UNDERSTANDING GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY A Master Capstone Submitted to the Faculty of American Public University by Vanessa Clark In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts September 2019 American Public University Charles Town, WV 2 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY The author hereby grants the American Public University System the right to display these contents for educational purposes. The author assumes total responsibility for meeting the requirements set by United States copyright law for the inclusion of any materials that are not the author’s creation or in the public domain. © Copyright 2019 by Vanessa Clark All rights reserved. 3 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY ABSTRACT OF THE INTEGRATIVE LITERATURE REVIEW UNDERSTANDING GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY by Vanessa Clark American Public University System, September 9th , 2019 Charles Town, West Virginia Dr. Pamela Curtin, Psychology Professor Violence is a significant problem worldwide and particularly in American society. The purpose of this study was to understand the development of violent behavior. The paper undertakes a review of factors that predispose individuals to violent behavior and supports the same using developmental theories. Further literature examines the traits exhibited by violent individuals. Literature on borderline personality disorder was examined to understand the disorder as the commonest personality problem associated with violent behavior. The paper reviewed twenty studies covering the four core areas of psychology: learning and cognition, lifespan development, social psychology, and psychopathology. The criterion for inclusion and exclusion was scientific papers five years or less old. The paper finds that adverse childhood experiences and individual differences predisposed individuals to violence. Common traits of violent individuals include poor school performance, isolation, verbal and physical abuse, and suicidal tendencies. Borderline personality disorder was found to be a major indicator of violence. It concludes that it is possible to predict violent behavior from the traits of individuals and their childhood experiences. Appropriate parenting is recommended as a deterrent to violent behavior. Future studies should employ general population samples rather than delinquents. 4 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction.......................................................................................................................................5 Violence ........................................................................................................................................7 Human Development.....................................................................................................................7 Learning .......................................................................................................................................7 Cognition ......................................................................................................................................8 Theories of Development...............................................................................................................8 Borderline Personality Disorder....................................................................................................8 Aggression.....................................................................................................................................8 Core Areas of Reference .....................................................................................................................9 Learning and Cognition (Psych 511) ........................................................................................... 10 Lifespan Development (Psych 510).............................................................................................. 11 Social Psychology (Psych 516) ..................................................................................................... 13 Psychopathology (Psych 526) ...................................................................................................... 13 Literature Review ................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined. Literature Search Strategy............................................................................................................7 Key Words ...................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined. Databases Searched ....................................................................................................................8 Years Included.............................................................................................................................8 Results Yielded............................................................................................................................8 Target Population........................................................................................................................9 Approach....................................................................................................................................9 Inclusion (Exclusion) Criteria ........................................................................................................9 Learning and Cognition.............................................................................................................. 14 Lifespan Development............................................................................................................... 17 Social Psychology ...................................................................................................................... 19 Psychopathologies: Borderline Personality Disorders................................................................... 24 Summary of Literature Review ................................................................................................... 27 Discussion ........................................................................................................................................ 28 Conclusions and Recommendations................................................................................................... 31 References ....................................................................................................................................... 32 5 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY Understanding the Growth and Development of Violent Behavior in American Society Introduction Violence in American society has become a major concern in recent years with cases of domestic violence, sexual violence, femicides, homicides, and mass shootings dominating the crime statistics and news outlets. The Association of Women’s Health, Obstetric and Neonatal Nurses (AWHONN) (2019) reported that in 2018, one in three American women experienced extreme physical violence from their intimate partner at some point in their lives. These figures paint a grim picture of peace, safety, and security in the home, the one place where an individual is supposed to feel safest. Sexual violence has also continued to record substantial cases in recent years despite many states in the US enacting stiff penalties for the offense. The Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network (RAINN) (2019) reported that an assault of sexual nature occurred in the US every 92 seconds. The figure translates to a whopping 321,500 victims of sexual assault annually on average, with victims typically aged twelve years and above. Mellins et al. (2017) reported that sexual violence was particularly prevalent in colleges and universities where most cases went unreported because of the near-acceptance of the vice as a norm and unwillingness to provide witness among colleagues. In particular, alcohol was found to be a major precipitator of sexual violence in colleges with all genders reporting substantially higher cases compared to other segments of society. Behnken (2017) emphasized the role of alcohol in sexual violence with her study that called for a review of the minimum legal drinking age. In the military, Wood and Toppelberg (2017) found that sexual violence was the most prevalent crime among all ranks. The researchers reported that the cases of sexual violence in the military proportionately matched the figures in the civilian 6 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY world, illuminating the fact that the discipline of the forces did not deter perpetrators from assaulting their victims. The finding exposes the reality that no American is safe from sexual violence. At its worst form, violence in the US takes the form of a mass shooting where one or a few perpetrators open fire on masses of helpless and often peaceful individuals to inflict maximum harm and kill. According to Lin et al. (2018), there were 100 shootings at masses in the US between 1982 and 2018. There is, therefore, the need to study the phenomenon at depth to institute effective measures against the vice. Despite the steep cost of violence on individuals and American society in economic, social, psychological and physiological terms, insufficient attention and effort have been dedicated to reducing it. Waechter and Ma (2015) decried their finding that sexual violence and other forms of violence received little funding from federal and state governments despite being more costly than other social health problems such as HIV/AIDS, cancer and diabetes. This paper traces learning and cognition theories, lifespan development, social psychology and psychopathology to understand the development of violent behavior. Psychologists base the development of behavior on operant conditioning, observational learning and social learning. Specific theories include those of Sigmund Freud, Piaget, Erikson and Kohlberg. The purpose of this paper is to examine the psychological aspect of violent behavior from an individual perspective throughout the developmental stages on the foundation of the theories herein. 7 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY Literature Review This section examines the existing literature on the psychology of violence. The literature under review covers the developmental process of the human being from childhood, middle childhood to adulthood including the experiences. In order to gain a clear understanding of violent behavior, the study reviews the literature on human development and human behavior. And subsequently identify the predisposing factors to violence. Literature Search Strategy Definitions of Key Terms The major terms in this paper shall be used in the following understanding Violence refers to the use or threat of use of force or one’s power over another person to achieve some substantial objective or for itself as an end (WHO, 2018). The act causes or has the potential to cause harm or injury, death, or some form of psychological harm to the receiver. Human Behavior is the sum of all the observable patterns of actions (or inactions) in groups and individually towards the self or other persons. Pandya (2013) asserts that human behavior is a function of brain activity that triggers the body to complete some action. Human Development is the study of the progressive pattern of changes and learning in knowledge, behavior, and abilities that occur in humans from conception to maturity. Psychologists attribute human development to nature (hereditary factors) and nurture (environmental factors) and the focus of this paper is on the environmental factors (nurture) that predispose individuals to be violent or have non-violent behavior. Learning is the observable and permanent change in behavior arising from the experiences of the individual due to the stimuli he or she comes into contact within the environment. It is a process that occurs from repeated environmental stimuli. 8 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY Cognition refers to the mental processes that enable an individual to gain knowledge and understanding. Theories of Development - These are academic foundations and principles that guide the understanding of how humans grow and learn. Borderline Personality Disorder is the condition of difficulties in managing emotions resulting in the individual exhibiting unstable emotions and self-image issues. Aggression is the behavior of one individual intended to harm another individual who does not wish to suffer the harm. Databases Searched The key database searched was Google Scholar. Google Scholar provided free access to academic literature. Unfortunately, a significant portion of the literature from Google Scholar was ten years or older. The phrase “journal articles” was added to the Google Scholar searches to eliminate non-academic material. Once an article was identified, a search was conducted to determine that the journal in which it appeared was peer-reviewed for inclusion. The National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) database provided much relevant material because it is a health science research database with access to a wide base of peer-reviewed journals. Years Included The research considered literature that was five years old or fewer. Science and research are academic fields with rapid evolution with new findings being generated every day. Consequently, new knowledge frequently renders obsolete old knowledge. There was, therefore, to need to employ only the most recent research findings in the arguments of the paper. Research papers from 2014 were accepted for inclusion. Results Yielded 9 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY The literature search yielded huge amounts of results from all over the world. The findings were in the thousands with some dating back as far as the 1960s. Target Population The literature search focused on past research on human behavior. Studies of aggression in animals were excluded. The accepted target populations were children or adult human beings. Approach The titles of the articles were the first indications of their relevance to the study. Studies whose titles did not relate to violent behavior from a psychological perspective were excluded. The abstracts of the articles were then skimmed to determine the actual theme of the research, the methodologies, and the findings. The conclusions of the articles were considered to confirm the abstracts and to identify the similarities and differences. A preview of the methodologies gave an insight into the study approaches. The ones meeting the criteria below were selected. Inclusion (Exclusion) Criteria The inclusion criteria were the year of publication (five years or less), the nature of the article (academic research), the theme of the article (developmental psychology, human behavior, problem behavior, aggression, childhood delinquency, violence), the credibility of the publication (peer-reviewed) and the contents of the paper (abstract, literature review, methodology, results, discussion and conclusion). All articles that did not meet the complete criteria were excluded. Core Areas of Reference This paper examines violent behavior among American adults. Violent behavior, like all behavior, develops over long periods from childhood. Consequently, the paper will draw from the theoretical and empirical knowledge of the core areas of learning and cognition, lifespan 10 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY development, social psychology, and psychopathologies. This section examines each of the core areas in detail and explains their relevance to the understanding of violent behavior in adulthood prevalent in American society today. Learning and Cognition (Psych 511) The course (Learning and Cognition) included the study of the internal mental processes that take place in the brain from the formative stages. The level of thinking, attention, perception, problem-solving, memory, and language are of particular concern (Morgan, 2016). These elements, in turn, constitute learning expressed as the ability to do things that an adult human being can do. The habitual manner in which an adult does things, otherwise known as behavior can, therefore, be studied by understanding the cognitive capacity of a human through the lifespan. The information presented in this course is aligned with my overarching topic (Behavior) an insight into the development of violence in children. For instance, operant conditioning teaches that children learn through punishment and reward. When a child is rewarded for behaving in a certain manner, the behavior is reinforced. Similarly, when a child receives punishment for certain behavior, the child represses that particular behavior. Repeated reward and punishment inculcate into the child’s brain the expected behavior constituting the norms and discouraging behavior that falls outside the norms (Goswami, 2014). The child thus develops a perception of the expectation of the adults and the people around him. Besides the external stimuli that influence childhood learning in operant conditioning, the child learns by observation using his or her cognitive capabilities. Cognitive capacity differs among children, but certain ranges are observed among children of the same age. The child’s cognitive capacity enables the child to replicate an observed act by himself or herself. Cognition also contributes to operant 11 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY conditioning because it determines how fast the child recalls the response to a specific act. The memory of a reward drives the child to replicate the desired action while the memory of punishment drives the child to suppress the act. Cognition, therefore, cannot be separated from the learning process. All behavior is learned from childhood. A good understanding of violent behavior, therefore, can only begin with an understanding of the development process from childhood through adolescence into adulthood where behavior is reinforced. Specifically, social and emotional learning provides insight into the origins of violent behavior in adults and can help identify the factors that predispose some individuals to the vice (Goswami, 2014). This paper examines the teaching and learning methods, the environment, and other factors that teach children violent behavior. Lifespan Development (Psych 510) The course (Lifespan Development) included an understanding of the development of behavior and other capabilities, psychology researchers have, over the years, developed several theories. The most common of the developmental theories are Sigmund Freud’s theory of personality, Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, and Kohlberg’s theory of moral development. The information presented in this course is aligned with my overarching topic (Behavior) and the acquisition of violent behavior in childhood to adulthood. Sigmund Freud’s theory of psychosexual development sought to explain the formation of sexual identity and attitudes towards sex. He theorized that human beings have an innate sex drive that pushes them to seek pleasure from their bodies in a series of stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital (Miller, 12 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY 2016). Overexposure or underexposure to sexual excitement in each of the stages could cause maladjustment in adulthood. Erikson’s psychosocial theory focused on the conflicts that a human being underwent in various stages of development in his effort to relate with other persons. He identified eight stages, each with a different conflict between a desirable outcome and a detestable outcome (Miller, 2016). The resolution of these conflicts determined the final adjustment of the individual in adulthood concerning society and the individual’s position in it. Piaget’s cognitive theory explained the progressive mental capabilities of a child from infancy to adolescence. Piaget identified four stages of cognitive development: the sensorimotor stage (0 – 2 years), the preoperational stage (2 – 7 years), the concrete operational stage (7 -12 years) and the formal operational stage (from 12 years) (Miller, 2016). Piaget’s theory focused on the internal ability of the child to learn survival tactics rather than the influence of the external environment on the learning. Consequently, the theory provides a benchmark for identifying the normal growth of a child rather than the input of the environment on the development. Kohlberg developed Piaget’s theory of cognitive development to explain the development of the ability to tell right and wrong. Kohlberg proposed three stages: the pre-moral stage, the conventional stage, and the principled stage (Miller, 2016). They each represent the child’s knowledge and drive for doing the right thing over the wrong thing as they develop. These theories each have their criticisms, and none explains the complex development process of a human being satisfactory. Nevertheless, they offer a good insight for understanding the differences that arise in adulthood, especially in behavior. They will provide a foundation for understanding the formation of violent behavior among adults to explain the violence in American society. 13 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY Social Psychology (Psych 516) The course (Social Psychology) included the study of the individual in an interactional context with other people around him or her. It examines the behavior of the individual in the presence of other people and the influence of those people on the behavior of the individual. Specifically, it studies the behavioral traits that individuals exhibit in the social context and attempts to explain the motivating factors for the traits (Sommerville & Decety, 2016). Violence and aggression are some of the traits studied in social psychology. This paper will look at the factors that predispose some individuals to violence towards others. The information presented in this course is aligned with my overarching topic (Violent Behavior) because it examines the concepts of the self, social cognition, influence of social groups, group processes, stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination and the psychological reaction of the individual to them. Liu (2011) suggests that early health factors such as head injury, malnutrition, and the use of drugs during the prenatal, perinatal and postnatal periods are all contributors to violent behavior in adulthood. Mendes et al. (2009) agreed that physiological factors during pregnancy and childhood predisposed individuals to violent behavior. Nevertheless, they were categorical that socio-environmental factors had more influence on violent behavior in adulthood. The roles of society, socialization, and social interaction, therefore, are confirmed as a major contributor to aggressive behavior. This paper will, therefore, trace the human development process from the perspective of the interactions of the individual from childhood to isolate the factors that lead to violence and aggression in children and adults. Psychopathology (Psych 526) The course (Psychopathology) included the study of mental health. Violent and aggressive behavior is considered a mental health problem whose solution is a clinical approach 14 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY like physiological diseases. According to Pickard (2015), it identifies several psychological maladjustments as health issues that require medical and psychological interventions to restore the normal function of the patient diagnosed with the problem. The information presented in this course is aligned with my overarching topic (Violent Behavior). A deep study of the problem in terms of symptoms, epidemiology, risk factors, and treatment provides the basis for the recommendations for reducing violence in American society. Learning and Cognition An understanding of violent behavior is impossible without a review of learning and cognition in childhood that can predispose children to violent behavior in adulthood. The study of Finkelhor et al. (2015) was a follow-up on a previous study that examined the effect of adversities on physical health conditions and mental health symptoms. The original study aimed to develop a scale for the determination of behavior from the adversities suffered in childhood. Finkelhor et al.’s study peer victimization, peer rejection, and the exposure to community violence to the childhood adversities to improve the adverse childhood experiences scale earlier developed from the original study. The effect of socioeconomic status was also considered in Finkelhor et al.’s study to predict mental health symptoms. The study (like its predecessor), therefore, violence to be a mental problem. Finkelhor et al. (2015)’s study involved 1,949 participants of the ages 10 – 17 years and their caregivers to determine the impact of adversities on their likelihood to develop mental maladjustments that could lead to violent behavior. The vast number of participants required a period of eight months (August 2013 – April 2014) to collect data through telephone surveys. Although the survey took eight months, it was a cross-sectional study. The participants were 15 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY surveyed once without repetition. The results were analyzed using the statistical techniques of OLS regression and negative binomial regression. The study found that adversities in childhood, peer rejection, and exposure to violence in the community predisposed children to poor physical and mental health in adulthood. A low socioeconomic status was also strongly correlated to poor mental adjustment in adulthood. The study thus proposed an improved scale to predict mental health problems in adulthood. Another study by Fox et al. (2015) investigated the impact of traumatic experiences in childhood on behavior. Unlike Finkelhor et al. (2015)’ study that drew participants from common society, the study investigated youths with proven delinquent behavior. The study used a large sample (22,575) of youths convicted of delinquency by the Florida Department of Juvenile Justice to explore their life experiences in childhood to determine the relationship with the youth’s chronic predisposition to serious violent behavior. The study used secondary data from the Florida Department of Juvenile Justice, and it did not interview the youths themselves. It analyzed the records of the delinquents using descriptive statistics and multivariate logistic regression methods to establish that all had some adverse experiences in their childhood. The persistence of adverse experiences in all the cases led to the conclusion that adverse childhood experienced were predetermining factor of violent behavior in adulthood. The study, therefore, approved the use of the ACE score to predict violent behavior. The study of Hunt, Slack, and Berger (2017) added to the existing findings of a strong correlation between adverse childhood experiences and behavior. The study was a follow up to an earlier study that established that adverse childhood experiences led to increased risk of depression and substance abuse. Hunt, Slack, and Berger’s study went a step further and investigated the effect of adverse childhood experiences on the attitudes of such children and 16 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY their expressed behavior. The research used data from a previous study titled Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study. It analyzed data from 3,000 participants and found that children from the age of nine recognized adverse experiences the latter was responsible for their rebellion towards society at later ages. The study, however, did not specify the exact behavioral maladjustments resulting from adverse experiences in childhood. The study analyzed the data using regression techniques to confirm the correlation. In a similar study, Perez et al. (2016) investigated the relationship between adverse childhood experiences and behavior. Their study, however, expanded the investigation into the specific effects of behavior and focused on the school difficulties, impulsivity, aggression, substance abuse, and generally antisocial behavior such as suicide. They found a direct and indirect correlation between adverse childhood experiences and maladaptive behavior such as suicide and substance abuse. The most important focus of this paper is their finding that adverse childhood experiences contributed to violent behavior and aggression. A departure from other studies was the indication that individual factors (genetics) also contributed to violent behavior besides adverse childhood experiences. Perez et al. (2016) study used data from the Florida Department of Juvenile Justice. The sample used was 64,329 out of which only 21.67% were female. The generalized structural equation model (GSEM) was used to analyze the data to reach the study’s conclusions. The study recommended the identification of developmental issues to prevent behavioral problems in adolescence and adulthood. Levenson and Socia (2016) added to the study of adverse childhood experiences and behavioral adjustment. Their study focused on the relationship between the phenomenon and arrest patterns in different jurisdictions. The study considered arrest as an expression or possession of antisocial behavior. They found that all young persons who had been arrested had 17 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY some adverse childhood experiences and concluded that the adverse effects contributed to the likelihood of arrest. The study used data from 740 young offenders out which only 6.5% were female with the remaining being male. The number of adverse experiences was directly proportional to the number of arrests in the cases studied. Descriptive statistics of bivariate correlations and regression techniques were used to analyze the data. Another study of the relationship between the developmental environment and violent behavior was conducted by Thomas et al. (2016). Their study identified factors that prevented the likelihood of violent behavior in young persons. The study identified and found that parent and peer non-violence expectations reduced the involvement of adults in violence and other antisocial behavior. The researchers studied African American males in schools and established that the males who had been exposed to violence in the home and among peers were likely to develop violent behavior themselves in adolescence and adulthood. The sample of 553 African American males was sufficient for the 12 schools under study. Statistical techniques of bivariate and multivariate analysis were used to manipulate the data using SPSS and AMOS. Lifespan Development The role of learning and cognition in molding violent behavior is studied under many studies of children of young age whose cognition is developing. Dan (2016) worked with kindergarten teachers to study self-regulatory behaviors in pre-school children and their tendency to display aggressive behaviors. The study recognized self-regulation as one of the skills learned in early childhood per Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. The ability to control actions concerning other children is a demonstration of the development of the operational thinking that goes beyond the self to consider the interests of other children. The 30 Kindergarten teachers reported an association between impulsive behavior (lack of self-regulation) and poor 18 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY performance among their charges. The study, therefore, concluded that violent behavior is learned early in childhood, and it suggested intervention measures that could prevent the reinforcement of such behavior into adulthood where it would be expressed as aggression and violence. The study employed the Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist to determine impulsive behavior among the children. Data were analyzed using correlation tables to arrive at the findings hereinabove. In their study of human development, Eisner and Malti (2015) took a multi-theory approach by looking at the cognitive, social, and moral development theories to explain violent behavior. The paper was a discussion of previous research comprising of the correlates of the behavior, the causes, the risk factors, and the markers. Aggression is discussed from childhood to adulthood and explained using the behavioral theories of social and moral development. A deeper discussion of aggression ensues including the subtypes, the clinical classification of violent behavior and an examination of the measurement approaches to violent behavior. The study took a longitudinal design where 654 participants were observed for 20 years to examine the development of aggressive behavior in comparison with the environment of development. The research concluded that violent behavior was a function of cognitive, social, and moral factors surrounding the individual from early childhood. Regression analysis was used to analyze the data across the research papers discussed. Girard et al. (2019) conducted a comprehensive study of aggressive behavior in groups of children. The children were classified depending on the level of aggressive behavior they exhibited. The style of parenting and the social environment where the children grew up were used as the independent variables to classify the behavior as non-aggressive, low-stable aggressive, moderate engagement aggressive behavior, high-desisting aggressive behavior, and 19 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY high-chronic aggressive behavior. This study was also longitudinal, and it observed 787 children from birth to adolescence to determine and explain aggressive behavior and the associated factors. Parenting and individual predispositions were presented as the major contributors to violent behavior in adulthood. In another study of cognitive impulsivity and violent behavior, Menting et al. (2015) found that the parenting style moderated the likelihood of aggressive behavior in late childhood to early adulthood. Peer pressure and other environmental factors also played a significant part in moderating or escalating violent behavior among young adults. Nevertheless, the social factors and environmental factors held constant; the study reported that high cognitive compulsivity and low intelligence predisposed individuals to violent behavior. This study was longitudinal research that studied 412 participants from birth to the age of 29. Parental influence, conventional activities were assessed against delinquency at the ages of between 10 and 13 years. Scores for cognitive impulsivity and intelligence were collected at 12 to 13 years of age while official arrest records were recorded between the ages 13 to 29 years. Analysis of the data was conducted using Pearson correlation and other regression techniques. Social Psychology Del Bene et al. (2016) investigated whether violent individuals exhibited any physical differences from people without violent tendencies. The researchers hypothesized that violent individuals some physiological abnormalities that predisposed them to violence. The study participants were violent schizophrenic individuals, non-violent schizophrenic individuals, and non-psychotic violent individuals as controls. The study examined the size of the amygdala, hippocampus, and thalamus bilaterally to identify any significant differences in the parts of the brain responsible for violent behavior. The study reported that non-psychotic violent individuals 20 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY had smaller amygdala compared to non-violent non-psychotic individuals. On the other hand, psychotic patients who exhibited violent behavior had smaller amygdala than the non-violent psychotic patients did. The hippocampus and thalamus of psychotic participants were also found to be smaller than those of non-psychotic individual were. The study found that the smaller amygdala of non-psychotic individuals was accounted for by substance abuse. The study was a unique one because it gave an insight into the physiological characteristics of violent individuals that could help predict violent behavior in individuals from an early age. The impact of substance abuse, however, complicated the possibility of using the brain structure and abnormalities in predicting violent behavior in individuals born normal. Lickley and Sebastian (2017) followed up the study of physiological characteristics of violent individuals in their study of reactive aggression among adolescents. Their study focused on the neural circuitry that controls reactive aggression, emotional regulation, and social behavior. While recognizing that social factors played a critical role in violent behavior, the study found some relationship between the neural circuitry of violent adolescents and their nonviolent counterparts. It compared the neural circuitry with the visible characteristics of violent individuals such as irritability and emotional regulation. Varshney et al. (2015) studied the relationship between mental illness and violent behavior. The justification for the study was the discrimination of patients with mental illness for fear of engaging in violent activities. The study, therefore, sought to establish whether mental illness was a characteristic of violent behavior. The researchers reported that there was no direct relationship between mental illness and violent behavior. Instead, the study found that individual factors were responsible for violent behavior in patients with mental illness as much as in persons with no history of mental illness. It, therefore, suggested that violent behavior is a mental 21 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY illness of its own, independent of known mental conditions. The role of substance abuse once again came to the fore with evidence that mental patients as well as normal persons engaged in violent behavior with the use of psychotropic substances. Consequently, the study suggested that an exhibition of mental illness is not a characteristic of violent behavior. It recommended the treatment of violent behavior in mental illness using known medical interventions rather than treating mental illness as a characteristic of violence. Secor-Turner et al. (2014) study focused on the expressed characteristics of violence among adolescent girls, which is a population demography considered high-risk. Specifically, the study sought to identify the types of violent behavior exhibited by violent adolescent girls. The researchers reported that violent girls displayed sexual abuse, verbal abuse, gang-related violence, physical abuse and physical fighting among themselves and other girls in their social circles. The research was relevant to this study because it particularly provided the pathway to the development of violent behavior among girls by identifying the behavioral characteristics of adolescent girls who turned out to be violent in their adulthood. The study, however, used a small sample of 116 girls participating in a youth intervention program for girls. The sample was biased because it involved girls who were aware of the consequences of violence and were participating in an intervention program. It also did not cover male adolescents even though adolescent males and adult males are more susceptible to violent behavior than females were. Nevertheless, it provided a good insight into violence among females. Descriptive quantitative statistics were used to analyze the data from the program. Sinha (2016) studied the personality of criminals in jails in comparison with the personality of persons who had never been involved in crime. The study focused on violent criminals hence its inclusion in this review. It recognized that criminals (violent persons) 22 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY exhibited similar characteristics that indicated their violent behavior. It found that violent criminals displayed a low level of intelligence compared to their “normal” counterparts (persons not involved in the crime). They also displayed impulsive tendencies that gave them little or no time to consider their actions. Suspicion and a lack of self-sufficiency were also found to be predictors of violent behavior among the criminals. Spontaneity and negative self-concept were personality traits common among violent criminals. Last, the violent criminals lacked emotional stability. The study used 37 male criminals and 36 controls to reach their conclusions. It, therefore, concluded that the personality traits identified among the violent criminals could be used as predictors of violent behavior among the Indian populations. The study of Denson et al. (2018) was very comprehensive, and it sought to identify the behavioral and brain activity characteristics women displaying aggressive behavior. In laboratory studies, the study found that women were less likely than men were to exhibit violent behavior while in uncontrolled environment their likelihood to indulge in violent behavior was equal to that of men. It was, however, unable to identify significant neural differences in the brain activity of aggressive women compared to non-aggressive women. Consumption of alcohol and the use of other psychotropic drugs was strongly correlated to violent behavior among women. The research employed studies of EEGs to examine the brain activity of women in the study to identify differences between violent women and their non-violent counterparts. Hostility and impulsive behavior were found to be indicators of violence among the women sample studied. The researchers also reported fidgeting behavior as a predictor of violence. According to the study, aggressive women displayed regular contraction and relaxation of their hands compared to their non-aggressive counterparts. The contractions and relaxations were more pronounced just before violent incidences. 23 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY Another comprehensive study of violent behavior was conducted by Logan, Vagi, and Gorman-Smith (2017). The study focused on youths with histories of violence, suicidal tendencies, and gun-carrying to identify the behavioral characteristics of violence in the group. The research identified depression as a common denominator among all the youths studied. The youths also associated with other youths who were involved in violent activities. The use of psychotropic substances was pervasive across the study participants. The research employed a sample of 3,931 school youths in the seventh, ninth, eleventh and twelfth grades for its study and it analyzed the results using regression methods. It also covered the factors that predisposed the youths to violence and identified poor parental supervision, history of violence in the family, adverse childhood experiences and a lack of school-connectedness as predisposing factors. The findings thus offer deep insight into the individual, social, and psychological factors responsible for violent behavior while identifying the expressed indicators of violence in the study group. Kuhn et al. (2018) conducted a study on the role of play with violent video games in violent behavior among adults. The study aimed to confirm or dispel the prevailing belief that playing violent video games contributed to violent behavior in society. The researchers sought to identify the prevalence of aggression, sexist attitudes, impulsive tendencies, risk taking, and other behaviors associated with violence among participants playing violent video games and a control group. One group played a violent video game, and a second group played a non-violent video game while a third group played no game at all for two months. The study found that there was no change in the behavior or attitudes of participants after the two month-period and six months after. The study thus dispelled the belief that violent video games contributed to violent behavior. Rather, it established that persons with violent behavior did not show any preference for violent video game either. 24 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY Psychopathologies: Borderline Personality Disorders The exhibition of violent behavior is considered among scientists and researchers as a mental disorder that requires medical intervention to resolve. A study of some common mental disorders, therefore, is critical in understanding violence as a social problem in America. This section examines borderline personality disorder as a mental condition and its etiology, epidemiology, pathophysiology, history, and treatment. A borderline personality disorder is one of four major personality disorders in the group comprising of narcissism, antisocial behavior, and histrionic behavior. According to Chapman, Jamil and Fleisher (2019), borderline disorder expresses itself through hypersensitivity to rejection, unstable interpersonal relationships, a poor self-image, and abnormal behavior. The authors asserted that genetic inheritance is found to be closely associated with up to 50% predisposing factors to borderline personality disorder. Social and developmental issues associated with the disorder include adverse childhood experiences including physical and sexual maltreatment and parental neglect. Inappropriate family boundaries, maternal separation, substance abuse, and parental substance abuse have also been identified as causes of the disorder in over 70% of sufferers. In terms of prevalence, borderline personality disorder was found to affect up to 1.6% of the general US population in a study published in 2007 and 2008. The study reported that there was no difference in occurrence of the disorder in the general population while the incidence in the clinical samples found thrice the number of cases affecting women than men. Psychiatric patients had an incidence of 11% among outpatients and 20% in the inpatient population. Overall, lifetime prevalence of borderline personality disorder was 5.9%. These high figures call for focused studies on the disorder. 25 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY The pathophysiology of borderline personality disorder remains complex. According to Chapman, Jamil, and Fleisher (2019), oxytocin was responsible for the regulation of reward and empathy networks in the brain. Serotonin dysregulation, therefore, contributed to borderline personality disorder. Neurocognitive deficits and attention deficit hypersensitivity disorder were found to be present in patients with borderline personality disorder. These factors were observed in the persons suffering from the disorder, but the studies were not conclusive. Symptoms of borderline personality disorder were diverse. According to Chapman, Jamil and Fleisher (2019), psychiatric examination for the disorder should include identification of frantic efforts to avoid abandonment (real or imagined), intense and unstable interpersonal relationships oscillating between idealization and devaluation, identity disturbance, impulsivity and inappropriate, intense anger directed at persons close to the patient. Treatment for borderline personality disorder is mainly psychotherapeutic. Chapman, Jamil, and Fleisher asserted that there were no medications approved for the treatment of the disorder. They suggested that mentalizing-based therapy (MBT), dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) and transference-focused psychotherapy (TFP) were the most common interventions for the disorder. These treatments did not require hospitalization except where the patients posed a threat to other persons or themselves. Kulacaoglu and Kose (2018) sought to analyze research on borderline personality disorder to plug the gap in recent studies regarding the same. The study supported the findings of Chapman, Jamil, and Fleisher about figures, not surprising because both studies used secondary data sources. The research recognized borderline personality disorder as the most prevalent and dangerous mental disorder because of its violent nature hence the need for further research and action to manage it. 26 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY In a study of borderline personality disorder, Brune (2016) characterized the disorder by irritability, impulsivity, fear of abandonment, emotional dysregulation, and unstable interpersonal relationships. The study presented an evolutionary framework of behavioral ecology as the major cause of borderline personality disorder. According to the author, borderline personality disorder is a pathological distortion of a behavioral strategy that seeks to exploit interpersonal and material resources to meet developmental expectations that trace their origin to the development process and environment. It, therefore, disassociates the disorder from “deficit” theories that have previously guided its understanding. Instead, it calls for a medical approach to an understanding of the disorder. In studying the treatment of borderline personality disorder, Chanen and Thompson (2016) acknowledged that diagnosis for the disorder was difficult because most patients presented with the symptoms rather than the actual underlying problem. Most medical practitioners, therefore, ended up prescribing pharmacological interventions that did not address the problem. The paper recommended psychosocial treatment as a first-line intervention. Any pharmacological treatment should be used to treat co-occurring mental problems such as depression. Furthermore, the authors recommended the use of a single drug for limited periods to avoid dependence and abuse. Van den Bogaard et al. (2017) studied patients with borderline personality disorder in a clinical setting. They found that aggressive behavior among patients presenting with borderline personality disorder was associated with co-occurrence of other psychopathologies. Furthermore, the researchers reported that aggressive behavior occurred at the points of interaction between the patients and their caregivers and other patients. They, therefore, suggested that intervention measures focus on the points of interaction. 27 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY Summary of Literature Review From the studies above, adverse childhood experiences were most responsible for the development of violent behavior in adulthood. The most common adverse childhood experiences responsible for behavioral maladjustment were sexual abuse, physical abuse, parental separation, and socioeconomic adversity (Finkelhor et al., 2015; Fox et al., 2015; Hunt, Slack, & Berger 2017; Levenson & Socia, 2016; Dan, 2016; Eisner & Malti, 2015). These factors led to the development of aggressive behavior that was expressed through irritability, substance abuse, verbal and mental abuse, physical violence and fighting (Del Bene et al., 2016; Varshney et al., 2016; Denson et al., 2018). Chapman, Jamil, and Fleisher (2019), Jamil and Fleisher (2019) and Kulacaoglu and Kose (2018) described borderline personality disorder as the most common expression of violent of behavior. These findings studies on violent behavior follows the basis of developmental theories. Piaget’s theory offers a good insight into cognitive development from birth. Sigmund Freud’s theory provided the development of a sexual identity that begins in childhood. Erikson’s psychosocial theory was the basis for the understanding of the social interactions of individuals and its effect on their interpersonal relationships. Kohlberg’s theory formed the foundation for moral development. Nevertheless, empirical studies provide proof of the theories with their limitations. 28 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY Discussion The study aimed to gain insight into the understanding of violent behavior in the American population. The study began with the hypotheses that violent behavior is a function of developmental processes that influenced individual behavior about the self and the persons around the individual. A review of literature was then conducted under the topics of study undertaken in the course. The topics of study were learning and cognition, lifespan development, social psychology, and pathophysiology to describe borderline personality disorder, one of the most common personality disorders associated with violent behavior and aggression. The empirical literature on learning and cognition focused on the impact of adverse childhood experiences on adult behavior with an emphasis on violent behavior. The studies of Finkelhor et al. (2015) and Fox et al. (2015) examined the use of a scale to predict violent behavior in adults based on their childhood experiences. First, both studies sought to affirm or to improve an existing scale. The studies, therefore, used secondary data. Noticeably, the two studies used data from correctional services. The use of data from correctional services implies that the samples of the study were delinquent individuals with a high propensity to violent behavior. The studies could therefore only confirm the violent behavior and worked backward to understand the developmental experiences that could have contributed to the violent behavior among the samples. The two studies failed to consider the general population from which the delinquent samples were derived. Their findings thus only served to explain violent behavior rather than predict it from a normal sample because the findings could not be generalized to the whole population. Other studies by Hunt, Slack, and Berger (2017), Perez et al. (2016) and Levenson et al. (2016) focused on the individual experiences that led to the development of violent behavior 29 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY among individuals. The studies found that parental supervision, peer influence, parental separation, substance abuse, and individual factors were responsible for the development of violent behavior. Unfortunately, these studies also used data from correctional services and other social organizations that dealt with violent behavior among juveniles and young adults. The samples were thus biased, and their findings could not be generalized to society. Nevertheless, the studies were useful in defining and describing the exact childhood experiences that were associated with violent behavior. The studies affirmed developmental theories (Freud’s, Piaget’s, Kohlberg, and Erikson’s) that have always insisted that childhood experiences had long-term effects on adaptive behavior in adulthood. They reaffirmed the importance of appropriate parental practices to prevent behavioral maladjustment in adulthood. The study of Thomas et al. (2016) was the only one that used data from schoolchildren rather than data from delinquent juveniles. Irrespective of whether an individual had a record of violent acts with the correctional services or other law enforcement agencies, the stud y reported that exposure to violence among parents and peers had a significant effect on the individual’s propensity to develop violent behavior. The study was a confirmation of the previous studies and existing theories using a nonbiased sample whose results could be generalized into society. The studies on lifespan development were most informative on the development of violent behavior. All the literature reviewed studied school children under normal environmental conditions to identify violent behavior and aggressive tendencies. The studies then extended to the home and school environments of the children identified to possess violent behavior to assess the common factors among them. They found that parental supervision, parental separation, and peer pressure were the most important factors that influenced violent behavior among children. The studies confirmed the developmental theories and their emphasis on parental styles to instill 30 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY good characters in childhood. The role of genetics is recognized in the studies to explain the difference in behavior developed by children growing under the same social environment. The literature on social psychology focused on the behavioral traits that were exhibited by violent children and youths. Common traits that cut across the demographics were verbal abuse, physical fighting, skipping school, substance abuse, sexual abuse, gang membership and violence, poor performance at school and general rudeness towards authority. These findings agreed with the reports of studies of lifespan development that studied children in their normal environments. The same characteristics were identified in both sets of studies. It is, therefore, possible to predict violent behavior among children by observing their behavioral traits before they engage in violent acts. The studies of the psychopathology of borderline personality disorder were summaries and confirmations of the disorder. The problem was characterized by an extreme sensitivity to rejection, poor interpersonal relationships, a negative self-image, and abnormal behavior towards other persons. The studies recommended psychotherapy for intervention rather than simple counseling and pharmacological interventions. 31 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY Conclusions and Recommendations The study confirmed that adverse childhood experiences and individual genetic characteristics were responsible for the development of violent behavior. Developmental theories were confirmed to be operational in the development of behavior. Specifically, parental supervision and exposure to violence in childhood predisposed individuals to violent behavior in adulthood. The prevention of violent tendencies should thus focus on strong social services to parents to help them in raising their children appropriately, especially where children or parents have shown some delinquency. Substance abuse was identified as both a cause and effect of violent behavior. This paper recommends further studies to assert whether substance abuse is an indication of violent behavior or it is cause for the same. Also, future studies should use samples of the general population rather than focus on problem individuals. Studies of individuals with violent behavior should only be conducted to support findings of the stud ies of the general populations. 32 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY References Association of Women’s Health, Obstetric and Neonatal Nurses (AWHONN). (2019). Intimate partner violence. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic & Neonatal Nursing, 48(1), 112-116. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jogn.2018.11.003 Behnken, M.P. (2017). Contextualizing the role of alcohol in sexual violence. Journal of Adolescent Health, 61(1), 1-2. Retrieved from https://www.jahonline.org/article/S1054139X(17)30192-1/fulltext Brüne M. (2016). Borderline Personality Disorder: Why 'fast and furious'? 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Aggression and Violent Behavior, 16(1), 63–73. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2010.12.003 Logan, J.E., Vagi, K.J., & Gorman-Smith, D. (2018). Characteristics of youth with combined histories of violent behavior, suicidal ideation or behavior, and gun-carrying. Crisis, 37(6), 402-414. Doi: doi:10.1027/0227-5910/a000389 35 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY Mellins, C. A., Walsh, K., Sarvet, A. L., Wall, M., Gilbert, L., Santelli, J. S., … Hirsch, J. S. (2017). Sexual assault incidents among college undergraduates: Prevalence and factors associated with risk. PloS One, 12(11), e0186471. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0186471. Mendes, D.D., Mari, J.D., Singer, M., Barros, G.M., & Mello, A.F. (2009). Study review of biological, social and environmental factors associated with aggressive behavior. Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry, 31(2). Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S151644462009000600006 Menting, B., Van Lier, P. A., Koot, H. M., Pardini, D., & Loeber, R. (2016). Cognitive impulsivity and the development of delinquency from late childhood to early adulthood: Moderating effects of parenting behavior and peer relationships. Development and Psychopathology, 28(1), 167-183. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1017/S095457941500036X Miller, P.H. (2016). Theories of developmental psychology. London: Worth Publishers. Morgan, D. L. (2016). Essentials of learning and cognition. Long Grove, Illinois: Waveland Press. Pandya, S.K. (2013). Human behavior. New York: NBT. Perez, N. M., Jennings, W. G., Piquero, A. R., & Baglivio, M. T. (2016). Adverse childhood experiences and suicide attempts: The mediating influence of personality development and problem behaviors. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 45(8), 1527-1545. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0519-x Pickard H. (2015). Psychopathology and the ability to do otherwise. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 90(1), 135–163. doi:10.1111/phpr.12025 36 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network (RAINN). (2019). Victims of sexual violence: Statistics. Retrieved from https://www.rainn.org/statistics/victims-sexual-violence Secor-Turner, M., Garwick, A., Sieving, R., & Seppelt, A. (2014). Characteristics of violence among high-risk adolescent girls. Journal of Pediatric Health Care : Official publication of National Association of Pediatric Nurse Associates & Practitioners, 28(3), 227–233. doi:10.1016/j.pedhc.2013.03.002 Sinha S. (2016). Personality correlates of criminals: A comparative study between normal controls and criminals. Industrial psychiatry Journal, 25(1), 41–46. doi:10.4103/09726748.196058 Sommerville, J., & Decety, J. (2016). Social cognition: Development across the life span. New York: Routledge. Thomas, A., Caldwell, C. H., Assari, S., Jagers, R. J., & Flay, B. (2016). You do what you see: How witnessing physical violence is linked to violent behavior among male African American adolescents. The Journal of Men’s Studies, 24(2), 185-207. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/1060826516641104 Van den Bogaard, K.J.M., Nijman, H.L.I., Palmstierna, T., & Embregts, P.J.C.M. (2017). Characteristics of aggressive behavior in people with mild to borderline intellectual disability and co-occurring psychopathology. Journal of Mental Health Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 11(2), 124-142. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1080/19315864.2017.1408726 Varshney, M., Mahapatra, A., Krishnan, V., Gupta, R., & Deb, K.S. (2015). Violence and mental illness: What is the true story? Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 70(3). Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jech-2015-205546 37 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY Waechter, R., & Ma, V. (2015). Sexual violence in America: Public funding and social priority. American Journal of Public Health, 105(12), 2430–2437. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2015.302860 Wood, E.J., & Toppelberg, N. (2017). The persistence of sexual assault within the US military. Journal of Peace Research, 54(5), 620633. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022343317720487 World Health Organization [WHO]. (2018). World report on violence and health. Author. 38 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY PSYC699 Integrative Project Assessment Rubric __________________________________ Dimensions to Consider Introduction |100 possible points Below Meets Expectation Exceeds Expectation Exhibits the Expectation Does not qualities of Exhibits the meet the graduate-level qualities of basic research writing scholarly research expectations appropriate to writing for graduategraduate appropriate to level research coursework and advanced writing. emerging graduate studies, Would not be researchers. such as thesis/ acceptable dissertation for most writing. Would be graduate suitable to prepare coursework. for publication. 0-20 points Contextualizes the topic. — Defines related concepts and theories. — Identifies why the topic is important. — Discusses how and what it contributes to the field. Describes topic in general terms. — Identifies the unifying or overarching topic the project addresses. — Identifies new and significant information related to the topic. 21-25 points 25 points 25 24 Describes topic area in specific terms. — Specifies the focus of the project. 25 Identifies the purpose of the project in clear, direct language. 25 Section Points Earned 99 Literature Review | 150 possible points 0-24 points 25-29 points 30 points Literature sampling approach and techniques are clearly articulated and can be reproduced. 30 Literature cited is relevant, uses reviewed and primary literature appropriately. 30 Examines relationships between literature reviewed in core areas and noteworthy links to the unifying topic. 30 39 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY Provides critical analyses of the available research literature reviewed. 29 Concludes with a succinct summary of the section and transitions to the next section. 30 Section Points Earned Discussion | 100 possible points 149 0-21 points Synthesizes conclusions from literature review to alter conceptualizations of existing paradigms or establish new paradigms. 21-24 points 25 points 24 Integrates findings that extend the field through new knowledge, but does not over-interpret the data. 25 Presents recommendations for future research, with supporting rationale. 25 Includes a conclusion, summarizing the entire work. 25 Section Points Earned Formatting| 25 possible points 99 0-19 points 20-24 points Formatting is complete and correct; the project adheres to APA 6th Edition formatting standards. — Required elements are correctly included: o Title Page o Abstract o Table of Contents o Reference Page o All evaluated sections Section Points Earned Form| 30 possible points 25 points 25 25 0-19 points 20-29 points 30 points 40 UNDERSTANDING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR IN AMERICAN SOCIETY Information is presented in an organized, coherent manner, using appropriate grammar, spelling, and punctuation. — Organization: Information flows from one topic to the next logically. o Uses APA recommended heading style1 to identify major topic areas. o Uses transitional words to maintain flow between topics. — Focus and Summaries: Main points are easily identified and summarized at end. o Identifies main point(s) in the beginning of a section (i.e. paragraph, section, etc.). o Provides succinct summary of main points at the close of each appropriate section. — Editorial: Grammar, spelling, punctuation, and length are appropriate. o Uses the active voice consistently; focusing on the actions completed. o Uses verb tenses consistently (i.e. past tense, present tense, perfect present tense). o Uses consistent subject – verb agreement. 29 Section Points Earned Style| 25 possible points 29 0-19 points 20-24 points Maintains an academic, scholarly tone: — Clear, unambiguous language is used. o Ambiguous attributions are avoided; personal pronouns are used in lieu of third person references to describe actions performed (limited to the literature search strategy) 2 . o Avoids the use of jargon and colloquial language. o Avoids using hedging language (“It may be…” or “It is possible …”). o Avoids indefinite openings (”It is believed that…” or “It was hypothesized that …”). Section Points Earned 25 points 25 25 TOTAL POINTS 426/430 DrCurtinCapstoneTempl… **To open this Google Doc in MS Word - select “File” from the menu, “Download As”, “Microsoft Word”. See EOP Manual for detailed information of the template and details for your 30 - 35 page paper. Per APA Format use 1” margins, add a running head and page numbers beginning on the introduction page. Here a a few student Capstone Paper examples for you to get an idea of what previous students have selected as topic and how they aligned the four courses with the overarching theme. *Please note: Google doc formatting does not reflect capstone requirements (page numbers and running head are stripped). Student Capstone Example 1 Student Capstone Example 2 Student Capstone Example 3 Student Capstone Example 4 When reviewing my feedback on your documents, be sure you have “All Markup” selected in the Track Changes menu to see see my comments BOTH in the body and in the margin of your reviewed paper. Accept all comments before submitting the next draft. TITLE OF PAPER IN ALL CAPS (Title should be no more than 15 words) A Master Capstone Submitted to the Faculty of American Public University by Your Name In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts Month year American Public University Charles Town, WV The author hereby grants the American Public University System the right to display these contents for educational purposes. The author assumes total responsibility for meeting the requirements set by United States copyright law for the inclusion of any materials that are not the author’s creation or in the public domain. © Copyright 2019 by Your Name All rights reserved. DEDICATION Optional page Let me know if you have any questions or would like to talk by phone. I am here to help you : ) ABSTRACT OF THE INTEGRATIVE LITERATURE REVIEW TITLE OF PAPER IN ALL CAPS (about 15 words) by Your Name American Public University System, Month day, year Charles Town, West Virginia Dr. Pamela Curtin, Psychology Professor Content in Italics is for your information only – remove this content from your paper An abstract is a concise summary of a larger project that concisely describes the content and scope of the project and identifies the project's objective, its methodology and its findings, conclusions, or intended results. Limited to 200 words. TABLE OF CONTENTS (add associated page numbers for each heading) I. INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………… …….. 1 Purpose ……………………………………………………… ………………………….2 II. LITERATURE REVIEW ………………………………………………………. Name of Course (Course Number) ……………………………………………………… Name of Course (Course Number) ………………………………………………………. Name of Course (Course Number)…………….. ……………………………………….. Name of Course (Course Number)……………... ……………………………………..... III. DISCUSSION ……………………………………………………… ………….. IV. CONCLUSION……………………………………… ……………………………. LIST OF REFERENCES ……………………………………………………… ………. Header and page numbers begin on page 1 - no running head on title page Page number formatting tips can be found here and here Add Your Title of Paper Here Introduction No more than 2 pages Content in Italics is for your information only – remove this content from your paper Identifies the student’s specific literature review topic, explicitly articulating a unifying, overarching theme that will guide the project. The section should include: ! Background and contextual information related to the unifying/overarching topic. ! Definitions of major concepts and theories. Provide the theoretical framework that provides the understanding for the attitudes and behaviors noted in the study findings. Thread theory in a few of your findings and conclusion section. ! Identification of the four course areas of psychological specialization examined in the project. ! A brief discussion of each area’s relevance to the overarching theme of the project. ! Clear purpose statement Literature Review (Begins on new page) Keep in mind that the capstone paper is unlike a traditional research paper, rather you are informing a reader about what researchers have examined/investigated and how the results from the research provide support for, highlight importance of, underscore the findings, etc. that align with your overarching topic and each course subtheme. If you do not see the words purpose of study, sample, data collection and analysis, results, findings, discussion etc. you have not selected single study research. Literature Search Strategy Per rough draft directions- Including but not limited to: Keywords used, specific databases searched, Years included, Results yielded, results excluded. Written in paragraph format. One concise paragraph only Definition of Key Terms (no more than 6-8 terms) Add Term one and definition with citation: Add Term two and definition with citation: Add Term three and definition with citation: Add additional terms using established format Use the following format for each of the four course sections Course Name (PSYC###) The following content in Italics is for your information only – remove this content from your paper Mini Introduction Begin this section and following course sections, using this format. The course (add name) included an overview (review? discussion? examination?) of xxx (include a few sentences from the course description in the catalog). The information presented in this course is aligned with my overarching topic xx (note topic) and subtheme xx (note subtheme) that will be discussed in the upcoming section (specify in what way?) **Remember that you are not simply summarizing research, rather using the results from the studies to provide support for, highlight the importance of, underscore the findings that provide support for the overarching topic and each specific subtheme. Remind reader a few times in each course section of how the findings support your subtheme, but not after each summary. Provide clear transitions between studies- tell reader how studies are connected, how findings were extended, or findings were refuted, use of different methodology, sample size larger or smaller, sample included one gender only, etc Mini Summary End each course section with a mini summary (One concise paragraph) The content presented in this section included an overview (review? discussion? examination?) of ……. Add a one sentence finding from EACH study presented in this section. Combine the related findings when possible with the associated citations in parentheses at the end of the sentence. Note how the findings from the studies reviewed in this section provided support for the course subtheme XXX (in what way?) and theory if applicable. Next add a few transition sentences to next topic/course. ** You will plug this information into your discussion section at the end of your paper. Discussion (Begins on new page) Include the following level 2 headings with associated content below Conclusions Drawn from the Literature (2- 3 paragraphs) Plug in the content from your mini section summaries here (with associated citations) and inform reader of your conclusions drawn from the findings. Do not just restate content or copy and paste content, rather, synthesize the findings for a reader. Findings that Extend the Field (2 -3 paragraphs) Inform reader of how the content from conclusion section extends the field. What do we now know as a result of the studies? How can findings be applied to the real world? Recommendations for Future Research (2 paragraphs) Review last paragraph from each study for ideas for future research (with associated citations) and add your own suggestions. Conclusion (1 page, begins on new page) About one page summarizing the entire work. Should mirror content from introduction. Remind reader of all content covered in your paper including theory. Do not just restate content, rather, synthesize information for reader. References (Begins on new page) Turn off any citation and reference tool you have used. A reader should not see a blue box around your citations or references. Use this format for DOI Number http://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-010-9621-4 How to find a DOI number http://blog.apastyle.org/apastyle/2009/12/how-to-finda-doi.html What to use if no DOI number is noted https://academicanswers.waldenu.edu/faq/727 83 THE SEXUAL GENDER GAP, SOCIAL LEARNING, AND FEMALE SEXUAL DYSFUNCTION A Master Capstone Submitted to the Faculty of American Public University by In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts August 2018 American Public University Charles Town, WV The author hereby grants the American Public University System the right to display these contents for educational purposes. The author assumes total responsibility for meeting the requirements set by United States copyright law for the inclusion of any materials that are not the author’s creation or in the public domain. © Copyright 2018 by All rights reserved. DEDICATION I dedicate this capstone to the unnamed women whose willingness to confide their fears and insecurities in me inspired the research topic that serves as the basis for this capstone and my future career. I hope that one day my research can help others as much as you have inspired me. Most notably, I would like to dedicate this project to my cherished friend, Linda Fetko, M.D., who encouraged and supported me throughout this project. Without your unwavering reassurance that this research is not only valid, but also an important step towards improving the lives of thousands of women, this project would not have been possible. ABSTRACT OF THE INTEGRATIVE LITERATURE REVIEW THE SEXUAL GENDER GAP, SOCIAL LEARNING, AND FEMALE SEXUAL DYSFUNCTION by American Public University System, August 19, 2018 Charles Town, West Virginia Dr. Pamela Curtin, Psychology Professor Female sexual dysfunction (FSD) affects approximately 43% of the overall population. Most cases of FSD are not explained by underlying medical conditions and recent research findings suggest that dysfunctional cognitive schemas may contribute to FSD. To date, researchers have not assessed the impact of social ideals for female sexuality on the development of cognitive schemas related to sex and sexual function. The literature review was conducted to explore research on FSD in the context of a capstone format and includes content relevant to psychopathology (PSYC526), social psychology (PSYC515), multicultural issues in human behavior (PSYC610), and personality and counseling theories (PSYC520). A discussion of the empirical evidence supported the argument that a gender gap in sexual agency wherein women are socially penalized for expressing their sexuality prompts the development of dysfunctional cognitive schemas associated with sex, which ultimately triggers FSD. Additionally, the paper included a discussion of the variances in sexual agency, attitudes towards sex, and FSD between cultures and religions. Lastly, a review of the literature on reframing cognitions related to sex in an effort to improve FSD symptoms through noninvasive methods was included. The paper culminates in a discussion of avenues for future research and the potential impacts of understanding the interaction between social ideology and FSD. TABLE OF CONTENTS (this example is not formatted correctly - See Template) Literature Review 3 Literature Search Strategy Definition of Key Terms 3 3 Psychopathology (PSYC526) 4 Social Psychology (PSYC515) 11 Multicultural Issues in Human Behavior (PSYC610) 16 Personality and Counseling Theories (PSYC520) Discussion 22 27 Recommendations for Future Research Conclusion 29 References 31 28 The Sexual Gender Gap, Social Learning, and Female Sexual Dysfunction Introduction Sexual dysfunction affects a large portion of the female population with prevalence estimates extending as high as 64% in some subsections of the population (McCabe & Goldhammer, 2013). Women suffering from sexual dysfunction often report declined quality of life associated with female sexual dysfunction (FSD) as their condition affects relationship satisfaction, self-worth, and can often inhibit their ability to have biological children (Flynn et al., 2016; Peixoto & Nobre, 2015). Underlying medical conditions fail to account for most cases of FSD, which indicates that FSD may be largely triggered by dysfunctional cognitive schemas surrounding sex (Peixoto & Nobre, 2014; Peixoto & Nobre, 2015; Nelson and Purdon). Researchers have documented a well-established gender gap in sexual agency, or the ability to freely engage in premarital sexual relations, wherein men enjoy greater freedom to explore their sexuality without social consequences, whereas women frequently experience a decline in social status after engaging in premarital sex (Kreager, Staff, Gauthier, Lefkowitz, Feinberg, 2016; Uecker & Martinez, 2017). Due to the sizable consequences women experience associated with premarital sex, it is possible that young women develop a dysfunctional schema associated with sex that is the root cause for FSD. According to Albert Bandura’s social learning theory, children learn by observing the consequences, negative or positive, models experience when exhibiting a specific behavior (Crain, 2011). It is possible that females begin developing dysfunctional schemas related to sex from an early age by observing the consequences other females experience when they fail to meet the social norms for sexual promiscuity. Since females in sexually conservative societies often see models that exhibit overt sexuality ridiculed and labeled with negative adjectives, it is likely that girls begin viewing sex as something shameful from an early age (Kreager et al., 2016; Uecker & Martinez, 2017). In contrast, males are frequently applauded for their sexual conquests, which would help explain why men enjoy greater sexual freedom and have lower rates of sexual dysfunction than their female peers (Flynn et al., 2016). Since women likely learn that engaging in premarital sex damages their social reputation, it is possible that women experience negative emotional effects following sexual debut, which may contribute to an overall negative view towards sex (Lipman & Moore, 2016; Schwartz, 1993). The negative view towards sex that women may experience as a result of social learning and adverse affective reactions to early sexual experiences may compound to create a dysfunctional cognitive schema wherein women are unable to enjoy sex regardless of martial status. The purpose of this project was to examine the relationship between social ideals for female sexuality, dysfunctional schemas, and FSD. The paper contains discussions on multiple facets of FSD, including a review of its prevalence and the impact FSD has on patients’ overall quality of life. Also included is a review of the available literature on the existing gender gap in sexual agency and variances in cultural attitudes towards female sexuality, and attempt to connect social ideals for female sexual behavior to dysfunctional schemas and FSD. Finally, the paper concludes with a brief discussion summarizing the themes discussed in the literature and examining avenues for future research. Literature Review Literature Search Strategy In an effort to include only the most recent data on female sexual dysfunction, the literature review was limited to include only articles published following January 1, 2011. This limitation was evoked out of awareness for the fast-paced nature of medical research and to ensure that only the most relevant data was included for the discussion. Studies relevant to female sexuality, sexual dysfunction, and genderbased double standards for sexual behavior were collected using the PubMed, Science Direct, PsycARTICLES, ProQuest, and EBSCOhost databases. The author used variations the key words female sexuality, vulvodynia, sexual dysfunction, sexual debut, genito-pelvic pain/penetration disorder, female sexual interest/arousal disorder, double standard, cognitive behavioral therapy, regret, and guilt. As the literature on female sexuality is relatively limited, many of the relevant peer-reviewed results generated using the aforementioned keywords are included within the present literature review. Definition of Key Terms Female orgasmic disorder is a form of sexual dysfunction wherein the female fails to reach orgasm in the majority (defined as 75 percent or more) of occasions of sexual activity for a period of six or more months (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013). Female sexual interest/arousal disorder is a condition wherein women experience absent or severely reduced interest in at least 75 percent of sexual encounters and/or experiences absent and/or severely reduced arousal associated with sexual activity (APA, 2013). Genito-pelvic pain/penetration disorder refers to vulvovaginal and/or pelvic pain associated with vaginal penetration during sexual intercourse (APA, 2013). Also frequently referred to in medical texts as vulvodynia, vestibulitis, and vestibulodynia. Sexual agency is the freedom to engage in sexual relations, including but not limited to vaginal intercourse, outside of the confines of marriage without fear of decreased social status and/or peer acceptance (Uecker & Martinez, 2017). Sexual debut refers to an individual’s first experience of vaginal intercourse. Psychopathology (PSYC526) Psychopathology (PSYC526) provided an overview of the critical elements of abnormal psychology. The course reviewed various issues related to abnormal psychology including contemporary theories explaining abnormality, symptoms and diagnostic techniques, and available treatment methods. As such, the content within this course is aligned with my overarching theme assessing the relationship between social ideals for female sexuality, dysfunctional cognitive schemas, and FSD in that the course provided background on the symptoms of and potential causes for FSD. The following section provides important background information relevant to FSD, including a discussion of prevalence and diagnostic challenges. Additionally, the section includes a review of how FSD symptoms take a significant psychological toll on patients and contributes to declined quality of life. A key part of understanding and effectively treating FSD is recognizing the condition as a legitimate psychological disorder that affects millions of women and largely affects their quality of life (Flynn et al., 2016; Peixoto & Nobre, 2015). Likewise, to ensure that the issues associated with FSD are being appropriately addressed, it is important that researchers and practitioners alike are willing to evaluate the effectiveness of both diagnostic criteria and how they interact with patients (McCabe & Goldhammer, 2013; Mitchell et al., 2016; Sobecki, Curlin, Rasinski, & Lindau, 2012). The following section includes an exploration of the estimated prevalence of FSD, including the issues with diagnostic criteria and patient interactions that inhibit researchers’ ability to accurately determine how many women suffer from FSD, as well as explore the significant toll living with FSD takes on patient’s overall quality of life. Little research in the past ten years has been conducted to explore the prevalence of sexual dysfunction in a large population of otherwise healthy women, and estimates vary significantly based upon the particular study and selected population (Peixoto & Nobre, 2015). The most widely-accepted prevalence of FSD comes from a 1999 study that found 43% of women aged between 18 and 49 suffered from some form of sexual dysfunction, however that study relied on data collected in 1992, making the data nearly 30 years old (Laumann, Paik, & Rosen, 1999). No recent studies have been conducted to provide current statistics on the number of American women currently suffering from FSD, however, results from recent research FSD in the Portuguese population indicated that the prevalence rates of FSD remain largely unchanged over the last three decades (Peixoto & Nobre, 2015). Recruited from the general Portuguese population, 1,339 women between 18 and 62 completed an online survey assessing their relationship and sexual history, frequency of sexual desire and arousal patterns, orgasm frequency, and sexual-related pain (Peixoto & Nobre, 2015). The results revealed that both homosexual and heterosexual women reported high rates of distressing sexual problems persisting for longer than six months, thereby meeting the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder’s (APA, 2013) criteria for sexual dysfunction (Peixoto & Nobre, 2015). Among heterosexual women female orgasmic disorder was the most frequently reported condition (25.8%), followed by female sexual interest/arousal disorder (24%), and genito-pelvic pain/penetration disorder (18.6%) (Peixoto & Nobre, 2015). In contrast, homosexual women most frequently reported female sexual interest/arousal disorder (21%), followed by genitopelvic pain/penetration disorder (17.4%), and female orgasmic disorder (14.1%). Although the prevalence findings reported by Peixoto and Nobre (2015) are congruent with earlier research, other researchers found that prevalence and probability for diagnosis depends largely on which diagnostic criteria researchers and/or practitioners select (McCabe & Goldhammer, 2013; Mitchell et al., 2016). Although approximately 43% is the most widely accepted statistic for FSD prevalence, estimates range from as low as eight percent up to 64% (McCabe & Goldhammer, 2013). The previously discussed research from Laumann et al. (1999) and Peixoto and Nobre (2015) relied on diagnostic criteria from the DSM-IV and DSM-5, respectively. McCabe and Goldhammer (2013) examined the influence of emphasizing certain DSM-IV-TR criterion over others, as researchers have found is frequently done in practice, on the frequency of female sexual interest/arousal disorder. The researchers found stringently following DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria, specifically focusing on the criterion that requires a total absence of sexual desire/arousal and sexual thoughts/fantasies, lead to only 9.3% prevalence (McCabe & Goldhammer, 2013). In contrast, removing the criterion for absent sexual thoughts/fantasy, but leaving the criterion for fully absent desire/arousal, increased frequently to 11.3% (McCabe & Goldhammer, 2013). Fully changing the criteria to reflect an overall lack of desire/arousal in contrast to fully absent desire/arousal, which researchers and practitioners argue more accurately reflects the reality of FSD, placed the prevalence at approximately 50%, which is more congruent with accepted estimates (McCabe & Goldhammer, 2013). Understanding the nuances of FSD and designing accurate diagnostic criteria is a key part in eradicating the problem. If the diagnostic criteria do not accurately reflect patients’ real-world experience many patients may be left silently suffering without avenues for help. In addition to the issues with developing valid and reliable diagnostic materials, study results also indicated that women with FSD might never receive a diagnosis and appropriate treatment due to consistent failures on behalf of practitioners to adequately discuss sex, sexual health, and sexual satisfaction with their patients (Sobecki et al., 2012). In survey of 1,147 board-certified obstetrician/gynecologists (OB/GYNs) in the United States, researchers showed that only 65.6% of practitioners asked their patients about sex, which was strongly mediated by age, sex, and religion. Despite the field being dominated by male practitioners, only 54% of male OB/GYNs asked their patients about sex, compared to 73% of female practitioners. Further, only 28% of practitioners over 45 asked their patients about sex, which dropped to a staggering 11% for those over 60. Of the practitioners that did ask their patients about sex, only 42% reported inquiring about sexual function, desire, and/or satisfaction, which is concerning as it suggests that only 27.5% of women are having their sexual health, including sexual function and satisfaction, adequately addressed (Sobecki et al., 2012). The results from Sobecki et al. (2012) are concerning in that they reveal that only 27.5% of women are having their sexual health, including sexual function and satisfaction, adequately addressed (Sobecki et al., 2012). Sobecki et al.’s (2012) findings become even more troubling when one considers that a woman’s geographic location might influence her ability to get an accurate FSD diagnosis and treatment recommendations, as younger, less religious physicians are more readily available in larger metro areas. The issues with diagnostic criteria and diagnostic practices are concerning, as it means that the 43% of women who self-report symptoms that meet DSM-5 criteria might not be getting appropriate treatment for their FSD, which studies have shown can take a significant toll on their overall quality of life (Flynn et al., 2016; Svedhem, Eckert, & Wijma, 2013; Tripoli et al., 2011). Researchers have demonstrated that sexual dysfunction causes a significant negative, and often pervasive, impact on patients’ lives. In a review of 3,500 English-speaking American men and women aged 18 and over researchers found a noteworthy positive correlation between sexual function/satisfaction and overall quality of life (Flynn et al., 2016). Further, the results showed in addition to influencing overall happiness, sexual function and satisfaction also impacted how participants viewed other aspects of their life, especially their overall health (Flynn et al., 2016). Although poor health was a predictor of sexual dysfunction, patients suffering from sexual dysfunction often perceived their health issues as far worse than they objectively were. Likewise, patients with sexual dysfunction were more likely to be depressed and express hopelessness than either healthy or unhealthy patients without sexual dysfunction (Flynn et al., 2016). Similar findings from research conducted to explore the effects of genito-pelvic pain/penetration disorder found that women suffering from these conditions experienced significant distress related to both sex and their relationships. Researchers examining the impact of chronic pelvic pain on patients’ quality of life, found that women who suffered from on-going pelvic pain were more likely to rate their health as poor on World Health Organization Quality of Life Assessment, regardless of whether or not they had other conditions (Tripoli et al., 2011). Specifically, 35% of wo...
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