
Science
level
inner
feelings
Relevance
An
A practical
A
Knowledge Formal
of
instrumental
orientation
dialectical
raises
knowledge
knowledge
orientation
is used;
orientation
awareness
has no
is used;
knowledge
is used;
and
special
knowledge
helps us
knowledge empowers
enables
embrace/
lets
individuals
share
individuals to make
or bring
to master
emphatically
see and
personal
and control
others’ life,
alter
events
worlds and
deeper
experiences
structures
value; it can
individuals only amuse
changes
enjoyment
Place for
Science is
Values are
All
Values are
Values are
values
value free,
an integral
science
essential
integral to
and values
part of
must
for
research,
have no place
social life;
begin
research,
but all
except when
no group’s
with a
and
value
choosing a
values are
value
feminist
positions
topic
wrong,
position;
ones are
are equal
but only
some
clearly
different
positions
preferred
are right,
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Positivist
Interpretative Critical
Social Science Social
Science
Social
Feminist
Postmodern
Research
Research
Science
some are
wrong
(Source: Neuman 2011: 119)
What is the significance of these differences in a course on social research? First, there is no
standard, definite approach to social research. Second, the dimensions of social research
vary with the approach you choose. For example, the various data collection techniques
used in social research are based on principles and assumptions from the approaches.
Experimental research is based on positivist social science while field research is based on
interpretative social science. Knowledge and understanding of the approaches allow you
to make informed decisions about the types of study to conduct. With this grasp of the
basic contours of social research, we now turn to research report writing.
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Activity 2
Case Study: MOM to Pilot CPF Retirement Service
Read the following article and answer the questions below:
http://www.todayonline.com/singapore/mom-pilot-cpf-retirement-planningservice
Questions
1.
What are the three types of applied research? What can the pilot of CPF
Retirement Planning Service accomplish according to each type of applied
research?
2.
What are the three main approaches to social research? What is the purpose
of the pilot of CPF Retirement Planning Service according to each of three
approaches?
2.3 Research Report Writing
In the previous sections, we have discussed the importance of social research, the
dimensions of social research, as well as ethics and philosophical principles and
assumptions behind social research. However, the research process is not complete until
we communicate the methods and findings with others. This form of communication is
generally a written report. This section focuses on the reasons for writing a research report
and the writing process.
2.3.1 Reasons for Writing a Research Report
A research report can be a written document or an oral presentation based on a written
document that communicates the methods and findings of your research study to others.
It is a comprehensive account that comprises the reasons for initiating the study, a
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description of the research process, a presentation of data, and an analysis of the data
in relation to the research question or topic. You must be meticulous in keeping records
while conducting the study. First and foremost, the report is an important contribution
to research in the scientific community. Other reasons for writing a report are to fulfil a
class or job assignment, to inform the organisation that funded the study, to persuade
the government, a corporation, a non-governmental organisation to address a specific
problem, or to educate the public.
2.3.2 The Writing Process
Your Audience. The presentation of your research report is dependent on whether the
primary audience are instructors, students, social scientists, practitioners, or the general
public. For instructors, the writing should be well organised following the specific report
format. There should be clear and concise explanations of technical terms, and specific
symbols and units of measurements should be accurately presented. For students, the
research question or topic should be clear and provide direction for your report. The
discussion should be comprehensive and logical with detailed and supporting evidences.
There should also be clear explanations of technical terms. Social scientists are interested in
the detailed procedures of the research study. The methods should be clearly and precisely
outlined, and data should be presented in a concise and systematic way. There should be
a detailed interpretation and evaluation of the data. Practitioners favour a brief outline of
the purposes, aims, and methods of the study clearly depicted by graphs and tables. A
detailed discussion of the significance of the data and its relationship with the purposes
and aims of the study should be performed. For the public, the writing should be clear and
functional with convincing evidence or support, and practical suggestions.
Style and tone. Style refers to “the types of words the writer chooses and the length
and form of sentences or paragraphs he/she uses,” while tone is “the writer’s attitude or
relation to the subject matter.” (Neuman 2011: 544) The style for research reports is formal
and concise; and the tone expresses objectivity and thoughtfulness.
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Organising thoughts. A basic tool for organising thoughts is the outline. Outlines ensure
all components of the research report are included and that the relationship among them is
clear. It facilitates (1) organising ideas in order (2) relating ideas (3) differentiating general
from specific ideas. However, report writing does not often begin with a complete and
comprehensive outline. The initial outline may be broad but, during the process of writing,
new ideas or relationships may develop or existing ideas and relationships become clearer.
Hence, report writing requires an open mind to reanalysis when necessary.
Back to the library. When writing the research report, you may realise that your notes are
incomplete or your references are lacking some detail. Don’t just limit yourself to written
sources; make full use of the library’s electronic resources such as online databases and
journals. For example, you can search for a journal article easily on the SUSS Library
website. It is important to emphasise that returning to the library to clarify or extend
references can help avoid plagiarism. Plagiarism is “the use of another person’s ideas exact
words without properly citing the original source” (Neuman 2008: 545). For example,
copying text and using it as if it is your original work and not citing the source it comes
from. It is a serious academic offense that will lead to disciplinary action by the university.
Always identify the sources of both directly quoted words and paraphrased ideas.
This section provided an overview of research report writing. The writing process applies
to all reports but parts of a report may differ depending on whether the research study is
quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative and qualitative report writing will be addressed
in study units 2 and 3 respectively.
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Summary
In Chapter 1, you learned the basic characteristics of social science research and
discussed the scientific method, the major differences between the quantitative and
qualitative approaches, and the importance of social science research both theoretically
and practically. You also examined various ethical concerns pertaining to social science
research in terms of its participants and researchers, so that you can make responsible
decisions in your research.
In Chapter 2, you learned the foundations of social science research in terms of its
dimensions as well as the philosophical assumptions and principles underpinning various
research methods, thus helping you to justify the research method you choose. The
methods and findings of social science research are also required to be communicated to
others, thus you were introduced to the process of report writing.
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Quiz
1.
Which of the following is the foremost ethical question a researcher must address?
a. Can I keep the names of the participants confidential?
b. Are participants protected from harm?
c. Can other scientists replicate my study?
d. Is deception absolutely necessary?
2.
Social science research is based on scientific method, thus its process is always
objective.
a. True
b. False
3.
Social science researchers should seek the simplest and most elegant explanation for
their findings. This characteristic is called ___________.
a. skeptical
b. theoretical
c. empirical
d. parsimonious
4.
________________ determines how well a policy or programme is effective in
achieving its objectives by monitoring continuous feedback.
a. Applied research
b. Formative evaluation research
c. Participatory action research
d. Social impact assessment
e. Summative evaluation research
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5.
Introduction to Social Science Research
In ________________ approach to social research, knowledge enables us to
empathetically embrace and share one another’s experiences and perspectives.
a. Critical social science
b. Feminist research
c. Interpretive social science
d. Positivist social science
e. Postmodern research
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Formative Assessment
1.
Which of the following is the foremost ethical question a researcher must address?
a. Can I keep the names of the participants confidential?
b. Are participants protected from harm?
c. Can other scientists replicate my study?
d. Is deception absolutely necessary?
2.
The ethical principle that data collected from subjects should be kept confidential
means that
a. data should be collected from anonymous participants.
b. names can be released with the data only to other research professionals.
c. researchers should never reveal the names of participants when they report
results.
d. participants should not be told about their performance in the study.
3.
Social science research is based on scientific method, thus its process is always
_____________.
a. true
b. objective
c. perfect
d. difficult
4.
Social science researchers should seek the simplest and most elegant explanation for
their findings. This characteristic is called ___________.
a. sceptical
b. theoretical
c. empirical
d. parsimonious
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5.
Introduction to Social Science Research
Researchers should avoid using complicated jargon when explaining their study to
potential participants because this goes against the principle of ________________.
a. beneficence
b. respect for persons
c. misrepresentation
d. justice
6.
________________ emphasizes democratizing knowledge-creation and engaging in
collective action.
a. Cost-benefit analysis
b. Formative evaluation research
c. Participatory action research
d. Social impact assessment
7.
Which of the following is true of descriptive research?
a. Become familiar with the basic facts, setting, and concerns
b. Create a general mental picture of conditions.
c. Create a set of categories or classify types
d. Support or refute an explanation or prediction
8.
What does it mean for case study research to have “casual mechanisms
identification”?
a. Case studies enable researchers to adjust measures of abstract concepts to
dependable, lived experiences, and concrete standards.
b. Case studies have the ability to make visible the details of social processes and
mechanisms by which one factor affects others.
c. Case studies help with constructing new theories, developing or extending
concepts, and exploring the boundaries among related concepts.
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d. Case studies identify concepts/variables that are of greatest interest and move
toward their core meaning in abstract theory.
9.
________________ encompasses research that traces information about a category of
cases or individuals who shared a common experience at one time period across
subsequent time periods.
a. Cohort study
b. Cross-sectional research
c. Panel study
d. Time-series research
10. Epistemology is ________________.
a. An area of philosophy concerned with creation of knowledge.
b. An area of philosophy that asks what really is and what the fundamental
categories of reality are.
c. An area of philosophy that deals with the issue of what exists.
d. An area of philosophy that deals with the nature of being.
11. What is the “natural attitude” in interpretative social science?
a. An approach to human agency and causality assuming that human action are
based on the subjective choices and reasons of individuals.
b. An idea assuming that the world of common-sense understanding is stable
and real and continues from the past into the future without dramatic change.
c. An orientation towards social reality that assumes the beliefs and meaning that
individuals create and use fundamentally shape what reality is for them.
d. A type of explanation that is an in-depth description or picture with specific
details but limited abstraction about a social situation or setting.
12. What is the transformative perspective in critical social science?
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a. An approach to human agency and causality that assumes human action is
based on subjective choices and reasons but only within identifiable limits.
b. A change process in which social relationships contain irresolvable inner
contradictions and, over time, they will trigger a dramatic upset and a total
restructuring of the relationship.
c. An idea referring to when individuals become detached from and lose sight of
their connection to their own creations and treat them alien, external forces.
d. A view that the researcher probes beyond the surface level of reality in
ways that can shift subjective understandings and provide insights into how
engaging in social-political action may dramatically improve the conditions of
individual lives.
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Solutions or Suggested Answers
Quiz
1.
Which of the following is the foremost ethical question a researcher must address?
a.
Can I keep the names of the participants confidential?
Incorrect.
b.
Are participants protected from harm?
Correct.
c.
Can other scientists replicate my study?
Incorrect.
d.
Is deception absolutely necessary?
Incorrect.
2.
Social science research is based on scientific method, thus its process is always
objective.
a.
True
Incorrect.
b.
False
Correct.
3.
Social science researchers should seek the simplest and most elegant explanation for
their findings. This characteristic is called ___________.
a.
skeptical
Incorrect.
b.
theoretical
Incorrect.
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Introduction to Social Science Research
c.
empirical
Incorrect.
d.
parsimonious
Correct.
4.
________________ determines how well a policy or programme is effective in
achieving its objectives by monitoring continuous feedback.
a.
Applied research
Incorrect.
b.
Formative evaluation research
Correct.
c.
Participatory action research
Incorrect.
d.
Social impact assessment
Incorrect.
e.
Summative evaluation research
Incorrect.
5.
In ________________ approach to social research, knowledge enables us to
empathetically embrace and share one another’s experiences and perspectives.
a.
Critical social science
Incorrect.
b.
Feminist research
Incorrect.
c.
Interpretive social science
Correct.
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d.
Positivist social science
Incorrect.
e.
Postmodern research
Incorrect.
Formative Assessment
1.
Which of the following is the foremost ethical question a researcher must address?
a.
Can I keep the names of the participants confidential?
Incorrect. Confidentiality is important but not the foremost ethical question
a researcher must address.
b.
Are participants protected from harm?
Correct. A researcher must always first seek to protect his/her participants
from physical and emotional harm.
c.
Can other scientists replicate my study?
Incorrect. Replication is not an ethical issue.
d.
Is deception absolutely necessary?
Incorrect. Deception is an important issue but not the foremost ethical
question a researcher must address.
2.
The ethical principle that data collected from subjects should be kept confidential
means that
a.
data should be collected from anonymous participants.
Incorrect. Anonymity is about ensuring that your participants are
unidentifiable from the data collected, which is different from confidentiality.
b.
names can be released with the data only to other research professionals.
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Incorrect. Confidentiality means that names cannot be released to anyone
other than the researcher.
c.
researchers should never reveal the names of participants when they report
results.
Correct. Confidentiality means that names of participants should never be
revealed.
d.
participants should not be told about their performance in the study.
Incorrect. This is not a confidentiality issue.
3.
Social science research is based on scientific method, thus its process is always
_____________.
a.
true
Incorrect. There are no true or false processes in research.
b.
objective
Correct. Social science research aims to be as objective and emotionally
detached as possible.
c.
perfect
Incorrect. No research process is perfect.
d.
difficult
Incorrect. The scientific method is not necessarily difficult.
4.
...
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