Chapter 2:
Collaborative Model for Promoting Competence and Success for
Students with ASD, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-2332-4_2, © Springer
Science+Business Media, LLC 2012 Overview: This chapter explains
the theoretical framework of COMPASS. Also provided is an overview
of the World Health Organization’s (WHO) defi ni-tions of impairment,
disability, and handicap and how this conceptual framework infl uences
COMPASS. In this chapter, we describe the following: 1. The infl
uences of behavioral, social learning theory, and mental health consultation on COMPASS. 2. How person–environment interactions which are
conceptualized in COMPASS are infl uenced by the WHO framework of
impairment, disability, and handicap. 3. Personal challenges and
supports and their relationship with competence. The overall goal of
COMPASS is to provide support to the people who help and teach
individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) to achieve
competence. Although the focus of this manual is on young students in
schools, the conceptual model is well suited for older students,
adolescents, and adults. The forms provided with the chapters, however,
are designed for younger students. Although some of the forms may be
appropriate for older individuals, the social skills assessment measures
are not. The model is based on a transactional framework (Sameroff &
Fiese, 1990 ) , and highlights the importance of the reciprocal and
dynamic interactions between stu-dents and their environments. It also
incorporates a multicomponent competency enhancement approach
adapted from August, Anderson, & Bloomquist ( 1992 ) pre-vention
model. Competence is assumed to operate as a protective factor that
buffers the student against circumstances that contribute to failure.
Because this framework assumes the development of competence results
from the transaction between the person and the environment, the degree
to which pathology or wellness is viewed as existing solely within the
individual is reduced and the contribution of the environ-ment is
enhanced. The framework ascertains current personal and environmental
challenges (risk factors) and supports (protective factors). Risk factors
inhibit the Chapter 2 Theoretical Background of COMPASS 31 102
Theoretical Background of COMPASSdevelopment of competence;
protective factors encourage competence (August et al., 1992 ) .
Competence results when challenges are minimized by maintaining a
balance in favor of supports (see Fig. 2.1 ). COMPASS as a Social,
Cognitive, Behavioral Model COMPASS is infl uenced by multiple
theories that include components of behav-ioral consultation, social
learning theory, and the mental health model of consulta-tion. The
Behavioral Consultation Model (Bergan & Tombari, 1976 ) takes into
account the functional relationships between behaviors and
environmental contin-gencies and emphasizes analysis of antecedents
(what occurs before a behavior) and consequences (what occurs after a
behavior). The mediating effect of internal events (thoughts and
feelings) is represented by social learning theory. The COMPASS model
considers aspects of social learning theory principles (Bandura, Jeffery,
& Gshedos, 1975 ; Bandura, 1977 ) by acknowl-edging that change can
be effected by a person’s environment, behavior, or cogni-tion. Most
new behavior is acquired by observational learning through modeling.
Models can be consultants, peers, videos, or books that depict skills.
Social learning theory also takes into account consultees’ own
cognitions about their own self-effi cacy (confi dence they can perform a
task) and appraisal (importance they place on completing a task or
attaining a goal). Social learning theory is represented by one of the
goals of COMPASS: to enhance consultees’ sense of self-effi cacy in
solv-ing current and future problems. The Mental Health Model (G.
Caplan, R. B. Caplan, & Erchul, 1994 ) builds from psychodynamic
theories and stresses the importance of interpersonal relation-ships
between consultant and consultee. Consultants need to be aware of the
neces-sity of understanding the norms, beliefs, habits, and routines of
consultees, and that Fig. 2.1 Balancing challenges and supports
Distinction Between Impairment, Disability, and Handicapultimately,
the consultee is largely responsible for putting the intervention into
effect. Therefore, a collaborative approach to consultation is necessary.
Consultants who assume an expert role are less likely to achieve positive
outcomes compared to consultants who use key concepts of the Mental
Health Model. These key factors include the following: The relationship
between the consultant and the consultee is equitable and •
nonhierarchical. The consultant does not get involved in the personal
problems of the consultee. • The longer-term goal of consultation is to
improve the functioning of the consul-• tee for future individuals with
autism whom the consultee will teach. Distinction Between Impairment,
Disability, and Handicap Although ASD are usually considered to be
lifelong (a few individuals may not carry the diagnosis over time due to
clinically signifi cant improvements), students and adults have the
potential to obtain optimal outcomes that lead to productive, fulfi lling,
and successful lives. One may wonder how a person may achieve a successful outcome if he or she has a diagnosis of ASD. In 1980, the WHO
adopted an international classifi cation of impairment, disability, and
handicap that occurs along a continuum. • Impairment was defi ned as
“any loss or abnormality of psychological, physiologi-cal, or anatomical
structure or function.” Impairment would relate to the diagnosis of ASD
based on the disordered development of socialization, communication,
and restricted repertoire of interests and repetitive patterns of behaviors.
• Disability was defi ned as “any restriction or lack [resulting from an
impairment] of ability to perform an activity in the manner or within the
range considered normal for a human being.” The person with ASD is
“disabled,” for example, when s/he is unable to participate in a role or
function as expected for the per-son’s age, such as be a member of a
social club at school or participate in a neighborhood play group. •
Handicap , on the other hand, was defi ned as “a disadvantage for a
given indi-vidual, resulting from impairment or a disability, that limits
or prevents the ful-fi llment of a role that is normal (depending on age,
sex, and social and cultural factors) for that individual.” Emphasized in
this defi nition is the concept of “dis-advantage.” One disadvantage is
when the person with ASD is not allowed to participate because of the
attitudes or perceptions from others about ASD. For example, if a
student is not taught or provided a way to communicate with others, then
the person is handicapped. If the person is not allowed to use his or her
com-munication system because it makes him or her “look different,”
then this atti-tude of others poses a handicap. These distinctions between
impairment, disability, and handicap take into account the infl uences
between the pers 122 Theoretical Background of COMPASSis important
for setting expectations and developing interventions. It implies that
enhancement of environmental supports are part of the therapeutic
strategies that are designed to offset personal challenges or impairments
that may result in disabil-ity or even handicap (Ruble & Dalrymple,
1996, 2002 ) . Interventions for individuals with ASD should take a twopronged approach: one aimed at the individual and the other directed
toward the environment. Interventions that focus on the individual
include psychoeducational and developmental approaches. Interventions
directed toward the environment include psychoeduca-tional
consultation with people or consultees (family members, teachers,
employ-ers) regarding environmental supports for the individual. The
ultimate goal is for the individual with ASD to be able to participate as
fully as possible and achieve his or her maximum potential and
competence. Competence Enhancement Across the Lifespan Challenges
are a part of everyday life. Depending on your present niche in life,
activities requiring vocational, academic, social, communication, or
leisure skills present unique challenges. Often, we fail to consider these
daily challenges because we have developed the skills to master them. In
fact, we often master them so well we develop a sense of competency in
our skills leading to personal well-being and an acceptable quality of life
for ourselves. Individuals who lack skills in meeting daily challenges fail
to develop self-competence and confi dence. Competence looks different
across the lifespan of the individual. The competent infant has a
complex range of behaviors for meeting daily challenges. Crying, smiling, cooing, and eye contact help the infant meet daily challenges via the
effects these behaviors have on caretakers. Toddlers develop early social
and communica-tive behaviors as demonstrated in the use of language
and interactive play patterns. The young student increases motor skills
and cognitive abilities as evidenced in displays of independence as the
student learns to negotiate challenges directly, rather than by infl
uencing the behavior of others. Young students also face chal-lenges in
the demands for interactive play requiring that they control their
emotions and understand complex social behavior such as sharing.
School provides a unique set of challenges in the development of
competence. The student must adjust to being away from home and must
adapt to the increased chal-lenges of academic learning. The school
setting requires that the student exhibit self-control and competencies in
socialization, communication, and emotion. Play skills take the form of organized
sports or may require the student to interact in peer-orga-nized activities, such as
during recess. Changes in routines also become more pro-nounced as students are
expected to make many new transitions both at school and home. Challenges
during early school years expand signifi cantly as the student moves to adolescence
and faces new and more complex demands for competency skills. Transition to
adulthood brings with it vocational decisions as well as demands for more
independent living skills Balance Between Risk and Protective Factorsroutine but
must now develop social and leisure activities on his or her own initia-tive. The
social, communication, self-control, and emotional competencies continue to be
refi ned and utilized throughout adult life. The complexity of adult relation-ships,
including both the emotional and physical aspects, presents new and/or dif-ferent
challenges for individuals with an ASD. In older adults, challenges include
transitions from job to job or apartment to apartment. Sometimes, older adults are
presented with challenges of having to adapt their lifestyle to changes in skills
brought on as a part of the aging process. The ability to cope with challenges at this
stage is aided by the acquisition of competency skills early in life. Individuals with
ASD often lack the necessary competency skills to meet these daily challenges
occurring across the lifespan. The competence of a person with ASD can be
enhanced, however, by understanding how vulnerabilities interact and can be
counterbalanced with one’s personal and environmental supports (see Fig. 2.1 ).
Balance Between Risk and Protective Factors The COMPASS model suggests that
a balance between risk (challenges) and pro-tective (supports) factors is an
important goal. The greater the challenge for an indi-vidual, the greater the
imbalance is weighted toward failure. A competent outcome to challenges depends
on the balance being tipped in favor of supports. Challenges leading to poor
competency include the individual’s primary vulnerabilities (per-sonal challenges)
and ecological stressors (environmental challenges). Factors that protect the
individual from poor competence include personal and environmental resources or
supports that, when combined, produce skills to meet challenges. Challenges
Primary challenges include biological predispositions that increase risks.
Neurobiological research indicates that brain function is altered in people with
ASD, leading to differences in the way they process information from the environment. The information-processing diffi culties are apparent in the social and communication problems of persons with ASD as well as in their narrow range of
interests and unusual sensory or motor behaviors. These vulnerabilities are
apparent early in life, producing diffi culties for the infant in responding
competently to the social and communicative demands of the environment. The
vulnerabilities lead to further problems as challenges increase with age.
Comprehensive, multidisciplinary evaluations are important in identifying the
primary challenges. Adding to the personal challenges are environmental stressors.
These are factors that impede competence development. Some possible stressors
include misunder-standings about the individual’s needs, placement in isolated
settings, confusing environments, and punitive behav 142 Theoretical Background
of COMPASSwho can help plan for the life transitions of persons with ASD can
produce additional challenges. Inadequate supports for communication, social,
leisure, and sensory needs contribute to failure. Family stressors may lead also to
further risk of poor competency development in people with ASD. Supports While
it is important to assess the personal and environmental challenges of persons with
ASD, competence enhancement focuses on the increase of protective factors.
Protective factors must balance risk factors to develop competency. During various
periods throughout a person’s life, the need for protective factors will wax and
wane; however, individuals with ASD will always need help to build their personal
sup-ports. They also need a variety of environmental supports and resources to
meet their needs. Personal supports are the strengths and interests that can produce
competent responses to challenges. Individual strengths and preferences must be
identifi ed and then used to enhance other skills. These strengths and preferences
also become the motivators and building blocks for the development of functional
life skills, the skills essential for everyday living. Interests will change and expand
as the person grows. Relative strengths tend to remain stable, but must be
enhanced. Sometimes, the inter-ests of individuals with ASD are narrow. However,
it is important to begin with cur-rent interests, gradually widening and expanding
these interests. Music, puzzles, and manipulative items, books and magazines,
specifi c TV shows, the weather, specifi c foods, riding in a car, rocking, spinning
things, routines, sequences, patterns, num-bers and letters, and moving—running,
pacing, jumping—are samples of preferences that individuals with ASD may
demonstrate. See Table 2.1 for more ideas. Similarly, a liking for water can be
used within many activities that help meet sensory needs. Bathing, showering,
washing and rinsing dishes, watering or spray-ing plants, hosing/washing windows
or tables, and swimming are some possible water activities. Looking at water in
falls, creeks, oceans, fountains, bottles, toilets, and puddles can be exciting or
soothing. Pouring, drinking, sipping, spraying, swirl-ing, swishing, and splashing
are a few actions to do with water. Experiencing water by being in a shallow pool,
deep pool, indoor pool, lake, or ocean broadens the concept of swimming.
Strengths are assets on which to build a strong foundation for competency. These
must be discovered and enhanced. Sometimes, the same attribute can be Table 2.1
Examples of how to use individual interests to enhance other skills An interest in
music can be expanded by introducing similar music to the current repertoire.
Slowly add to the repertoire by adding varied beats, vocals, and instruments.
Expand experiences to include live music, singing, playing a keyboard, tapping
rhythms, and dancing. Music can then be used as a vehicle to share interests with
others, to relax and calm down, and for reinforcement after work 36 Balance
Between Risk and Protective Factorsinterpreted as a liability by some and a
strength by others. Interpretation and the viewpoint of the observer can set the
stage for competency or failure. For instance, stamina can be listed as a strength or
be seen as a challenging behavior if it is called hyperactivity. Strengths might
include visual and auditory memory, visual/spatial skills, desire to please, word
and number recognition, gross motor skills, desire for order, self-care, and
perseverance. These strengths and interests lead to competent behavior in
particular areas. A person with ASD, for example, may be highly com-petent at
completing a complex puzzle. Unfortunately, puzzle competency does not produce
the social and communication competencies needed to meet the challenges of daily
activities. By utilizing environmental supports, however, the unique competencies
of a person with ASD can be used to develop functional skills for daily life.
Environmental supports are positive. They do not remove challenges from the lives
of persons with ASD, but rather they provide the balance on which to build
competency. Environmental supports must be community based, system wide, and
individualized to meet each person’s needs. Consistency and stability through a
continuum of services as well as individual and family supports are essential. If we
are going to be successful in supporting students and adults with ASD to be
compe-tent, we must collaborate across people, agencies, and government. Some
of these environmental supports are as follows: Family supports that include
respite. • Recreational opportunities. • Social networks. • Access to information
and resources and meaningful programs and employment. • Trained and
knowledgeable personnel. • Longitudinal/future planning that includes transition
plans, interagency collabo-• ration, and community access that build in stability
and consistency, and promo-tion of choices and independence. Proactive, positive
program components that include supports for inclusion; • functional meaningful
assessments; continuum of services; individual supports; and home/school
collaboration. A proactive, rather than reactive, approach to problem behaviors that
teaches rather than punishes. Positive, individualized programs that focus on using
individual learning styles • with visual supports, meaningful activities, appropriate
pacing, and meeting sen-sory needs. Other components including teaching
functional communication and social • interaction skills across settings and people
and teaching community skill devel-opment in collaboration with families and
friends. Planning and developing vocational and job skills and social
supports and net-• works are also part of positive pr L.A. Ruble et al.,
Collaborative Model for Promoting Competence and Success for
Students with ASD, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-2332-4_3, © Springer
Science+Business Media, LLC 2012 Overview: This chapter discusses
content knowledge and process skills needed by the COMPASS
consultant. Various types of training and the competencies achieved
from the training are discussed. A self-evaluation form is provided for
further self-study. In this chapter, we describe the following: 1. The
importance of social validity. 2. The difference between content
knowledge and process knowledge. 3. The three skill levels that
COMPASS consultants must obtain. 4. The eight content knowledge and
nine process skill competencies required of COMPASS consultants.
Before we describe the components of a COMPASS consultation,
several factors must be considered. We have learned that the successes
and outcomes of consulta-tion are dependent upon the knowledge and
skills of the consultant. To effectively support people with autism, it is
not enough to have a consultant who is an expert in consultation: he or
she must also have specifi c knowledge about autism spectrum disorder
and developmental disabilities. We have also learned that effective
consul-tation is based on socially valid approaches to assessment of
concerns, problem solving, and identifying outcomes. That is, the more
the processes, procedures, and outcomes of consultation are relevant and
meaningful to the participants, the greater the likelihood of success. This
chapter focuses on infl uences the consultant can have on students with
autism spectrum disorders. Chapter 4 covers other factors related to
teacher, parent, and school infl uences. To ensure children with ASD
reach their full potential, con-sultants must have the ability to carry out a
socially valid consultation and apply both knowledge and process skills,
as well as the ability to interact and establish a trusting, collaborative
partnership with the teacher and the parent or caregiver. Thus, this
chapter reviews content knowledge and process skills necessary for a
COMPASS consultant and provides an overview of the concept of social
validity—a critical ingredient of effective consultation.
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