Approach to teaching students with disabilities, health and medicine homework help

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According to the text, when students with disabilities are placed in the general education classroom, there are three widely used teaching approaches that provide a starting point for helping students participate in the general curriculum (Section 2.2 Chapter 2 of Textbook ).  While there are many other approaches, the three most widely used teaching approaches are: explicit instruction, differentiation, and universal design for learning (UDL). For this post, you will provide support for one of these approaches outlined below and explain why it is a valuable approach and should be used in the teaching of students with disabilities. 

Find your assigned debate group below (by first letter of last name):

  1. A-H: Explicit Instruction (my designated debate)
Develop a cohesive and research-based argument for the position you have been assigned.  Be sure to include the principles that guide each approach and set it apart from the others. Support your argument with reference to the textbook and at least one scholarly resource (include theses references in your post). 

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Introduction Almost all students with disabilities attend their local neighborhood school. And in these local s chools, the majority of them will spend at leastpart of their school day in a general education cl assroom (see Figure 2.1). Do you plan to be a special education teacher, or do you intend toteac h in a "regular" (general education) classroom? Maybe you intend to become a school counselo r or speech therapist. You may not beplanning to teach or work with students in special educati on, but in all likelihood, you will be responsible for the education of these studentsfrom your ve ry first teaching position. Figure 2.1: Where do Special Education Students Receive Instruction? Approximately 95% of students who receive special education services receive all or part of their instruction in thei rregular neighborhood school. Less than 5% attend a school, institution, or facility that is not their regular school. Source: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs, Data Analysis System (DANS), OMB #1 820-0517:"Part B, Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, Implementation of FAPE Requirements" 2011. Data updated as of July 15,2012. No matter what kind of classroom you teach in, you'll find that it's useful to learn about strategi es for teaching students with disabilities, andthese approaches may help many other students t o learn more effectively. In this chapter, you'll learn about different placement options for students with disabilities. You' ll learn the difference betweenaccommodations and modifications, and you'll gain better under standing of teaching strategies for the instruction of students with disabilities,as well as related classroom management strategies. You'll also learn about the important role that parents or gu ardians play in their children'seducation. 2.1 Placement of Students in Special Education As discussed in Chapter 1, public schools must provide special education services to students in what the Individualized Education Program (IEP)team determines to be the least restrictive envi ronment (LRE) based on student progress each year. For most students with disabilities, thisme ans receiving instruction in the general education classroom, a practice often referred to as incl usion. The IEP team has a variety of placement options, and the team makes decisions about placeme nt based on the individual student, not based onthe student's disability. The team considers the student's strengths and needs and places the student in the settings that can provide the bestp ossible instruction. (See Figure 2.2). The team may decide to place the student in his or her local public school, where the setting mi ght be a general classroom, resourceclassroom, or selfcontained classroom. Some students are placed outside the local school, in a separate school, r esidential facility, privateschool, correctional facility, or home or hospital. Figure 2.2: Placement Options of Special Education Students A student's IEP team can choose from many placement options. The team, however, mustalways try to place the st udent in the least restrictive environment (LRE). The Concept of Inclusion IDEA 2004 mandates that unless the IEP team decides that another placement would be more a ppropriate, students with disabilities shouldreceive their education in the same school they wo uld attend if they did not have a disability. The student's educational program should be assimil ar to the educational program of students without disabilities as is reasonable. Special Education Perspectives: Working with the General Education Teacher A special education teacher describes working with general education teachers. Critical Thinking Questions 1. What is the importance of standards for the education of students with disabilities? 2. How do general education and special education teachers work together? In an inclusion setting, students with disabilities are instructed alongside peers without disabiliti es for some or all of the school day. In someclassrooms, a general education and special educati on teacher teach together (i.e., they are coteaching). In other classrooms, a specialeducation teacher may "push in" at various points duri ng the school day to help provide instruction with the general education teacher. This isoften re ferred to as a pushin arrangement. Another option is to "pull out" the student with a disability to provide instructi on in a resourcesetting. This is referred to as a pull-out model. Whether the school uses co-teaching, push-in, or pullout models, all require strong communication and collaboration between the generaleducatio n and special education teachers, as well as with any other teachers for the student. Constant p rogress monitoring toward meeting thestudent's IEP goals is also required. From My Perspective: Teaching Special Education Big Cheese Photo/Thinkstock My name is Kat, and I want to share some of the success stories with you that explainwhy I stay ed in the classroom for seven years as a special education teacher beforeleaving to pursue my d octorate. Teaching students with disabilities is a challenge, butthese victories help me rememb er why I love being in this field. One student that comes to mind is "Robert." At the time that I met Robert, I wasteaching third, fourth, and fifth grades, and he was in first grade. He began displayingextreme behaviors on a d aily basis, where he would destroy property and physically andverbally assault anyone that trie d to help him. I "adopted" him (since he was not agrade that I taught) and began working with h im that year, and then officially workedwith him in second and third grade. Once I began workin g with him, I discovered thathe had significant levels of anxiety and did not know how to proces s them or what todo when he was having emotional issues. I worked closely with Robert and his family and with every month that passed, hisextreme beha vior decreased. He grew to trust me and would come to me when he hada problem, which we would talk about and solve, often calling his mother to helptroubleshoot. Robert is now in seve nth grade and no longer has these outbursts inschool. I still keep in touch with his family and oc casionally go to watch him play littleleague baseball. Two students from a first grade reading group also stand out for the growth they wereable to m ake in one year. Both students began the year at a low to midKindergartenlevel. "Jahiem" and "Jose" both started first grade unable to read, and not knowing allof their letters or sounds. Jahiem knew about half of the letters and sounds and did not see m to realize that you could use sounds todecode and spell words. Jose came to kindergarten an d did not speak English, and although he could speak English well by first grade, hisreading lagg ed behind his peers. All year long they received two reading groups, one from me and one from a reading specialist, where we focused on basic reading skills,fluency, and comprehension. By the end of the year, J ose was reading on grade level and Jahiem was just about there (he caught up bythe middle of s econd grade). Now they are both in third grade and are successful readers. These are not hollow victories. They are lasting changes that not only help students in the short -term, but will also result in positive longterm outcomes. Knowing that I played a part in these students' success and the fact that I devel oped positive relationships that continuedafter they were out of my class are all reasons why I e njoyed teaching. Inclusion can provide valuable opportunities for students to access and benefit from being in a general education environment (Florian, 2010).However, this arrangement is not appropriate fo r all students with disabilities. Some students who would benefit from small group instructiona nd intensive support may need to receive instruction outside the general classroom to be succe ssful. The practice of inclusion, although mandated by law, is debated in education (Obiakor, Harris, Mutua, Rotatori, & Algozzine, 2012). On onehand, inclusion produces schools that are respectfu l and equitable to all students (Obiakor et al., 2012). Expectations for all students remainhigh as all students are held to the same standards or expectations, and students in special education l earn to be more independent (Sun,2007). Associated Press In an inclusion classroom, students with and without disabilitieslearn alongside one another, for the benefit of all. Among thebenefits are that students learn empathy, understanding, and howto appreciate individual differences. Inclusion can also help students with disabilities become friends with studentswithout disabiliti es, and students without disabilities can learn to be moreaccepting of others (Copeland & Cosb ey, 2008; Litvack, Ritchie, & Shore, 2011).Students with disabilities also learn from their peers, a nd often the peers benefitfrom learning alongside the student with a disability (McMaster, Fuch s, & Fuchs,2007). Additionally, general and special education teachers may benefit fromcollabor ating and picking up on each other's teaching strategies (Burstein, Sears,Wilcoxen, Cabello, & S pagna, 2004). On the other hand, some argue that student expectations are lessened and higherperforming students learn less because teachers focus more on lowerperformingstudents (Litvack et al., 2011). Another view is that students with disabilities maybe better served in specialized settings by specialized teachers. Many teachers,from both general a nd special education, feel unprepared to teach in inclusionsettings (Smith & Tyler, 2011). Administrators must provide support for inclusion and collaborative practices inorder for inclusi on to be effective (Crockett, 2002; Tankersley, Niesz, Cook, & Woods, 2007). Schools also need t o develop and maintain district-and schoolwide best practices and appropriate training for teachers. As highlighted in the following sectio ns, inclusion issues may varydepending upon the grade level of the student. Early Childhood Inclusion Part B of IDEA 2004 requires that public school systems provide special education services to st udents as young as 3 years old. Preschoolstudents should receive their education in the LRE to t he maximum extent appropriate, as determined by the student's IEP, and preschoolteachers sh ould monitor the progress of students to determine whether students are on track to meet long term goals (Raver, 2004).Instruction for preschool students focuses on both academics and beh avior, and should be as "naturalistic" as possible (i.e., instruction shouldbe embedded within pl ay or social activities and follow prompts from the child) (Wolery & Hemmeter, 2011). The difficulty with early childhood inclusion, however, is that many districts operate preschools exclusively for students with disabilities. Thesedistricts do not have programs in place for stude nts without disabilities, so preschool students with disabilities cannot be placed in their LREalon gside preschool students without disabilities. Thus, sometimes school districts place preschool s tudents with disabilities in private preschoolprograms or programs offered by other school distr icts, and the districts compensate the programs accordingly. In order for a private preschool to participate, the preschool program must be licensed by a stat e agency and be nonsectarian. The privatepreschool must ensure that the teachers and staff ca n follow the student's IEP and provide appropriate supplementary aids and services. Elementary Inclusion Inclusion can be very effective for elementary students identified with or without a disability (B urstein et al., 2004). For students withdisabilities, inclusion provides greater access to the gener al education curriculum and the learning opportunities that come from learningalongside a hete rogeneous mix of students. The classroom expectations in an inclusion setting may be higher; t herefore, students may makelarger strides toward meeting longterm goals if they receive proper instructional support. In an inclusion model, the general education and special education teachers must collaborate o n some level, so all students benefit fromreceiving the best instruction these teachers can offer. Teachers who use coteaching will be able to better respond to student needs andbehaviors. This is particularly impo rtant for early childhood and lower elementary classrooms, where social and behavior objective s are anintegral part of class instruction. Elementary students who need additional support may receive pullout services, which might consist of additional time with a special educationteacher or specialis t in a small group or individualized setting. The ultimate purpose of such services is to help the s tudent achieve grade levelexpectations and meet long-term IEP goals. If the pullout programming does not prove effective, the IEP team might recommend a studentreceive th e majority of instruction outside of the general classroom. Secondary Inclusion Inclusion at the secondary level provides similar academic and behavioral benefits to those fou nd at the elementary level. Additionally,adolescents are generally more aware of the social stig ma that can accompany special education, so inclusion alleviates the need to pull outstudents a nd can sometimes protect their anonymity. Teachers must employ proper accommodations and modifications to ensure success forstudents with disabilities (Duvall, 2006). The IEP team determines the LRE at the secondary level. Some high school students may be enr olled in a "study skills" class taught by a specialeducation teacher. This class can help students with learning essential skills for success, especially for classes that are more lecturebased orindependent study. The study skills class can also help students with homework or oth er assignments. If students with disabilities demonstratesuccess with their courses, special educ ation services may be pared back to prepare students for college and career transition. The Role of the IEP Team in Placement The placement of students with disabilities is determined by the student's IEP team and is base d on the student's IEP goals. The placementshould be to the LRE in which the student can partic ipate in the general curriculum to the maximum extent appropriate. Special Education Perspectives: IEP Process Ryan Giertych, a special education teacher, describes the process for reviewing IEPs. Critical Thinking Questions 1. When does an IEP team meet to review a student's services and a student's disability status? 2. Why is reviewing the IEP important? The IEP team must make placement decisions based on the needs of each individual student. In other words, the school cannot have a plan forhow all students with a given disability receive th eir education. For example, a school cannot say that all students with Autism SpectrumDisorder (ASD) must go to a special school; for some students with ASD, that would not be an appropriat e placement and would be in violationof the LRE for an individual student. ©Jessica Hill/AP/Corbis Members of the IEP team, which include the general educationteacher, special education teacher, parent or guardi an, and otherspecialists who may work with the student, meet to approve thestudent's IEP. During the meeting, th e team discusses placementoptions (i.e., the settings where the student receives instruction).Placement must be in the student's LRE. The IEP team also needs to consider the students without disabilities in thegeneral classroom. If a student with a disability would disrupt the generalclassroom to the extent that the behavior would significantly affect the learning ofall the other students, the IEP team might decide upon an alternate placement forthe student. The alternative placement must still allow the student t o participatein the general curriculum to the maximum extent appropriate. General Classroom Placement A general classroom is the typical classroom setting for all students, and it iswhere most receiv e their instruction. (Please note that in this book, "generalclassroom" describes the student pop ulation in the classroom and not the actuallayout of the school building.) Most general classroo ms are divided by grade level(e.g., fifthgrade classroom), but some classrooms may include students frommultiple grades (e.g., Chemis try 2). The teachers in general classrooms, the "general" or "regular" teachers, follow theschool, distri ct, or state's general curriculum. General curriculum includes anyinstruction or activity that ta kes place during the school day. The general curriculum is not limited to teaching from textbook s but includes allassessments, additional classes (e.g., art, music, and physical education), lunch, recess, assemblies, field trips, any materials (e.g., textbooks),media (e.g., films), and almost any other activity that students without disabilities participate in during school hours. Jupiterimages/Thinkstock In this general education classroom, the students with disabilities areindistinguishable from students without disab ilities. The general educationteacher teaches the general curriculum to all students withaccommodations or modifi cations for students with disabilities. Most students with disabilities who participate in general classroominstruction are diagnosed w ith the "mild" or "highincidence" disabilities.These categories include specific learning disabilities, emotional or behav ioraldisorders, AttentionDeficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), and speech andlanguage impairments. Students with ot her disabilities (e.g., ASD, intellectualdisabilities, visual impairments, and hearing impairments) may also spend aconsiderable amount of time in the general classroom. Students with disabilities who spend time in the general classroom may usesupplementary aid s and services as outlined by IDEA 2004 to participate inthe general curriculum. These aids and services might include a specialeducation teacher or aide, special education training for a gener al educationteacher (see the discussion of collaboration and coteaching later in thechapter), behavior intervention plans (see the later discussion of classroom management), and assistive technology. Students who receive instruction in the general classroom are oftenpresented with accommoda tions and/or modifications of the generalcurriculum. Accommodations If a student participates in the general classroom with only slight changes or variations from the classroom program, the changes are referredto as accommodations. An accommodation affect s how a student accesses classroom material and is an alteration that enables a student toperfo rm or participate in activities similar to those of students without disabilities. It may be a chang e in the way a student interacts withclassroom material, participates in the classroom, or respo nds to classroom content, but an accommodation does not change the contenttaught in the ge neral classroom. Accommodations may be decided by the IEP team; the student's teachers may also choose appropriateaccommodations for specific classes or assignments. Table 2.1 provides examples of common accommodations for students with disabilities. Table 2.1: Examples of Common Accommodations Accommodation Description Break time A student is given a break during lengthy assignments or activities. A student may a Calculators A student may use a calculator to perform complex calculations. Carrel A study carrel (either purchased or homemade) can help eliminate distractions. Classroom setup A student sits at a desk close to the front of the room to be near the teacher and th Color coding Using different colors for specific categories or purposes can help organize class ma Extra time Students are given extra time to complete assignments or activities. If the student i Graphic organizers A graphic organizer helps organize important information in a visually pleasing way Handwriting Students are allowed to write in manuscript (if cursive is required) or vice versa. Headphones When working independently, a student may wear headphones to block out extran Highlighting/underlining Large font A student develops a system for drawing attention to important information. Materials can be prepared in a larger font (or a font with easier readability). Lighting The lighting in a classroom can be altered for a student to make it brighter or duller Manipulatives(concreteexamples) Hands-on materials help students understand concepts in mathematics and science Notes Giving the student a printed copy of a lecture can be more useful than requiring the Oral response A student can respond orally instead of writing an answer. Partners Students can be assigned to be partners to work on classroom assignments. Each pa Quiet area A student can go to a quiet, relaxing place, such as a bean bag chair, if he needs a b Reminders A number line or alphabet attached to the student's desk can help students with nu Schedule A schedule helps students organize their school day. See the Appendix for an exam Scribe A scribe can transcribe a student's oral words. Timer A timer helps a student understand how much time they have to work before the n Tracking sheets Tracking sheets help students monitor their own academic progress or behavior. Se Source: Fahsl, 2007; Fletcher et al., 2006; Fuchs, Fuchs, Eaton, Hamlett, & Karns, 2000; Leons, Herbert, & Gobbo, 2009; McCoy, 2005 Many students with disabilities may use assistive technology as an accommodation. Assistive te chnology is any item, equipment, or productthat increases or improves the student's interactio n with classroom material. Assistive technologies do not necessarily have batteries orcomputer hardware. Hundreds of items can count as assistive technology, including: iStockphoto/Thinkstock This student is using a computer to type a report. Originally, thisassignment was supposed to be handwritten, but because thestudent struggles with fine motor skills, including writing, theteacher allows the student to type on a c omputer as anaccommodation. The content of the student's assignment has notchanged— only the way the student completes the assignment. • Book easel • Dictation machine • Dictionary • Enlarged text • Handheld magnifier • Multiplication table • Pencil grips • Picture schedule • Post-it notes • Raised writing paper • Tape recorder • Text-to-speech or speech-to-text software • Walker • Wheelchair The purpose of accommodations is to give students with disabilities a greaterchance of success in the general classroom; accommodations are not meant togive the student an unfair advantag e. Accommodations are intended to "level theplaying field," and should not change the evaluati on of a student's work. Thestudent is still expected to learn the same content as a student with out a disability. Several of the accommodations listed above may also benefit students without disabilities. For example, working with partners may force allstudents to be responsible for reading and compre hending a history text. For elementary students, having a number line will help all who arejust l earning their addition and subtraction facts and cannot immediately recall the answers. Study c arrels may encourage all students to focuson their work and not be distracted by other student s. Accommodations should be determined on an individual basis. For some students, one accomm odation is all that is necessary. For others,multiple accommodations will be put into place. Modifications A modification, unlike an accommodation, changes the classroom content for the student with a disability. Typically, a student will work on asimilar skill as students without disabilities, but th e expectations will be different. (Note that the expectations will not necessarily be less thantho se for students without disabilities; merely different.) As with accommodations, there is no "on e size fits all" approach, and modificationsshould be determined on an individual basis. The IEP dictates when modifications are appropriate and how they will be implemented. Table 2.2 describes common modifications for students from preschool through high school. Table 2.2: Modifications Modification Description Exa Altered content A student works on content that is similar to thegeneral curriculum but different or easi er. Ins Altered grading The grading of an assignment is altered to allow forsome mistakes. Ins Altered work A different type of assignment is allowed. Ins Breaks in an assignmen t An assignment is broken into smaller, moremanageable chunks. Ap Lower-level reading A reading assignment is provided at a lower gradelevel. Ins Reduced reading The reading load for an activity is reduced. At Shortened assignment Fewer items or passages are required on anassignment. As Time A student receives extra time or an activity isuntimed. On ne Source: Gunter, Reffel, Rice, Peterson, & Venn, 2005; Lee, Wehmeyer, Soukup, & Palmer, 2010; Lindstrom, 2007. Importance of the Resource Classroom A resource classroom is a place for students to receive special education instruction and suppo rtive services. Students may come to a resourceclassroom to receive additional support (e.g., le arning to read, completing geography homework, practicing speech skills) with a specialeducati on teacher, aide, or therapist. The resource classroom may be an actual classroom, or it could b e an office or conference room. Thoughless desirable, resource instruction can even occur at a desk in the library or an unused table at the end of a hallway. The student still spendssome, if n ot most, of the school day in the general classroom, and only comes to the resource classroom t o receive specialized instruction. Instruction in a resource setting capitalizes on evidencebased practices for students with disabilities. The teacher designs instruction that fitsthe needs of the individual students— both to meet their IEP goals and continue to make progress with the general curriculum. The in structionmay be provided in small groups or on an individual basis, and may be provided by a sp ecial education teacher or aide. Specialists such asspeech and language pathologists, physical th erapists, or school psychologists may also provide instruction. Most students who participate in instruction in the resource classroom do so on a regular sched ule. Some students may come to the resourceroom once a week. Other students may receive s pecial education instruction for only 20 or 30 minutes each day, and still others may spendconsi derably more time in a resource setting (e.g., 90 minutes each day). Self-Contained Classroom Placement Robin Nelson/ZUMA Press/Corbis In this selfcontained classroom, a smaller number of students withdisabilities spend the majority of their school day with a sp ecialeducation teacher. Highly trained specialists and aides also assist inthe classroom. A small set of students with disabilities who attend their local public school receiveall of their ac ademic instruction in a self-contained classroom. The curriculum in aselfcontained classroom is markedly different from the curriculum in a generalclassroom. A special education teacher or specialist familiar with working withstudents with disabilities provides all i nstruction. Often, this instruction is remedialand may vary significantly from the curriculum in t he general classroom. Remedialinstruction reviews or reteaches important concepts and proce dures that studentsmay have not learned originally. Students in a selfcontained classroom mayparticipate in physical education, music or art classes, or extracurricul ar activitieswith students without disabilities, but their academic instruction occurs outside ofth e general classroom (Kleinert, Miracle, & Sheppard-Jones, 2007). A selfcontained classroom setting is typically reserved for students with moderateto severe or low in cidence disabilities who would have extreme difficulty withlearning the general curriculum. So me examples might be students withintellectual disabilities, traumatic brain injury, autism, or m ultiple disabilities. Moststudents with severe disabilities require highly specialized instruction a nd supportprovided by special education teachers and trained specialists. Placements Outside the Local School Another small percentage of students with disabilities may best be served outside the local publ ic school. For students with disabilities thatrequire highly specialized instruction or care, the sch ool district may have the option of sending the student to a separate school. These schoolsusua lly focus on the education of students with specific disabilities, and the schools employ the appr opriate aides, therapists, specialists, andteachers to provide a FAPE to the students. For exampl e, some school districts have schools focusing on teaching students with AutismSpectrum Disor der (ASD). Another example might be a separate school for students with Emotional Disorders ( ED). If the separate school is run by the school district, the district must provide transportation to an d from the school for each student. Someseparate schools are run by private organizations. Par ents may choose to send their child (and pay for it on their own) to the school, or aschool distric t may pay to send a student to the private school if the district does not have appropriate resou rces to educate the student. The IEP team decides whether this option is better than placement in the student's local school. They consider the possibility that separateschools (e.g., specialized schools) can provide studen ts with additional resources and programs that local schools may not be able to provide.Howev er, while students may benefit tremendously from an education in a separate school, they will have little interaction with studentswithout disabilities. Another option for placement is a private school. Though not a common practice, a school distr ict may pay to send a public school student to aprivate school if it finds that the private school i s the only option. More frequently, parents or guardians will opt to send their child to privatesc hool and pay for it out of their own pockets. Private schools do not receive educational funds from the federal government, so they do not h ave to follow IDEA 2004 guidelines. If theschool receives any federal funds, perhaps through a r educed and free lunch program, the school does have to follow IDEA 2004 guidelines.Private sc hools without a religious affiliation must adhere to Section 504 guidelines, because Section 504 protects the civil rights of people withdisabilities except for religious organizations and private c lubs. Some parents decide to enroll their student in a private school that offers specialized programs for students with disabilities (most oftenlearning disabilities and behavior disorders). Private sc hool students may sometimes be sent to public schools because the local public schoolshave m ore special education resources than the private school. Other parents feel that private schools do not provide as many specialeducation services as their children need. A residential facility may be publicly or privately funded to provide special services and progra ms to students with a specific disability. Forexample, many states run residential or day schools for students with lowincidence disabilities, including schools for the blind or deaf. Moststudents come and live at the se schools while they are receiving their education. If the schools are statefunded, they may be available at low or no cost to students. If a school district decides the scho ol is the best placementfor the student, the school district would pay for the student's educatio n. Sometimes the schools are hours away from a student's home,though, which puts a burden o n families. Associated Press At the American School for the Deaf in Hartford, Connecticut, some students live on the school's campus. Theresid ential school allows for students to be completely immersed in school life, and students typically enjoy living witht heir peers. A correctional facility is a place where students receive educational services as they are spendi ng time away from home after committing aviolation or crime. Students in the correctional facil ity may or may not have disabilities, but if the student had an IEP before entry to the facilityor p rogram, the facility must follow the student's IEP with regard to educational programs. Some re searchers report the percentage of studentsin correctional facilities who have disabilities may b e as high as 90% (Zhang, Hsu, Katsiyannis, Barrett, & Ju, 2011). Students may also receive their education in a hospital setting or home setting. This arrangeme nt usually applies to sick students withdisabilities whose treatment interferes with their ability t o attend school. It might be put in place if a student will miss at least one month ofschool. The s tudent's local district is responsible for making arrangements. Many children's hospitals have their own teachers who develop and implement instruction for s tudents during lengthy hospital stays. Hospitalsmay arrange for students to receive tutoring whi le in the hospital, and some students may be taught at home (by trained teachers) if it isimpossi ble for the student to attend school. 2.2 Instructional Approaches for Special Education Students in the GeneralClassroom When students with disabilities receive their education in a general classroom or resource setti ng, collaboration must occur between generaland special education teachers. Some teachers m ay participate in coteaching, whereas other teachers will merely collaborate and provideinstruction separately. In t he field of special education, several approaches have emerged as effective teaching practices f or students withdisabilities. Collaboration With the movement toward inclusion, many special education teachers spend less time in selfcontained classrooms and more time in generaleducation settings (Eisenman, Pleet, Wandry, & McGinley, 2010). Special education teachers who work with special education students ingener al classrooms often have not received training in how to be an effective teacher using the collab orative pushin mode. General classroomteachers, in turn, often are not quite sure how to relate to pushin teachers (Wiggins & Damore, 2006). © Hill Street Studios/Blend Images/Corbis A special education and a general education teachermeet to discuss the instruction for two students withdisabilitie s. The students spend all of their day in thegeneral classroom, and the special education teacherpushes in to provi de additional reading instruction. Additionally, newer graduates who have received instruction about the pushin collaborationmodel may find themselves completing teaching assignments with older teache rs who areusing less effective methods. Further, pushin teachers often take on the role of helping keepstudents on task or providing specific help wit h class work, but may function more as aidesthan collaborators. When both teachers work toge ther, however, collaboration benefits all thestudents in the classroom and the teachers improve their teaching skills (Simmons, Carpenter,Dyal, Austin, & Shumack, 2012). The following strategies can often be successfully adapted to help special education andgeneral classroom teachers collaborate more effectively (Eisenman et al., 2010; Jones, 2012;Wiggins & Damore, 2006): • Be sure to communicate. Regular communication is essential to make sure everyone isusing his or he r time wisely. General education teachers are busy people. They will havelooked at a student's IEP, b ut they have lots of responsibilities and often do not makeworking on IEP goals a priority. That is wh ere the special education teacher comes in.The special education teacher can share goals for his stu dents with the classroomteacher, and describe the specific activities his students should engage in. The generalteacher can then share her thoughts and concerns. The two teachers might not alwaysa gree, but if both are putting concern for their students first, they should be able tocome to an agree ment about how to best manage their time in the classroom. • Have a plan. An effective pushin teacher will need more of a plan than to just "help theclassroom teacher." She will need to plan s pecific learning activities for the specialneeds students in the classes she is pushing in to. Doing so c an involve more work thanteaching a class on one's own, because the teacher will have to take the c lassroomteacher's plans and ideas into consideration. The pushin teacher may find that oneeffective method is to work with a student or a small group of students in the rear of theclassroom on basic skills while the rest of the class does other things. The specialed ucation teacher can also walk a student, step by step, through an assignment that the rest of the cla ss is doing independently.Sometimes, especially in the younger grades, teachers can involve the enti re class in some of the planned activities; for example, activitiesto improve concentration or handeye coordination for special needs students are likely to be helpful for all the students. • Make sure you're both on the same side. Classroom teachers often worry that activities of pushin special education teachers will pull timeaway from their own planned curriculum. One way to min imize this fear is to share responsibilities. The pushin teacher can teach theclassroom teacher how to include special education activities even in his abs ence. Another strategy is to divide the class into small groups:The regular teacher works with one gr oup, the special education teacher works with another, and the other groups work independently.W hile this means the special education teacher may actually work with the special needs students for only part of the time, doing anactivity that directly relates to the students' needs is much better tha n randomly helping out. As a tradeoff, the regular teacher canincorporate more activities that work f or the special needs students into all his or her teaching. • Think positively. All teachers involved in collaboration should respect one another and focus on the positive collaboration outcomes forstudents. If all teachers are working from a similar plan, the colla boration will likely work well. Increasing communication, creating a plan, making sure both teachers are on the same side, an d thinking positively will go a long way towardensuring the success of an effective pushin arrangement. The key is to know the students and put them first. As a professional, take your responsibilities seriously, and put your time to good use. Co-Teaching Ed Kashi/Corbis These teachers are coteaching. They are equally responsible for teachingthe students in the classroom. Sometimes one teacher takes the lead,sometimes the teachers divide the students into groups, and other timesthe teachers teach simultaneously. An arrangement in which the classroom teacher and the special educationteacher share respon sibility of planning, teaching, and evaluating the class iscalled coteaching (Sileo & van Garderen, 2010). A type of collaboration(Fenty, McDuffieLandrum, & Fisher, 2012), coteaching is becoming a morepopular model because of mandates from NCLB that require stude nts withdisabilities to participate in the general curriculum (Friend, Cook, HurleyChamberlain, & Shamberger, 2010). In an established cotaught classroom, itshould be difficult to determine who is the general education teacher andw ho is the special education teacher. The teachers in the classroom shouldconsider themselves e qual, and they should plan and deliver instructiontogether (Wilson, 2008). Coteaching instruction can be delivered in a variety of ways. The teachersneed to decide which arr angement is best, based on the content of thelesson and the needs of the students. The following are possible co-teaching arrangements (Forbes & Billet, 2012;Friend et al., 2010): • One teaches, and one observes. This arrangement allows for one teacher to observe a student or stu dents without disruption to the lesson.Observations can be used to check student progress or to ans wer questions about student academic performance or behavior. • One teaches, and one drifts. One teacher is responsible for teaching the lesson while the other teach er walks around the classroom andprovides assistance to various students. This may be the most co mmon coteaching model, as it is easy to implement and requires littlecoordination between the two teachers in the classroom. While this arrangement is easy to implement, some of the other arrangementsma ke better use of co-teachers' time, abilities, and strengths. • Parallel teaching. The teachers divide the class into two groups and deliver the same lesson, at the s ame time, to each group. Thisarrangement is beneficial because each teacher has fewer students to instruct, probably fewer behavioral disruptions, and more time toanswer individual student questio ns. • Station teaching. The teachers divide the students into groups. One teacher teaches a lesson to one group while the second teacherteaches a different lesson to the other group. The teachers then swit ch groups and repeat the instruction for the other group. Thisarrangement is beneficial when there are several parts to a lesson and it does not matter if students learn one part before another part.St ation teaching can also play upon teacher strengths or preferences. For example, a teacher who enj oys teaching mathematics can teachthe math portion of a lesson twice. • Alternative teaching. The teachers divide the students into a large group and a small group based on student strengths and need forinstruction. One teacher teaches the larger group while the other te acher teaches the smaller group. The smaller group may work on adifferent lesson or a similar lesso n taught at a different level than the big group. This arrangement allows for teachers to tailor instru ctionfor each group. • Team teaching. In this arrangement, both teachers teach at the same time. The teachers play off on e another so that the teaching is like aconversation. Students can benefit from this arrangement bec ause two teachers may be able to provide better instruction than oneteacher alone. Both coteachers should consider the class to be "their" class. All the students are "their" students; ther e are no students who are "yours" or"mine." Coteachers need to plan and teach together in order for co-teaching to be effective. Coteachers also need to have the appropriatetraining to ensure a positive coteaching experience (Bouck, 2007). School districts should provide professional development w orkshops on co-teaching methods and also provide coteachers with shared planning time during the school day. Evidence-Based Practices As you learned in Chapter 1, the passage of No Child Left Behind (NCLB) and the reauthorization of IDEA in 2004 emphasize the use ofevidencebased practices by highly qualified teachers in the classroom. An evidencebased practice is an instructional technique or programthat has been validated by research. Wh en a technique or program is first introduced, researchers test it, usually in school settings, to s ee if itis beneficial for improving student learning or behavior. Many times, the validation is con ducted using a treatment group and a notreatmentcontrol group (much like a science project). If a technique or program demonstrates f avorable results for students who use it over the studentsin the notreatment control group, the technique or program can be deemed "evidence-based." Special Education: Your Profession Evidence-Based Practices Many different research teams work on developing and testing the effectiveness of instruction f or students with disabilities. Researchersuse data to determine whether student performance i mproves because of the specialized instruction. If the data shows significant effects,the instructi on can be considered an evidence-based practice. Evidencebased practices can be in academic, behavioral, or functionalperformance. In mathematics, Jitendra et al. (2007) studied the effects of a word-problemsolving program in mathematics that focused on teachingstudents to identify word problems by type (e.g., comparing amounts, amounts that change) and solve word problems by type. Thirdgradestudents in inclusion classrooms were randomly assigned to receive the specialized wordproblem instruction or typical instruction.Students who participated in the specialized wordproblem instruction demonstrated significantly higher scores than students receivingtypical inst ruction. This significant difference, along with similar research studies, shows that teaching wor d problems by type is anevidence-based practice (Fuchs et al., 2008; Jitendra et al., 2009). In terms of disruptive behavior, Owens et al. (2012) examined the effectiveness of a daily report card with elementary students with ADHDor emotional disorders. A daily report card keeps tra ck of instances of disruptive behavior that occur during the school day, and a teacherreviews th e card each day with the student. The parent or guardian also reviews the daily report card eac h day with the student. Overall,the majority of students demonstrated improved behavior whe n using the daily report card. This study, as well as others (Vannest, Burke,Sauber, Davis, & Davi s, 2011), demonstrates that using daily report cards is an evidencebased practice to improve problem behaviors. The push to use evidencebased practices in the classroom is important for several reasons. First, if an evidencebased practice worked for most(if not all) of the students during testing, the practice is highly li kely to benefit other students. Second, teachers do not waste precious teachingtime when usin g an evidencebased practice. They do not have to develop their own programs and spend months or years de terminingwhether their programs help students. With an evidencebased practice, teachers are guaranteed at least a good starting point for instructionfor student s. Teaching Approaches in Special Education Many teachers wonder how to provide instruction in the general classroom to students with a wide variety of academic needs. This is especiallytrue when students with disabilities are placed in the general education classroom to participate in the general curriculum. Three popularteac hing approaches often discussed in special education include explicit instruction, differentiation , and Universal Design for Learning (UDL).These are broad approaches to designing instruction; the more specific evidencebased practices associated with each approach can be startingpoints for teachers. Explicit Instruction Explicit instruction, or direct instruction, is one of the hallmarks of special education (Archer & Hughes, 2011). Explicit instruction is not aspecific program but an approach to teaching studen ts with disabilities. With explicit instruction, teachers provide instruction that isstraightforward — they explain and practice concepts and procedures with students until students understand the material. Elements of explicitinstruction can be used to teach any subject at any grade level. When a teacher uses explicit instruction, he or she provides the student with a series of scaffol ds to support the student's learning. Scaffoldsare different levels of teacher support. With scaff olded instruction, the teacher plays a central role at the beginning of the student's instruction,a nd that role lessens as the teacher gradually turns over ownership of the learning to the studen t. Put simply, at the beginning the teachershows the student what to do. Then, the teacher and student practice together. Finally, the student is able to do the work independently. Over the last 20 years, explicit instruction has been proven as a beneficial instructional strategy for students in preschool, elementary, middle,and high school as they learn reading, mathemati cs, writing, and the content areas (e.g., Rupley, Blair, & Nichols, 2009; Spencer, Goldstein, &Ka minski, 2012; Taylor, Mraz, Nichols, Rickelman, & Wood, 2009; Witzel, Mercer, & Miller, 2003). For example, Witzel et al. (2003) determinedthat middle school students who learn algebra usin g explicit teacher instruction along with conceptual practice with math manipulatives (i.e.,math tools students can touch and move around) outperformed students who did not receive explicit algebra instruction. Archer and Hughes (2011) have outlined 16 elements of explicit instruction. The following list ex plains each element and provides examplesshowing how to use them to provide fraction instru ction at fourth grade for a student with a learning disability. 1. Teach critical content. Teachers should focus on providing instruction on skills, strategies, vocabulary, concepts, and rules that are importantfor success in school. Before teaching about fractions, the teac her should introduce the terms numerator and denominator and give thestudent concrete examples o f the parts to a whole. The teacher could use fraction circles to demonstrate the vocabulary terms (Fig ure 2.3). Figure 2.3: Fraction Circles The teacher could use a fraction circle to teach critical content— inthis case, the vocabulary terms numerator and denominator. Theteacher would explain that this picture shows th e fraction 5/8, andgo from there to familiarize the students with the terms. 2. Teach sequentially. Teachers need to teach students easier skills first and check for understanding of these easier skills before moving on tomore difficult skills. For example, the teacher should teach ad dition of fractions with like denominators before teaching addition of fractionswith unlike denomina tors. 3. Teach in small chunks. Teachers need to break down complex tasks into smaller chunks. Teachers sh ould break the chunks into steps and teachstudents each of these steps. When teaching subtraction of fractions with unlike denominators, the teacher should first teach and work onfinding common d enominators. She would perhaps spend a few lessons on listing and identifying the least common m ultiple of thedenominators. Then, the teacher would spend a few lessons teaching how to change th e numerator when finding common denominators.Finally, the teacher would teach the student how to subtract fractions with like denominators. 4. Teach an organized lesson. Teachers should design a lesson that is focused on a particular skill, strat egy, or concept, and this lesson should nothave digressions. When teaching addition of fractions, th e teacher should focus on addition of fractions, and not focus on solving wordproblems or geometry problems. 5. Start each lesson with a goal statement. Teachers should be direct with students about the content o f the lesson. One might say, "Today we'llwork on finding common denominators. When we work wit h two fractions, common denominators mean both denominators are the same.Finding common den ominators is important for addition and subtraction of fractions." 6. Review prior knowledge before each lesson. Teachers should pick skills relevant to the lesson at han d and review these skills before beginningthe lesson. This review of skills should be brief; this is not a time for reteaching. Review the vocabulary terms of numerator and denominatorbefore discussing common denominators. 7. Use step-bystep demonstrations. With explicit instruction, the teacher models a concept or skill for the student i n a step-by-step manner.Nothing is left to chance. Teachers are encouraged to use a "thinkaloud" technique during their demonstration. Teachers should demonstrate("I do"), practice with th e students ("We do"), and then allow students to demonstrate their learning ("You do"). When teac hing subtraction offractions, a thinkaloud might sound like this. "We are subtracting 7/8 minus 2/8. First, I look at the denominators to make sure they are thesame. 8 is the denominator of 7/8. 8 is also the denominator of 2/8. Are the denominators the same? (Yes.) The denominators are the same. So,now I can subtract the numerat ors. What's 7 minus 2? (5.) 7 minus 2 equals 5. So, I write 5/8. 7/8 minus 2/8 equals 5/8." 8. Use concise language. Teachers should be consistent with vocabulary and terminology so students h ave a clear understanding of the content.When demonstrating subtraction of fractions with like den ominators, the teacher should be consistent in vocabulary choices, and always referto the numerato r as the numerator rather than switch from numerator to top number to part. 9. Use examples and nonexamples. Teachers should provide examples so students know when to apply a skill, strategy, or rul e. Teachers shouldalso provide nonexamples (i.e., examples that do not apply under certain circumstances) so students learn when a sk ill, strategy, or rule doesnot work. For example, after initial instruction on multiplication of fractions, the teacher should also ask the students to work on problemsinvolving addition of fractions so they understand when to find common denominators (i.e., addition) and when common denominators ar e notnecessary (i.e., multiplication) (Figure 2.4). Figure 2.4: Examples and Non-examples This student worksheet provides students with examples and nonexamplesso students will get a better idea of when and when not to apply conceptsthey are studying. The focus ski ll of this lesson is multiplication of fractions,so the multiplication problems are examples, and the addition problem s arenonexamples. Students cannot use their learned multiplication strategy tosolve the addition problems correctly. 10. Teach with guided and supported practice. Once teachers introduce a skill or concept (using a stepbystep demonstration), they need toprovide the student with multiple opportunities to practice. Initial ly, the teacher and students work together, with the teacher providing lots ofsupport by reminding t he students of the steps necessary to complete the problem. After a student demonstrates success with this guidedpractice, the teacher would provide the student with opportunities to practice while the teacher is still available to provide immediate feedback.For example, the teacher may ask stude nts to solve five multiplication fraction problems on a worksheet while the teacher walks around the classroom and provides feedback as necessary. 11. Ask students for frequent responses. The teacher and student should be engaged in a dialogue. The t eacher should constantly engage thestudent in the lesson by asking questions, responding to studen t questions or comments, and requiring active participation. An example ofdialogue might be: "Toda y, we're going to compare fractions to decide which fraction is greater. Look at these two fractions. Read them withme. (4/6, 1/6.) We can easily compare fractions when the denominators are the sam e. What's the denominator of 4/6? (6.) What's thedenominator of 1/6? (6.) Are the denominators th e same? (Yes.) The denominators are the same. So, let's now look at the numerators. To findthe gre ater fraction, let's look for the numerator that is more. Which is more, 4 or 1? (4.) So, which fraction is greater? (4/6.) Yes. 4/6 is greaterthan 1/6. Say that with me. (4/6 is greater than 1/6.)" 12. Monitor student progress. Teachers constantly monitor student responses and questions to determi ne whether students are learning theconcept or skill of the lesson. If a student seems confused or is struggling with a concept, the teacher needs to make an immediate responseand change the lesson to help the student with misconceptions or misunderstandings. The teacher continually asks questio ns of the student andmonitors their written work. If the student is struggling with finding common d enominators for addition problems, the teacher would not moveto subtraction problems until the st udent is solving addition problems with at least 80% mastery. 13. Provide feedback. Teachers need to constantly respond to students' responses with affirmative and (when necessary) corrective feedback. Thefeedback should be specific. The teacher might say, "I like how you multiplied the numerators and then multiplied the denominators." 14. Teach at a brisk pace. Teachers should deliver instruction at a brisk pace to ensure they do not lose the students' attention. (Sometimes,teachers may think they need to speak slower and take more ti me when delivering a lesson for a student with a disability, but this is notnecessarily the case.) Whe n instruction is delivered at a brisk pace, students have to constantly pay attention to the teacher in order to answerteacher questions and follow the lesson. The teacher might say, "Let's think about d enominators. What's a denominator?" The teacher allowsfor a 3second pause before calling on a student volunteer. "That's right, Jesse, a denominator tells us how many parts are in the whole. What'sa whole?" The teacher continues in this manner. 15. Make connections for students. Teachers need to show students how certain skills or topics relate to one another. Students may not alwaysmake these connections themselves. When introducing subtr action of fractions with unlike denominators, the teacher should point out howmuch of the process i s similar to addition of fractions. Once the student finds the common denominator, the only differen ce is subtracting thenumerators instead of adding. 16. Provide practice. Practicing a skill over time is referred to as distributed practice. Teachers should gi ve students opportunities to practice a skillover time because it helps students retain and practice s kills they have learned previously. By practicing skills again and again, the studentsmemorize the pro cedures and concepts. Teachers should also provide students with multiple opportunities to practice all the skills the studenthas learned, which is known as cumulative practice. Cumulative practice pro vides students with the opportunity to practice a variety of skills atone time. The teacher may provi de distributed practice on multiplication of fractions by doing a practice activity of 10 problems ever y otherFriday, and cumulative practice by assigning a weekly practice worksheet that includes additi on, subtraction, multiplication, and divisionproblems with whole numbers and fractions. Differentiation In instruction based on differentiation, the classroom teacher alters the delivery and content of instruction for students based on eachstudent's learning profile (i.e., how the student learns be st), readiness level, and interests (Tomlinson, 2001) (Figure 2.5). The teacher acceptsthat all stu dents are individuals and that each individual requires a different approach to instruction. Unlik e explicit instruction, which wasdeveloped to help teachers of students with disabilities, the pri nciples of differentiation were formulated to help general classroom teachersmeet the needs of all students (Tomlinson, 2001). Like explicit instruction, the principles of differentiation can be used to teach any subject atany grade level. Figure 2.5: Readiness, Interest, and Learning Profile In differentiated instruction, teachers need to know the individual readiness levels, interests, and learning profiles oftheir students. When thinking about readiness, for example, teachers should consider the background, knowledg e,maturity, and skills of the student for learning a specific topic. Source: Tomlinson, 2001. Because the instruction is designed with an individual student in mind, differentiated instructio n can be a viable approach to teaching studentswith disabilities (Dee 2011; Tomlinson, 2001). St udents with disabilities have an Individualized Education Program that warrants that the teache rdesign and deliver instruction for the individual student, and differentiated instruction provide s a framework for this individualization. Differentiated instruction is based on several principles (Tomlinson, 2001): 1. Provide highquality curriculum. Teachers need to understand what students are expected to know as part of a cur riculum, and teach with theend in mind. Teachers should reflect upon what is most important for stud ents to know, understand, and be able to do. Students should learnthe strategies and skills necessary to understand big ideas and concepts. 2. Continually assess students. Teachers need to constantly assess students in a variety of ways. First, te achers should assess student readinessbefore beginning a new unit. If any skills need reteaching, teac hers can determine this from the readiness assessment. Teachers should alsoassess student interests so as to play upon these interests during the unit. As teachers provide instruction, students should be assessedinformally (e.g., questions during instruction, journal writing, observations, exit cards) and fo rmally (e.g., quizzes, tests). After a unit, studentsshould demonstrate their learning through an assess ment or authentic learning task (e.g., writing a play about the Civil Rights movement). 3. Assign respectful tasks. Students should be engaged in work that challenges them, interests them, an d is worthwhile. Students may work ondifferent types of assignments or activities, based on their rea diness and interest, but each of these assignments or activities should bemeaningful to them. Differe ntiated instruction is not easier work for some students and harder work for other students. Students should havesome choices during lessons in terms of how they will learn material and demonstrate the ir knowledge of material. 4. Build community. Teachers should foster a classroom environment that is welcoming and safe for all s tudents. Students should accept andsupport one another. 5. Use flexible grouping. Teachers need to use different types of grouping in the classroom to differentia te instruction to best fit the needs of thegroup. Some possible groupings include small groups, partne rs, or whole class. In small groups or partners, students may be grouped withstudents similar to or dif ferent from them. 6. Teach up. Teachers should have high expectations for all students. Each student in the classroom sho uld be working at a challenging level (forthe student), and the teacher should provide scaffolding to e nsure success in the classroom. Note that differentiated instruction provides more of a framework for organizing the classroom and the lessons than an approach to how toteach students with disabilities. For more direction on how to teach, teachers may want to refer to the elements of explicit instructiondiscussed pr eviously. Universal Design for Learning View Pictures Ltd/SuperStock A building that is universally designed is accessible to all people.For example, the ramp in this school can be used b y all people toaccess the classrooms. Universal Design for Learning (UDL) appliesaccessibility principles to classroo m instruction, and asks teachersto design instruction that is accessible to all students, regardless ofdisability. Similar to differentiation, Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is not a "one sizefits all" appr oach to teaching; instead, it emphasizes the needs of individualstudents and adjusts instruction accordingly. As such, UDL principles can benefitnot only students in special education, but all st udents (Jiménez, Graf, & Rose,2007). UDL is based on the concept of universal design in architecture, which strives tomake structures accessible to people with disabilities. A building or structure thatis universally designed, for exa mple, may have ramps, elevators, automatic doors,and signs in Braille. The passage of the Amer icans with Disabilities Act in 1990mandated that all public buildings incorporate elements of uni versal design foraccessibility. UDL makes educational opportunities accessible to all students, similar to a publiclibrary being accessible to all library patrons. UDL has three guiding principles: (1)use multiple means of repr esentation, (2) use multiple means of action andexpression, and (3) use multiple means of enga gement (Stockall, Dennis, & Miller,2012). These principles come from research on how the brai n receives andinteracts with information (Evans, Williams, King, & Metcalf, 2010). Researchers suggest that the brain has three networks: recognition, strategic, andaffective. The recognition network deals with the "what" of learning and affects how students organize infor mation that they see, hear, andread. The strategic network deals with the performance of tasks and allows students to show what they are learning. The affective networkdeals with "why" stu dents engage in a lesson and allows them to be motivated and interested in what they are learn ing. The principles of UDLencourage teachers to engage these three brain networks by presenti ng content in different ways, allowing students to present what they havelearned in different w ays, and allowing students to engage in the content in different ways. Tips for the General Classroom Within a UDL framework, students should have opportunities to comprehend, respond to, and get inspired by thematerial in different ways. • Use multiple means of representation. Teachers should provide students with multiple ways to acces s information to accommodatedifferences in the recognition network of individual students' brains. Teachers need to know how their students comprehendinformation and develop efficient ways of d elivering content to the variety of learners in the classroom. For example, some studentsmay learn b etter through visual representations, whereas others do better with an auditory presentation of info rmation. • Use multiple means of action and expression. Teachers should give students different ways to demo nstrate what they have learned toallow for strategic network differences. For example, some studen ts may show their knowledge better through a writing task,whereas other students may want to deli ver a speech. • Use multiple means of engagement. Teachers should provide students with many different opportuni ties to engage in a lesson tooptimize the use of their affective networks. Some students may need e ncouragement from the teacher, whereas other students willbe motivated to learn on their own. So me students may prefer working in a group while other students want to work independently. Like differentiated instruction, UDL provides a framework for planning instruction for a variety of students in a classroom. UDL, however, doesnot provide information on how to teach studen ts with disabilities. The elements of explicit instruction are better suited for helping the teacher determine how to teach students with disabilities. Classroom Management No matter what teaching approach is used, effective classroom management is a prerequisite t o effective instruction. Classroom managementis the general term for everything a teacher doe s in the classroom to ensure that instruction occurs efficiently. Classroom management involves how the teacher plans the school day (e.g., when students will work on language arts or when s tudents will go to art class), how the teacherdelivers instruction so that all students pay attentio n and have the opportunity to learn, how the teacher arranges the classroom (e.g., desksare pla ced in rows rather than in groups), and how the class transitions from one activity to another (e .g., how students come into theclassroom after lunch and get ready for science instruction). Cla ssroom management is essentially the ability to consistently set and reinforceexpectations that enable all students to learn. The first step to ensure adequate classroom management is to give explicit directions for everyt hing students should say and do. Next,reinforce behavior fairly and consistently. To these ends, teachers should develop a plan for how they will manage their classroom that includesclassroo m organization and procedures, rules, consequences, and positive incentive systems. Room Organization How a classroom is organized can facilitate efficient transitions between and during learning act ivities. The placement of student desks andseats is an important factor in organization that dete rmines a teacher's ability to move fluidly throughout the lesson and address studentbehavior/p articipation (see Figure 2.6 for one example). Students should be able to see the teacher at all ti mes without having to strain. Goodorganization also facilitates classroom routines and procedu res for common student needs, such as lining up, passing out papers, and locatingmaterials. Figure 2.6: Classroom Organization This firstgrade classroom has students sitting in groups at tables. All students in the group can see the board withouthaving to turn their chairs around. The teacher also has a learning rug for wholeclass activities, such as reading a storyor watching a science experiment. Teachers should create a map of their clas sroom, similar to this one, as part of theirclassroom management plan. Classroom Rules Classroom rules should be few, clear, concise, positive, and written in studentfriendly language (Figure 2.7). They should be applicable to everylearning activity and remain th e same all year. The consequences of breaking rules should be ageappropriate, be meaningful for students, andbe scaffolded in a way that students receive warni ngs before facing consequences (e.g., staying in the classroom during recess or forafterschool d etention). Rules should be handled fairly, consistently, and in a way that maintains student dign ity. Figure 2.7: Classroom Rules Rules vary from classroom to classroom but should remain positive—for example, "Walk" ismore effective than "Don't run." Children remember better what they are supposed to do thanwhat they are not supposed to do. IDEA 2004 set forth guidelines for the discipline of students with disabilities. First, schools cann ot suspend students for more than 10 days. Ifthe student should be suspended for more than 1 0 days, the IEP team needs to meet to determine whether the behavior that brought on thesus pension was a manifestation of the student's disability or whether improper implementation of the student's IEP led to the student'sbehavior. If the student's behavior and disability are conne cted, the IEP team must conduct a Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA) anddesign a Behavio ral Intervention Plan (BIP). The FBA helps determine when and why a student behaves in certain ways, and the BIP is aproactive plan for avoiding negative behaviors. IDEA 2004 does state that students can be suspended for up to 45 days without an IEP teamevaluation if illegal drugs or w eapons were part of the student's violation or if the student threatened or caused serious bodil y injury. Positive Behavior Support All students—with and without disabilities— respond well to a positive classroom reward system. Positive Behavior Support (PBS) is a syst emthat rewards and reinforces appropriate student behavior. PBS can be implemented schoolwide or classroomwide. With PBS, a school orclassroom establishes a positive environment with wellestablished rules so that teachers can focus on delivering instruction. PBS is not apackaged prog ram; PBS is more of a framework for classroom management. This system can be particularly effective for students with emotional or behavior disorders or A DHD. When the behavior of students withdisabilities interferes with their academic performanc e, an FBA is conducted and a BIP developed (see Chapter 4 for a discussion of thisassessment an d plan). The BIP, and indeed any classroom management plan, must be implemented consistent ly in a manner that teaches andreinforces the desired behavior with students. 2.3 Collaboration Between Home and School Blend Images/SuperStock Some parents or guardians may feel uneasy about participating inschool activities, especially an IEP meeting, so tea chers need toreach out to parents to build a successful partnership. If parentscan work with teachers to support st udent learning at home, thestudent may benefit tremendously. In designing teaching methods and environment, the input of family members ofstudents with disabilities can be invaluable (Edwards & Da Fonte, 2012). Parents orguardians often have very useful information on instructional strategies andsupport that have been successful for their chi ld in the past. Strongcommunication and collaboration between educators and parents/guardia ns arecritical to ensure that students are receiving the most support possible(Whitbread, Brude r, Fleming, & Park, 2007). The annual IEP meeting is a required interaction between the home and school,but contact sho uld not be limited to this time. Rather, it should occur frequentlythroughout the year. The speci al or general education teacher should make initialcontact with parents or guardians and facilita te ongoing communication about thestudent's progress. When parents or guardians and teache rs work together, therelationship is beneficial for everyone involved, especially the student. Tips for the General Classroom To help involve parents and guardians (and other family members) with schools, teachers shoul d keep in mind theseimportant guidelines (Cook, Shepherd, Cook, & Cook, 2012; Edwards & Da Fonte, 2012): • • • • • • • Be positive and proactive. Respect the cultural background of the family. Understand the roles within the family. Listen to family concerns. Ensure communication between home and school. Ask families provide similar school supports at home. Provide necessary knowledge and tools for families. 2.4 Assessment of Students in Special Education All schools are mandated by NCLB and IDEA 2004 to include students with disabilities in schoolwide assessments. Teachers want to haveeffective classroom management programs in place in order to deliver effective instruction so that, among other outcomes, students performsuccessfully on assessments. Most students in special education will participate in the regular assessments, but with accomm odations. Modified or alternate assessments arepossible, but NCLB dictates that no more than 2% of students with disabilities can take a modified or alternate assessment (Fuchs, Seethaler,Fuch s, & Hamlett, 2008). Typically, the IEP team determines which assessment (i.e., regular or modifie d) is appropriate for the student (Salend,2008; Thurlow, Lazarus, Thompson, & Morse, 2005). Assessment Accommodations If a student requires accommodations during an assessment, the accommodations must be outl ined on the student's IEP. If theaccommodations are not listed on the student's IEP, the student is not permitted to use the accommodations during an assessment. Commonaccommodations for assessments include the following (Bielinski, Ysseldyke, Bolt, Friedebach, & Friedebach, 200 1; Rieck & Wadsworth, 2005;Schulte, Elliott, & Kratochwill, 2001; Thurlow et al., 2005): • Additional time (e.g., "time and a half" or untimed) • Items read aloud • Breaks during testing • Calculator • Larger print/answer bubbles • Multiple choice instead of constructed response • Scribe dictates answers • Testing in small group or individual setting • Typewritten essay Modified/Alternate Assessments When it is not reasonable for a student with a disability to participate in the standard assessme nt, even with accommodations, a modified oralternate assessment can be used. Typically, students with disabilities that are significant enough to mandate substantial modifications to agrade leve l assessment are allowed to take a modified or alternate assessment, but this must be no more than 2% of all students in the schooldistrict, as mandated by NCLB. Portfolios of a student's wor k are often used to demonstrate student knowledge. A portfolio is a collection ofstudent work; it can be paper-based (e.g., an essay or worksheet), videobased, or anecdotal (e.g., teacher observation of studentperformance). Rating scales based on classroom observations or audio or video recordings of a student's performance can also be created andassessed. Wrap-Up • • • The IEP team decides the placement of students with disabilities and any accommodations f or assessments. Students may receive most oftheir instruction in the general classroom wit h accommodations, modifications, or support with a specialist, or they may be placed in are source classroom or a selfcontained classroom. Very few students attend schools that are not their local school. The student's teachers collaborate to decide appropriate accommodations, modifications, a nd approaches to providing instruction.Accommodations allow the student to participate in the general curriculum and change the way students interact with classroom material.Modif ications change the classroom material the student learns. Schools should encourage parents and guardians to be integral in the student's education. P arents and guardians may advocate forappropriate placement and services of the student. • Almost all students with disabilities participate in the standardized school assessment, with no more than 2% of the student populationbeing eligible for modified assessments. Standar dized assessments, as mandated by NCLB, help determine whether students in schools are meeting state standards for academic learning. Discussion Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. How does an IEP team make placement decisions? When are accommodations used? When are modifications used? How do teachers collaborate? What are the advantages of explicit instruction, differentiation, and UDL? How can teachers involve parents in the education of students with disabilities? What are the regulations for including students in a modified assessment? Additional Resources • • • • • • • This site from the National Association of Special Education Teachers has many resources fo r teachers of students in special education. www.naset.org This site provides a list of evidence-based practices in general and special education. ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc This site provides a list of evidence-based practices in general and special education. www.bestevidence.org This site includes evaluation charts of progress-monitoring assessments and evidencebased practices in special education. www.rti4success.org This site provides insight into designing lessons using explicit instruction. www.explicitinstruction.org This site provides information about differentiating instruction. www.differentiationcentral.com The National Center on Student Outcomes provides information on modified and alternate assessments. www.cehd.umn.edu/NCEO/TopicAreas/AlternateAssessments/altAssessTopic.htm
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