CHAPTER PARTICIPANTS – MULTILATERAL ORGANIZATIONS AND INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS 10 CHAPTER SUMMARIES Multilateral organizations are composed of sovereign governments. They may be regional, organized around a common issue or function, or global. International financial institutions (IFIs) are international banks composed of sovereign member states that use public money from the Member States to provide technical and financial support for developing countries. The United Nations is the organization most involved in the mitigation of, preparedness for, response to, and recovery from disasters around the world. It is considered the best equipped to do so because of its strong relationships with most countries, especially the developing countries where assistance is most needed. When disasters strike, the UN is one of the first organizations to mobilize, and it remains in the affected countries during the recovery period for many years after. The Consolidated Appeal Process is one way the UN garners international support for relief and reconstruction. In many regions, governments have formed smaller international organizations, many of which address risk, as well. The IFIs provide nations with low capital reserves funding in the aftermath of disasters recovery reconstruction. The World Bank is regarded as one of the largest sources of development assistance. Key Terms: international financial institution; international organization; international strategy for disaster reduction; regional international organizations; the Consolidated Appeal Process; the United Nations. INTRODUCTION A multilateral organization is an organization composed of the central governments of sovereign nations. Multilateral organizations are also called intergovernmental organizations and international organizations. Member States come together under a charter of rules and responsibilities they have drawn up and agreed on. Multilateral organizations may be regionally based (e.g., the European Union [EU], the Association of South East Asian Nations [ASEAN]), organized around a common issue or function (e.g., the North Atlantic Treaty Organization [NATO], the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries [OPEC]), or globally based (e.g., the United Nations [UN]). Like sovereign states, they are recognized as having an established legal status under international law. The UN is the most well-known and largest of all of the multilateral organizations because its membership draws from nearly every nation, and because it covers a wide range of issues. The first international organization to address the topic of disaster management was the International Relief Union (IRU), which was founded in Italy in 1921 and later integrated into the League of 588 Introduction to International Disaster Management. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-801477-6.00010-1 Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.   The United Nations 589 Nations, which then became the UN. Since that time, a number of international organizations have addressed disaster management as a part of their general operation. International financial institutions (IFIs) are international banks composed of sovereign Member States. They use public money from the Member States to provide technical and financial support for developing countries. IFIs were first developed to help restore peace in the wake of conflict, but their mission and purpose has expanded greatly. Today, IFIs seek to provide development and emergency assistance to stabilize local and world economies. As part of this mission, IFIs have become heavily involved in the reconstruction of nations affected by large-scale disasters and in funding mitigation and preparedness measures that prevent recurrent disasters. This chapter discusses the various forms of multilateral organizations involved in international disaster management. The UN and its individual offices, agencies, and organizations working in mitigation, preparedness, response, or recovery are also described, followed by a description of other multilateral organizations, including NATO, the EU, the Organization of American States, and the Southern African Development Community, among others. Finally, the international financial institutions that fund much of the world’s development, as well as recovery from disasters of all kinds, are addressed. Although this chapter touches on some issues required in managing complex humanitarian emergencies (CHEs), it does not address the peacekeeping and peacemaking operations of the UN or any other international organization. THE UNITED NATIONS BACKGROUND The United Nations (UN) was established in 1945, when representatives from 51 countries converged in San Francisco to establish the UN Charter as a commitment to preserve peace in the aftermath of World War II. Later that year, the Charter was ratified by the five permanent members, China, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States, as well as several other countries. Today, 193 countries are members of the UN, and the Charter (which is similar to a sovereign state’s constitution and establishes the rights and responsibilities of Member States) continues to be amended to reflect the changing needs of world politics. The UN is not a government body, nor does it write laws; however, Member States can use the UN to resolve conflict and create international policy. While the UN cannot force a sovereign country to comply with its decisions or actions, the organization’s global stature and collaborative nature give weight to its resolutions. The UN has six main organs. Five of these—the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, and the Secretariat—are based in New York City at the UN Headquarters. The sixth, the International Court of Justice, is located at The Hague in the Netherlands. The UN also maintains operational and program offices throughout the world. (See figure 10.1.) Through these major bodies and their associated programs, the UN has established a presence in most countries and has fostered partnerships with Member State governments. THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY All of the UN Member States are represented in the General Assembly, which is considered a “parliament of nations” that meets to address issues of global significance. Each Member State is given a 590 CHAPTER 10 PARTICIPANTS – MULTILATERAL ORGANIZATIONS FIGURE 10.1 UN organizational chart Source: UN, 2014a. single vote, with key issues decided by two-thirds majority. (Less significant matters are decided by simple majority.) As mentioned earlier, the General Assembly cannot force its decisions on a sovereign state, although they generally receive wide support. The Assembly holds regular sessions from September to December, and special/emergency sessions may be called at any time. When not in session, the Assembly’s work is carried out by its six main committees, other subsidiary bodies, and the Secretariat. THE SECURITY COUNCIL The UN Security Council’s primary responsibility is maintaining international peace and security in accordance with the UN Charter. This council, which convenes at will, consists of 15 members, five of which are permanent members (China, France, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom, and the United States). All UN Member States are obligated to carry out the Council’s decisions. Decisions require nine affirmative votes, including all five votes of the permanent members. When the Council   The United Nations 591 considers threats to international peace, it first explores peaceful settlement options. If fighting is under way, the Council attempts to secure a cease-fire, and it may send a peacekeeping mission to help the parties maintain the truce and keep opposing forces apart. The Council can take measures to enforce its decisions, such as imposing economic sanctions or arms embargoes. On rare occasions, the Council has authorized Member States to use “all necessary means,” including collective military action, to see that its decisions are carried out. These are referred to as “peacemaking operations.” THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL The Economic and Social Council is the central mechanism by which international economic and social issues are addressed and by which policy recommendations are created. It also consults with non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to create and maintain working partnerships between the UN and civil society. The Council has 54 members, elected by the General Assembly for three-year terms. It meets throughout the year, but its main session is held in July, during which major economic, social, and humanitarian issues are discussed. The Council has several subsidiary bodies that regularly meet to address issues such as human rights, social development, the status of women, crime prevention, narcotic drugs, and environmental protection. THE TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL The Trusteeship Council originally provided international supervision for 11 trust territories administered by seven Member States and ensured that adequate steps were taken to prepare the territories for self-government or independence. By 1994, all trust territories had attained self-government or independence. Its work completed, the Trusteeship Council now consists of the five permanent members of the Security Council. It has amended its rules of procedure to allow it to meet as and when the occasion may require. THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE The International Court of Justice, also known as the World Court, is the UN’s main judicial organ. The World Court consists of 15 judges elected jointly by the General Assembly and the Security Council. It serves to settle disputes between countries. Participation is voluntary, but when a state agrees to participate, it must comply with the Court’s decision. The Court also provides advisory opinions to the General Assembly and the Security Council on request. THE SECRETARIAT The Secretariat carries out the day-to-day work of the UN as directed by the General Assembly, the Security Council, and the other organs. At its head is the Secretary General, who provides overall administrative guidance. The Secretariat is made up of various departments and offices and maintains a total staff of about 40,000 people throughout the world. Duty stations include the UN Headquarters in New York and offices in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi, as well as other locations. The Secretariat’s functions are diverse, ranging from “administering peacekeeping operations to mediating international disputes, from surveying economic and social trends and problems to preparing 592 CHAPTER 10 PARTICIPANTS – MULTILATERAL ORGANIZATIONS studies on human rights and sustainable development” (UN 2014). The Secretariat staffs also work to publicize the UN’s work through the world media and to organize conferences on issues of global concern. Secretariat staffs are considered international civil servants and answer only to the UN for their activities. THE UN SYSTEM The system known as the UN includes many integrated and related offices and agencies that work around the world. There are independent organizations known as “specialized agencies” linked to the UN through cooperative agreements. These agencies are autonomous bodies created by intergovernmental agreement. They maintain broad international responsibilities in economic, social, cultural, educational, health, and related fields. Additionally, a number of UN offices, programs, and funds work to improve the economic and social conditions of people around the world. These agencies report directly to the General Assembly or to the Economic and Social Council. (See figure 10.1.). Each organization has its own governing body, budget, and secretariat. Together with the UN bodies previously listed, they are known as the UN family or the UN system. UN ROLE IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT The UN is the organization most involved in the mitigation of, preparedness for, response to, and recovery from disasters worldwide. It is considered the best suited to play this role because of the strong relationships it maintains with most countries, especially the developing ones, where such assistance is most needed. Through its many offices, agencies, and programs, it helps nations to reduce hazard risk and vulnerability by targeting sources of risk in development and promoting increases in the disaster management capacity of institutions and citizens. Because of their presence in almost every developing country and the systems and structures that have been developed specifically for the purpose, the UN is among the first organizations to mobilize when disasters strike. And because their focus is so allencompassing, they remain a source of technical and financial assistance in those same affected countries for the duration of recovery. When a disaster occurs, the UN responds immediately, and on an ongoing basis, by coordinating the provision of or directly providing relief aid such as food, water, shelter, medical assistance, and logistical support. The UN Office of the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) Emergency Relief Coordinator heads UN response to emergency situations. The coordinator works with a committee of several UN humanitarian agencies, including the UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the UN Development Programme (UNDP), the World Food Programme (WFP), the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), and other associates as needed, depending on the problems specific to the event. The UN promotes disaster risk reduction (DRR) and prevention activities through development projects. Long before disasters strike, the UN works with governments, the private sector, non-governmental organizations, and citizens to address disaster risk-reduction measures by ensuring that appropriate measures are included in development activities. The UN has helped to map risk throughout the world and has assisted national governments in creating the institutional frameworks to reduce or respond to those risks. By encouraging the building of early warning systems and monitoring and forecasting routines, the UN is boosting local and regional preparedness capacity. At the end of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (1995–2005), which strove to shift from   The United Nations 593 disaster–response-oriented projects to disaster mitigation, the UN adopted the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction to promote disaster reduction and risk mitigation as part of its central mission. This initiative continues to evolve in its pursuit of disaster risk reduction, promoting global resilience to the effects of natural hazards, and reducing human, economic, and social losses by: • increasing public awareness of the hazard risks faced and the options to address them • obtaining commitment from public authorities to mainstream risk reduction into their work • stimulating interdisciplinary and intersectoral partnership and expanding risk-reduction networking at all levels • enhancing scientific research on the causes of natural disasters and the effects of natural hazards and related technological and environmental disasters on societies These strategies are integrated into the work carried out by each UN Country Office and promoted to the national and local governments in each member country where the UN works. Hazard mitigation and disaster preparedness strategies are communicated to members of all levels of society via public awareness campaigns, and promoted by obtaining commitment from public authorities, facilitating cooperation and communication between various government and non-governmental sectors, and enabling the provision or transfer of technical knowledge. Because the UN is such a complex organization, it can be difficult to illustrate the myriad ways in which it addresses disaster management other than to describe the role of each organization and agency in this area. THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY The UN General Assembly does not partake in any operational disaster management activities. However, as the main deliberative organ of the UN, it is responsible for launching many influential and effective disaster management programs that are ultimately carried out by the various UN offices and by the UN Member State governments. Examples include the endorsement of the UNDP Capacity for Disaster Reduction Initiative (CADRI) and the launching of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction and its subsequent International Strategy for Disaster Reduction. The General Assembly is also responsible for organizing and reorganizing the UN system to maximize its disaster management capabilities, as in 1997 under the UN Program for Reform (1997), which created the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) and the UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR). THE SECRETARIAT The UN Secretariat is the international working staff of UN employees located at duty stations throughout the world. The UN Secretariat employees carry out the diverse day-to-day work of the various UN offices. It services the principal UN organs and administers the programs and policies laid down by them. At its head is the Secretary–General, who is appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council for five-year renewable terms. The Secretariat has approximately 43,000 employees. As international civil servants, staff members and the Secretary–General answer only to the UN and take an oath not to seek or receive instructions from any government or outside authority. Under the Charter, each member state agrees to respect the 594 CHAPTER 10 PARTICIPANTS – MULTILATERAL ORGANIZATIONS exclusively international character of the responsibilities of the Secretary–General and the staff and to refrain from seeking to influence them improperly as they carry out their duties, including in the response to and recovery from disasters. Within the UN Secretariat are several departments and offices that address pre- and post-disaster management activities. These include the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, the Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC), the Executive Committee on Humanitarian Affairs, and the Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA). THE UN OFFICE FOR THE COORDINATION OF HUMANITARIAN AFFAIRS (OCHA) OCHA’s mandate is to ensure that the relief provided is effective, not to provide effective relief. (OCHA 2000) UN Resolution 46/182, adopted in December 1991 by the UN General Assembly, was passed to bolster the UN’s ability to respond to disasters of all types (including CHEs), and sought to improve how the UN addresses humanitarian operations at the field level. Before 1991, the UN Disaster Relief Coordinator managed natural disasters, and special representatives of the UN Secretary General coordinated CHEs. This resolution merged these two roles to create the Emergency Relief Coordinator (ERC). The Department of Humanitarian Affairs was created soon after, with the ERC elevated to the status of Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs. The IASC, the Consolidated Appeals Process (CAP), and the Central Emergency Response Fund also were created to increase the humanitarian assistance abilities of the ERC. The Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) replaced the Department of Humanitarian Affairs under the UN Secretary–General’s Program for Reform in 1998. It was established to accommodate the needs of victims of disasters and emergencies. Its specific role in disaster management is to coordinate assistance provided by the UN system in emergencies that exceed the capacity and mandate of any individual agency. OCHA response to disasters can be categorized under three main groupings: 1. C  oordinating the international humanitarian response 2. Providing support and policy development to the humanitarian community 3. Advocating for humanitarian issues to ensure that the overall direction of relief reflects the general needs of recovery and peace building OCHA operations are carried out by a staff of approximately 2,150 people in New York, Geneva, and in the field. (See figure 10.2.) OCHA’s 2015 budget was US$321.7 million, of which slightly less than 4.5 percent ($14.45 million) came from the regular UN budget. The remaining 95.5 percent is from “extra-budgetary resources,” which is primarily donations from Member States and donor organizations (OCHA 2014a). As head of OCHA, the Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs/UN Emergency Relief Coordinator is responsible for the coordination of UN response efforts through the Inter-Agency Standing Committee. IASC consists of UN and outside humanitarian organization leaders, and analyzes crisis scenarios to formulate joint responses that maximize effectiveness and minimize overlap. The ERC works to deploy appropriate personnel from throughout the UN to assist UN resident coordinators and lead agencies to increase onsite coordination. In September of 2010, the Secretary–General   The United Nations 595 FIGURE 10.2 OCHA organizational chart Source: OCHA, 2010a. appointed Valerie Amos of Guyana to replace Mr. John Holmes of the United Kingdom as UnderSecretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs/UN Emergency Relief Coordinator. OCHA regional offices monitor the onset of natural and technological disasters. Staff are trained in disaster assessment and post-disaster evaluation methods before disasters strike. Once an impending or actual disaster event is identified, OCHA initiates response and generates a situation report to provide the international response community with detailed information, including damage assessment, actions taken, needs assessment, and current assistance provided. If necessary, OCHA may then deploy a UN Disaster Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC) team to assist relief activity coordination and assess damages and needs. If a disaster appears inevitable or is already unfolding, the ERC in consultation with IASC may designate a humanitarian coordinator (HC), who becomes the most senior UN humanitarian official on the ground for the emergency. The HC is directly accountable to the ERC, increasing the likelihood that the humanitarian assistance provided is quick, effective, and well-coordinated. The HC appointment generally signals that the event merits a long-term humanitarian presence. The criteria used by the ERC to determine whether to appoint an HC center on the need for intensive and extensive political 596 CHAPTER 10 PARTICIPANTS – MULTILATERAL ORGANIZATIONS management, mediation, and coordination to enable the delivery of humanitarian response, including negotiated access to affected populations; massive humanitarian assistance requiring action by a range of participants beyond a single national authority; and a high degree of external political support, often from the UN Security Council. An On-Site Operations Coordination Center (OSOCC) may be set up in the field to assist local firstresponse teams to coordinate the often overwhelming number of responding agencies. The OSOCC has three primary objectives: (1) to be a link between international responders and the government of the affected country; (2) to provide a system for coordinating and facilitating the activities of international relief efforts at a disaster site; and (3) to provide a platform for cooperation, coordination, and information management among international humanitarian agencies. Finally, OCHA can set up communications capabilities if they have been damaged or do not exist at an adequate level, as required by the UN responding agencies. OCHA generally concludes its responsibilities when the operation moves from response to recovery. Overall, OCHA coordination is performed to maximize the response and recovery capabilities that converge on the disaster scene, and to minimize duplications and inefficiencies. The structures and policies that have been established to support this function include (adapted from OCHA 2005): • Developing common strategies. Humanitarian assistance is most effective when common priorities and goals exist among stakeholders and responders agree on tactics and jointly monitor progress. OCHA works with its partners to develop a common humanitarian action plan and to establish clear divisions of responsibility. • Assessing situations and needs. OCHA staff assume responsible for assessing damages and identifying needs, developing a plan of action to meeting those needs, and monitoring progress. Responses are adjusted, if necessary, using ongoing analysis of political, social, economic, and military environments and by assessing humanitarian needs to help the responding agencies better understand the situation. • Convening coordination forums. In its role as coordinator, OCHA holds a wide range of meetings to bring together the various disaster management players for planning and information exchange. These meetings help the participants to more accurately analyze the overall status of humanitarian relief efforts as well as network and share lessons learned and best practices. • Mobilizing resources. Through the CAP, OCHA leads the drive to get governments to commit funding and resources necessary to address the identified needs. Allocation of funds has been found to be more efficient within this centralized system. • Addressing common problems. Every crisis is unique, and both new and old problems arise. As coordinator, OCHA analyzes and addresses problems common to humanitarian actors, such as negotiating with warring parties to gain access to civilians in need, or working with UN security officials to support preparedness and response measures in changing security situations. • Administering coordination mechanisms and tools. OCHA, and the UN in general, have several tools with which they can better address the humanitarian needs of disaster victims. These include the IASC; rapid-response tools, such as the UN Disaster Assessment and Coordination Teams and the International Search and Rescue Advisory Group; and smaller forums such as the Geographic Information Support Team. OCHA also assists with civil–military cooperation, ensuring a more efficient use of military and civil defense assets in humanitarian operations.   The United Nations 597 The Field Coordination Support Unit in Geneva manages OCHA’s human, technical, and logistical resources. These resources are primarily provided by the Danish and Norwegian Refugee Councils, the Danish Emergency Management Agency, the Swedish Rescue Services Agency, and the Emergency Logistics Management Team of the United Kingdom Overseas Development Administration. THE EMERGENCY RELIEF COORDINATOR The Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs/Emergency Relief Coordinator advises the UN Secretary–General on disaster-related issues, chairs the Executive Committee on Humanitarian Affairs (ECHA), and leads the IASC. The coordinator is assisted by a deputy, who holds the position of Deputy Emergency Relief Coordinator (DERC) and is responsible for key coordination, policy, and management issues. THE IASC The Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC) was established in 1992 under UN Resolution 46/182. It serves as a platform within which the broad range of UN and non-UN humanitarian partners (including UN humanitarian agencies, the International Organization for Migration, three consortia of major international NGOs, and the Red Cross movement) may come together to address the humanitarian needs resulting from a disaster. The IASC’s primary role is to formulate humanitarian policy that ensures a coordinated and effective response to all kinds of disaster and emergency situations. The primary objectives of the IASC are to: • Develop and agree on system-wide humanitarian policies • Allocate responsibilities among agencies in humanitarian programs • Develop and agree on a common ethical framework for all humanitarian activities • Advocate common humanitarian principles to parties outside the IASC • Identify areas where gaps in mandates or lack of operational capacity exist • Resolve disputes or disagreement about and between humanitarian agencies on system-wide humanitarian issues (OCHA 2005) IASC members (both full members and standing invitees) include: • Food and Agriculture Organization • InterAction • International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) • International Council of Voluntary Agencies • International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) • International Organization for Migration • Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs • Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights • Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary–General on Internally Displaced Persons • Steering Committee for Humanitarian Response • The World Bank • United Nations Children’s Fund 598 CHAPTER 10 PARTICIPANTS – MULTILATERAL ORGANIZATIONS • United Nations Development Fund • United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees • United Nations Development Programme • United Nations Population Fund • World Food Programme • World Health Organization THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE ON HUMANITARIAN AFFAIRS The Executive Committee on Humanitarian Affairs (ECHA) was created by the UN Secretary–General to enhance coordination among UN agencies working on humanitarian affairs issues. ECHA meets on a monthly basis in New York to add a political and peacekeeping dimension to humanitarian consultations. Its members include: • United Nations Development Program • United Nations Children’s Fund • United Nations High Commission for Refugees • World Food Programme • Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights • Department of Peacekeeping Operations • Department of Political Affairs • United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East • Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary–General for Children and Armed Conflicts • World Health Organization • Food and Agriculture Organization THE OCHA DONOR RELATIONS SECTION The OCHA Donor Relations Section (DRS), separated from the CAP in 2003, is the focal point for all relations with donors, particularly for funding-related issues. DRS advises the senior management team on policy issues related to interaction with donors and resource mobilization. In addition, it plays a key role in facilitating the interaction of all OCHA entities with donors, both at headquarters and in the field level. THE COORDINATION AND RESPONSE DIVISION The Coordination and Response Division (CRD) was created in 2004 by joining the former New Yorkbased Humanitarian Emergency Branch and the Geneva-based Response Coordination Branch. CRD is responsible for providing disaster-related direction, guidance, and support to the ERC, the UN Resident/Humanitarian Coordinators, and OCHA’s field offices (including the deployment of extra personnel as necessary, or providing emergency cash grants). THE OCHA EMERGENCY SERVICES BRANCH Based in Geneva, the OCHA Emergency Services Board (ESB) was created to expedite the provision of international humanitarian assistance. ESB develops, mobilizes, and coordinates the deployment   The United Nations 599 of OCHA’s international rapid response “toolkit”—the expertise, systems, and services that aim to improve humanitarian assistance in support of disaster-afflicted countries. ESB’s humanitarian response activities include the coordination of disaster response and assessment (UNDAC; see in the following section), the setting of international urban search and rescue standards (INSARAG; see in the following section), and the establishment of OSOCCs. ESB supports OCHA field offices through the following: • Surge capacity and standby partnerships • Military and civil liaison and mobilization of military and civil defense assets • Dispatch of relief supplies and specialized assistance in environmental emergencies • Dissemination of disaster-related information by means of ReliefWeb, the Central Register of Disaster Management Capacities, and the Virtual OnSite Operations Coordination Center. Within the ESB are seven separate sections, established to manage particular aspects of disaster response: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.  ivil-Military Coordination Section C Emergency Preparedness Section Environmental Emergencies Unit Emergency Relief Coordination Centre Field Coordination Support Section Logistics Support Unit Surge Capacity Section Established by the IASC in 1995, the Civil Military Coordination Section (CMCS), previously named Military and Civil Defense Unit (MCDU), is the focal point for the efficient mobilization of military and civil defense assets for use in humanitarian emergencies and for liaison with governments, international organizations, regional organizations, and military–civil defense establishments deploying these assets. It also coordinates UN agency participation and participates in major military exercises comprising significant humanitarian scenarios. This section is responsible for the overall management of the OCHA Central Register of Disaster Management Capacities, with specific maintenance of the MCDA Directory of Military and Civil Defense Assets and expertise. CMCS acts as a facilitator and secretariat to the development of documents involving the broad international humanitarian community and is custodian of the “Oslo” and “MCDA” guidelines detailing the use of MCDA in support of UN humanitarian operations in natural, technological, and environmental disasters and complex emergencies, respectively. The Emergency Preparedness Section (EPS) helps to maintain OCHA’s operational readiness and to reinforce disaster preparedness work. EPS works with stakeholders at the national government level in UN member countries in order to help build disaster response and recovery capacity in advance of disasters. Much of the work performed by this unit is guided by the Hyogo Framework for Action, which recommends the strengthening of disaster preparedness for effective response at all levels. The Environmental Emergencies Unit, or the Joint UN Environmental Programme (UNEP)/OCHA Environment Unit, serves as the integrated UN emergency response mechanism that provides international assistance to countries experiencing environmental disasters and emergencies. This joint unit can rapidly mobilize and coordinate emergency assistance and response resources to countries facing 600 CHAPTER 10 PARTICIPANTS – MULTILATERAL ORGANIZATIONS environmental emergencies and natural disasters with significant environmental impacts. The unit performs several key functions geared toward facilitating rapid and coordinated disaster response: • Monitoring. The unit performs continuous monitoring and ongoing communication with an international network of contacts and permanent monitoring of news services and websites for early notification of environmental occurrences. • Notification. When disasters strike, the unit alerts the international community and issues “Information and Situation” reports to a comprehensive list of worldwide contacts. • Brokerage. The unit is able to quickly establish contact between the affected country and donor governments ready and willing to assist and provide needed response resources. • Information clearinghouse. The unit serves as an effective focal point to ensure information on chemicals, maps, and satellite images from donor sources and institutions are channeled to relevant authorities in the affected country. • Mobilization of assistance. The unit mobilizes assistance from the international donor community when requested by affected countries. • Assessment. The unit can dispatch international experts to assess an emergency’s impacts and to make impartial and independent recommendations about response, cleanup, remediation, and rehabilitation. • Financial assistance. In certain circumstances, the unit can release OCHA emergency cash grants of up to $50,000 to meet immediate emergency response needs. The Emergency Relief Coordination Center (ERCC) is the physical facility where OCHA centralized coordination activities are focused. The facility enables closer collaboration between internal and external humanitarian stakeholders and has the capacity to serve as an OCHA Situation Centre, providing updates on humanitarian relief activities worldwide. The Centre consists of a main task force room, a small conference room that can also be used for a second task force, and a technical room to control all facility capabilities. The ERCC allows OCHA to coordinate two response teams simultaneously. The Field Coordination Support Section (FCSS) was established within ESB in 1996 to support national governments and the UN Resident Coordinators in developing, preparing, and maintaining “standby capacity” for rapid deployment to sudden-onset emergencies to conduct rapid needs assessments and coordination. FCSS manages several programs and offices to improve international disaster coordination and cooperation, including: • The United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC) team. The UNDAC team is made up of disaster management specialists selected and funded by the governments of UN Member States, OCHA, UNDP, and operational humanitarian UN agencies (such as WFP, UNICEF, and WHO). It provides rapid needs assessments and supports national authorities and the UN Resident Coordinator in organizing international relief. UNDAC teams are on permanent standby status so that they can deploy within hours. • The International Search and Rescue Advisory Group (INSARAG). INSARAG is an intergovernmental network within the UN that manages urban search and rescue (USAR) and related disasterresponse issues. It promotes information exchange, defines international USAR standards, and develops methodologies for international cooperation and coordination in earthquake response. • The Virtual On-Site Operations Coordination Centre (Virtual OSOCC). The Internet has made it possible for humanitarian relief agencies to share and exchange disaster information continuously   The United Nations 601 and simultaneously, and between any locations where Internet access can be obtained. The Virtual OSOCC is a central repository of information maintained by OCHA that facilitates this exchange of information with NGOs and responding governments. The information is stored on an interactive web-based database, where users can comment on existing information and discuss issues of concern with other stakeholders. The Logistics Support Unit (LSU) manages stocks of basic relief items that can be dispatched immediately to disaster- or emergency-stricken areas. The stockpile, which is located at the UN Humanitarian Response Depot in Brindisi, Italy, includes nonfood, nonmedical relief items (such as shelter, water purification and distribution systems, and household items) donated by UN member governments. The LSU is also involved in other logistical challenges, such as designing contingency plans for the rapid deployment of emergency relief flights and providing interface on logistical matters with other humanitarian agencies (such as WFP, WHO, UNHCR, IFRC, and ICRC). The LSU participates in the operation of a UN Joint Logistics Center (see exhibit 10.1) and has co-sponsored an effort to adopt a UN-wide system for tracking EXHIBIT 10.1 THE UN JOINT LOGISTICS CENTER The UN Joint Logistics Center (UNJLC) is an interagency facility reporting to the Humanitarian Coordinator [within a CHE], and overall to the IASC. Its mandate is to coordinate and optimize the logistics capabilities of humanitarian organizations in large-scale emergencies. UNJLC operates under the direction of the World Food Programme (WFP), who is responsible for the administrative and financial management of the Centre. The UNJLC is funded from voluntary contributions channeled through WFP. The requirement to establish [the UNJLC] was born out of the humanitarian response to the 1996 Eastern Zaire crisis, which demanded intensified coordination and pooling of logistics assets among UNHCR, WFP, and UNICEF. The interagency logistics coordination model was applied on subsequent UNJLC interventions in Somalia, Kosovo, East Timor, Mozambique, India, and Afghanistan. In March 2002, UNJLC concept was institutionalized as a UN humanitarian response mechanism, under the aegis of WFP, by the Inter-Agency Standing Committee Working Group (IASC-WG). The UNJLC core unit was subsequently established in Rome. In case of major disaster with substantial humanitarian multi-sector involvement during the immediate relief phase, the UN agencies involved may consider that the establishment of a Joint Logistics Centre would contribute to the rapid response, better coordination, and improved efficiency of the humanitarian operation at hand. . . . A standby capacity will be developed for facilitating, if required, the timely activation and deployment in the field of a United Nations Joint Logistics Centre—UNJLC. The UNJLC will support the United Nations agencies and possibly other humanitarian organisations that operate in the same crisis area. The capacity includes the option to establish satellite Joint Logistic Centres (JLC) dispersed at critical locations in the [affected area] and offering logistics support on a reduced scale. . . . Upon [UNJLC] activation, agencies will establish a Deployment Requirements Assessment (DRA) Team to carry out a quick evaluation of the logistics situation and determine the requirements to deploy the UNJLC in the crisis area. This DRA Team will work in close coordination with the humanitarian authorities and, if deployed, with the United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC) Team. It will take all necessary measures for installing the UNJLC and draft Ad Hoc Terms of Reference (TOR) for endorsement by the relevant humanitarian authorities. In case of peacekeeping operations or in a complex environment, the UNJLC activation will be coordinated with the Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) or the relevant military entities. UNJLC Role and Scope of Activities • The role of the UNJLC will be to optimise and complement the logistics capabilities of cooperating agencies within a well-defined crisis area for the benefit of the ongoing humanitarian operation. • The UNJLC will provide logistics support at operational planning, coordination, and monitoring levels. Unless specified otherwise, the UN agencies and other humanitarian bodies, which are established in the area, will continue (Continued) 602 CHAPTER 10 PARTICIPANTS – MULTILATERAL ORGANIZATIONS EXHIBIT 10.1 THE UN JOINT LOGISTICS CENTER—Cont’d to exercise their normal responsibilities. As a result, the UNJLC will not be involved in policy and establishment of humanitarian needs and priorities. • Responsibilities will be defined as per the requirements on a case-by-case basis but will, in principle, be limited to logistic activities between the points of entry and distribution in the crisis area. Detailed responsibilities . . . would be: • Collecting, analysing, and disseminating logistics information relevant to the ongoing humanitarian operation; • Scheduling the movement of humanitarian cargo and relief workers within the crisis area, using commonly available transport assets; • Managing the import, receipt, dispatch, and tracking of non-assigned food and nonfood relief commodities; • Upon specific request, making detailed assessments of roads, bridges, airports, ports, and other logistics infrastructure and recommending actions for repair and reconstruction. • The scope of the UNJLC activities may vary with the type of emergency, the scale of involvement of the cooperating partners, and the humanitarian needs. In general terms, the UNJLC would: • Serve as an information platform for supporting humanitarian logistics operations; • Upon specific request, coordinate the use of available warehouse capacity; • Coordinate the influx of strategic humanitarian airlift into the crisis area; • Serve as an information platform for recommending the most efficient modes of transportation; • Identify logistical bottlenecks and propose satisfactory solutions or alternatives; • Serve as the focal point for co-ordinating facilitation measures with local authorities for importing, transporting, and distributing relief commodities into the country; • Provide reliable information regarding the logistics capacity in meeting the prioritisation of targets; • Be the focal point to coordinate humanitarian logistics operations with the local emergency management authorities (LEMA) or, in a peacekeeping or complex environment, with the Department of Peace Keeping Operations (DPKO) or the relevant military entities. Source: UNJLC, 2005. relief supplies and common procedures for air operations. Finally, the LSU contributes information related to stockpiles and customs facilitation agreements (which helps speed up the delivery of relief items). The Surge Capacity Section (SCS) works to ensure OCHA always has the means and resources to rapidly mobilize and deploy staff and materials to address the needs of countries affected by suddenonset emergencies. SCS operates using a number of distinct surge capacity resources, which include: • The Emergency Response Roster (ERR). ERR, which became active in June 2002, aims to rapidly deploy OCHA staff to sudden-onset emergencies to conduct assessments and establish initial coordination mechanisms. The 35 staff included in the ERR are deployable within 48 hours of a request for their services through a deployment methodology based on the UNDAC model. Staff serve on the roster for about six months. • The Stand-By Partnerships Programme (SBPP). SBPP is structured on legal agreements with 12 partner organizations that provide short-term staffing to field operations free of charge when gaps arise. Partners maintain their own rosters of trained and experienced humanitarian professionals, many of whom have OCHA or other UN humanitarian experience. SBPP staff can usually be deployed within four weeks of the formal request, and an average deployment lasts five to six months. • Associates Surge Pool (ASP). ASP, which was created in late 2010, helps to bridge the gap between the immediate response surge and the arrival of regular staff. ASP comprises external disaster management staff who can be deployed for up to six months upon the issuance of a Temporary Appointment. Contracting and deployment preparations take an average of three to four   The United Nations 603 weeks. The ASP can deploy humanitarian affairs officers, information management officers, and public information officers. • Roaming Emergency Surge Officers (RESOs) and Roaming Operations Stability Officers (ROSOs). The RESO and ROSO positions were created following a need to have senior surge staff available to deploy to new and escalating emergencies for up to three months to provide leadership and stability to OCHA operations. They spend 80 percent of their time in the field and 20 percent at headquarters. When not in the field, RESOs and ROSOs work with the Surge Staff Development Team to develop and deliver trainings and support lesson learning and other exercises to improve OCHA emergency response during non-deployment periods. OCHA PREPAREDNESS AND MITIGATION MEASURES Although OCHA’s efforts primarily focus on coordinating the response to major disasters, the agency also performs various tasks related to disaster risk reduction. For instance, OCHA representatives work with disaster management agencies to develop common policies aimed at improving how the wider stakeholder community of responders prepare for and respond to disasters. It also works to promote preparedness and mitigation efforts in Member States to decrease vulnerability. CRD and ESB work closely with the UN Development Programme, other UN programs as necessary, and outside organizations on various projects and activities to increase working relationships with national governments and apply lessons learned from completed disaster responses. OCHA’s Geneva offices are continually monitoring geologic and meteorological conditions, as well as major news services, for early recognition or notification of emerging disasters. Working with UN resident coordinators, country teams, and regional disaster response advisers, OCHA maintains close contact with disaster-prone countries in advance of and during disaster events. OCHA’s Regional Disaster Response Advisers work with national governments to provide technical, strategic, and training assistance. They also provide this assistance to other UN agencies and regional organizations to improve international disaster management capacity. OCHA INFORMATION TOOLS AND SERVICES Clearly, information is key to disaster management, and information must be timely and accurate to be useful. This is especially true in the case of early warning and disaster prevention initiatives. OCHA maintains several information management activities in support of its humanitarian efforts and provides systems to collect, analyze, disseminate, and exchange information. These functions are performed jointly by the Early Warning and Contingency Planning Unit, the ReliefWeb project, the Field Information Support Section, and the Integrated Regional Information Networks. DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL AFFAIRS The Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA) is another component within the Secretariat that addresses disaster management, primarily regarding pre-disaster capacity building. DESA addresses a full range of issues in three general areas: • It compiles, generates, and analyzes a wide range of economic, social, and environmental data and information from which Member States draw to review common problems and evaluate policy options. 604 CHAPTER 10 PARTICIPANTS – MULTILATERAL ORGANIZATIONS • It facilitates the negotiations of Member States in many intergovernmental bodies on joint courses of action to address ongoing or emerging global challenges. • It advises national governments on translating UN-developed policy frameworks into countrylevel programs and, through technical assistance, helps build national capacities. This final area is where DESA addresses disaster management activities within its Division for Sustainable Development. As part of this effort, DESA launched a plan of action during the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South Africa, that included commitments to disaster and vulnerability reduction. See exhibit 10.2 for more information on this plan of action. The UN Center for Regional Development (UNCRD) is another component of DESA that addresses disaster management issues. Through its headquarters in Nagoya, Japan, and its regional offices in Nairobi, Kenya, and Bogotá, Colombia, UNCRD supports training and research on regional EXHIBIT 10.2 CHAPTER IV, SECTION 37 OF THE JOHANNESBURG PLAN OF IMPLEMENTATION An integrated, multi-hazard, inclusive approach to address vulnerability, risk assessment, and disaster management, including prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery, is an essential element of a safer world in the twenty-first century. Actions are required at all levels to: 1. Strengthen the role of the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction and encourage the international community to provide the necessary financial resources to its Trust Fund; 2. Support the establishment of effective regional, subregional, and national strategies and scientific and technical institutional support for disaster management; 3. Strengthen the institutional capacities of countries and promote international joint observation and research, through improved surface-based monitoring and increased use of satellite data, dissemination of technical and scientific knowledge, and the provision of assistance to vulnerable countries; 4. Reduce the risks of flooding and drought in vulnerable countries by, [among other things], promoting wetland and watershed protection and restoration, improved land-use planning, improving and applying more widely techniques and methodologies for assessing the potential adverse effects of climate change on wetlands and, as appropriate, assisting countries that are particularly vulnerable to those effects; 5. Improve techniques and methodologies for assessing the effects of climate change, and encourage the continuing assessment of those adverse effects by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; 6. Encourage the dissemination and use of traditional and indigenous knowledge to mitigate the impact of disasters and promote community-based disaster management planning by local authorities, including through training activities and raising public awareness; 7. Support the ongoing voluntary contribution of, as appropriate, NGOs, the scientific community, and other partners in the management of natural disasters according to agreed, relevant guidelines; 8. Develop and strengthen early warning systems and information networks in disaster management, consistent with the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction; 9. Develop and strengthen capacity at all levels to collect and disseminate scientific and technical information, including the improvement of early warning systems for predicting extreme weather events, especially El Niño/La Niña, through the provision of assistance to institutions devoted to addressing such events, including the International Center for the Study of the El Niño phenomenon; 10. Promote cooperation for the prevention and mitigation of, preparedness for, response to, and recovery from major technological and other disasters with an adverse impact on the environment in order to enhance the capabilities of affected countries to cope with such situations. Source: UNDESA, 2004.   UN Agencies and Programs 605 development issues and facilitates information dissemination and exchange. UNCRD maintains a Disaster Management Planning Office in Hyogo, Japan, that researches and develops communitybased, sustainable projects for disaster management planning and capacity-building in developing countries. The Hyogo office also runs the Global Earthquake Safety Initiative, designed to improve risk recognition and reduction in 21 cities around the world. THE REGIONAL COMMISSIONS Five regional economic commissions are within the Economic and Social Council. The secretariats of these regional commissions are part of the UN Secretariat and perform many of the same functions (including the disaster management functions listed earlier). The five commissions promote greater economic cooperation in the world and augment economic and social development. As part of their mission, they initiate and manage projects that focus on disaster management. While their projects primarily deal with disaster preparedness and mitigation, they also work in regions that have been affected by a disaster to ensure that economic and social recovery involves adequate consideration of risk reduction measures. The five regional commissions are: • The Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) • The Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) • The Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) • The Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) • The Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA) UN AGENCIES AND PROGRAMS THE UN DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME In response periods of disasters, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) sees that development does not cease during emergencies. If relief efforts are to contribute to lasting solutions, sustainable human development must continue to be vigorously supported, complementing emergency action with new curative initiatives that can help prevent a lapse into crisis. (UN, 2000) The UNDP was established in 1965 during the UN Decade of Development to conduct investigations into private investment in developing countries, to explore the natural resources of those countries, and to train the local population in development activities such as mining and manufacturing. As the concept and practice of development expanded, the UNDP assumed much greater responsibilities in host countries and in the UN as a whole. The UNDP was not originally considered an agency on the forefront of international disaster management and humanitarian emergencies because, while it addressed national capacities, it did not focus specifically on the emergency response systems (previously considered to be the focal point of disaster management). However, as mitigation and preparedness received their due merit, UNDP gained increased recognition for its vital risk reduction role. Capacity building has always been central to the UNDP’s mission in terms of empowering host countries to be better able to address issues of national importance, eventually without foreign assistance. International disaster management gained greater attention as more disasters affected larger populations and caused greater financial impacts. Developing nations, where the UNDP worked, faced 606 CHAPTER 10 PARTICIPANTS – MULTILATERAL ORGANIZATIONS the greatest inability to prepare for and/or respond to these disasters, largely as a result of the development trends described in chapter 1. UNDP’s projects have shifted toward activities that indirectly fulfill mitigation and preparedness roles. For instance, projects seeking to strengthen government institutions also improve those institutions’ capacities to respond with appropriate and effective policy, power, and leadership in the wake of a disaster. UNDP fully recognizes that disaster management must be viewed as integral to their mission in the developing world as well as to civil conflict and CHE scenarios. There are implicit similarities between UNDP ideals and those of agencies whose goals specifically aim to mitigate and manage humanitarian emergencies. UNDP work links disaster vulnerability to a lack of or a weak infrastructure, poor environmental policy, land misuse, and growing populations in disaster-prone areas. When disasters occur, a country’s national development, which the UNDP serves to promote, can be set back years, if not decades. Even small- to medium-size disasters in the least developed countries can “have a cumulative impact on already fragile household economies and can be as significant in total losses as the major and internationally recognized disasters” (UNDP 2001). It is the UNDP’s objective to “achieve a sustainable reduction in disaster risks and the protection of development gains, reduce the loss of life and livelihoods due to disasters, and ensure that disaster recovery serves to consolidate sustainable human development” (UN 2000). In 1995, as part of the UN’s changing approach to humanitarian relief, the Emergency Response Division (ERD) was created within the UNDP, augmenting the organization’s role in disaster response. Additionally, 5 percent of UNDP budgeted resources were allocated for quick response actions in special development situations by ERD teams, thus drastically reducing bureaucratic delays. The ERD was designed to create a collaborative framework among the national government, UN agencies, donors, and NGOs that immediately respond to disasters, provide communication and travel to disaster management staff, and distribute relief supplies and equipment. It also deploys to disaster-affected countries for 30 days to create a detailed response plan on which the UNDP response is based. In 1997, under the UN Programme for Reform, the mitigation and preparedness responsibilities of the OCHA Emergency Relief Coordinator were formally transferred to the UNDP. In response, the UNDP created the Disaster Reduction and Recovery Programme (DRRP) within the ERD. Soon after, the UNDP again reorganized, creating the Bureau of Crisis Prevention and Recovery (BCPR) with an overarching mission of addressing a range of non-response-related issues: • Disaster risk reduction and climate change management • Conflict prevention • Rule of law, justice, and security in countries affected by crises • Women in conflict prevention, peacebuilding, and recovery • Immediate crisis response • Livelihoods and economic recovery • Crisis governance BCPR helps UNDP country offices prepare to activate and provide faster and more effective disaster response and recovery. It also works to ensure that UNDP plays an active role in the transition between relief and development.   UN Agencies and Programs 607 UNDP’s disaster management activities focus primarily on the development-related aspects of risk and vulnerability and on capacity-building technical assistance in all four phases of emergency management. It emphasizes: • Incorporating long-term risk reduction and preparedness measures in normal development planning and programs, including support for specific mitigation measures where required; • Assisting in the planning and implementation of post-disaster rehabilitation and reconstruction, including defining new development strategies that incorporate risk-reduction measures relevant to the affected area; • Reviewing the impact of large settlements of refugees or displaced persons on development, and seeking ways to incorporate the refugees and displaced persons in development strategies; • Providing technical assistance to the authorities managing major emergency assistance operations of extended duration (especially in relation to displaced persons and the possibilities for achieving durable solutions in such cases). UNDP spends between $150 and $200 million each year on disaster risk reduction projects. The focus of these projects has included the establishment or strengthening of early warning systems, the conduct of risk assessments and drafting of hazard maps, and the establishment of national disaster management agencies. Through their projects, UNDP staff help to strengthen national and regional capacities by ensuring that new development projects consider known hazard risks, that disaster impacts are mitigated and development gains are protected, and that risk reduction is factored into disaster recovery. Following conflict, crises, and disasters, countries must transition from response to recovery. Many countries are unable to manage the difficult and widespread needs of recovery on their own, as they may have experienced widespread loss of infrastructure and services. Displaced persons and refugees may have little to return to, and economies may be damaged or destroyed. BCPR operates during the period when the response or relief phase of the disaster has ended but recovery has not fully commenced (sometimes referred to as the “early recovery period”). Sustainable risk reduction is central to the UNDP recovery mission. The Bureau recognizes that local expertise in risk management and reduction may not be available, and that the technical assistance they provide may be the only option these communities have to increase their resilience to future disasters. This program has proved effective in many countries’ recovery operations, including Cambodia after three decades of civil war, Afghanistan after the 2001 conflict, and Gujarat, India, after the 2001 earthquake. The top recipients of UNDP crisis prevention and recovery funding include: • Afghanistan ($616.5 million) • Brazil ($63.1 million) • South Sudan ($54.5 million) • Pakistan ($40.0 million) • Sudan ($36.8 million) • Bangladesh ($34.3 million) • Colombia ($30.6 million) • Bosnia and Herzegovina ($17.6 million) • Mozambique ($14.3 million) • Liberia ($14.2 million) (UNDP 2014) 608 CHAPTER 10 PARTICIPANTS – MULTILATERAL ORGANIZATIONS To meet these recovery priorities, five support services have been developed to assist the UNDP Country Offices and other UNDP/UN agencies to identify areas where BCPR can provide assistance. These support services include: • Early assessment of recovery needs and the design of integrated recovery frameworks. This includes assessing development losses caused by conflict or natural disaster, the need for socioeconomic and institutional recovery, identification of local partners, and the need for capacity building and technical assistance. • Planning and assistance in area-based development and local governance programs. Area-based development and local governance programs play key roles in recovery from conflict because they tailor emergency, recovery, and development issues across a country area by area, based on differing needs and opportunities. Area-based development helps bring together different actors at the operational level, promoting enhanced coordination, coherence, and impact at field level. Areabased development is often seen as the core mechanism that most benefits reintegration. • Developing comprehensive reintegration programs for IDPs, returning refugees, and ex-combatants. Internal displacement, returning refugees, and demobilized former combatants create a huge need for in-country capacity building on different levels. Protection and security become serious issues, and efforts to sustainably reintegrate these populations into their host communities are critical. BCPR provides expertise on reintegration of IDPs, returnees, and ex-combatants, including capacity building benefiting both the returnees and the formerly displaced, as well as their host communities, through activities such as income generation, vocational training, and other revitalization activities. • Supporting economic recovery and revitalization. One main characteristic of disasters and conflict is their devastating impact on the local and national economies. Livelihoods are destroyed through insecurity, unpredictability, market collapse, loss of assets, and rampant inflation. For recovery to be successful, these issues need to be well understood from the outset and addressed accordingly. • Supporting capacity building, coordination, resource mobilization, and partnerships. Protracted conflict and extreme disasters tend to create political stressors that temporarily exceed the capacities of UN Country Offices and other NGO partners. However, many recovery needs must be addressed right away to ensure that recovery sets out on a sustainable course. BCPR offers several services to accommodate the needs of this intense phase through the provision of surge capacity and short- to medium-term staff, assistance in resource mobilization within specific fundraising and coordination frameworks (such as the CAP), and partnership building. When required to assist in recovery operations, BCPR may deploy a special Transition Recovery Team (TRT) to supplement UNDP operations in the affected country. The focus for these teams varies according to specific needs. For instance, when neighboring countries have interlinked problems (such as cross-border reintegration of ex-combatants and displaced persons), the TRT may support a subregional approach to recovery. It is important to note that the UNDP has no primary role in the middle of a CHE peacekeeping response, only a supportive one in helping to harmonize development with relief. During recovery and reconstruction, together with others, they take the lead. In addition to the previously mentioned roles and responsibilities, the UNDP leads several interagency working groups. One such group (which consists of representatives from the WFP, WHO, the Food and Agriculture Organization [FAO], the UN Populations Fund, and UNICEF) develops   UN Agencies and Programs 609 principles and guidelines to incorporate disaster risk into the Common Country Assessment and the UN Development Assistance Framework. The International Strategy for Disaster Reduction Working Group on Risk, Vulnerability, and Disaster Impact Assessment sets guidelines for social impact assessments. UNDP also coordinates a Disaster Management Training Programme in Central America, runs the conference “The Use of Microfinance and Micro-Credit for the Poor in Recovery and Disaster Reduction,” and has created a program to elaborate financial instruments to enable the poor to manage disaster risks. The UNDP has several reasons for its success in fulfilling its roles in the mitigation, preparedness, and recovery for natural and man-made disasters. First, as a permanent in-country office with close ties to most government agencies, activities related to coordination and planning, monitoring, and training are simply an extension of ongoing relationships. The UNDP works in the country before, during, and long after the crisis. It is able to harness vast first-hand knowledge about the situations leading up to a crisis and the capacity of the government and civil institutions to handle a crisis, and can analyze what weaknesses must be addressed by the responding aid agencies. In addition, its neutrality dispels fears of political bias. Second, the UNDP functions as a coordinating body of the UN agencies concerned with development, so when crisis situations appear, there is an established, stable platform from which it may lead. From this leadership vantage, it can (theoretically) assist in stabilizing incoming relief programs of other responding UN bodies, such as the WFP, UNICEF, the Department of Humanitarian Affairs, and the UNHCR. Once the emergency phase of the disaster has ended and OCHA prepares to leave, UNDP is in a prime position to facilitate the transition from response efforts to long-term recovery. And third, the UNDP has experience dealing with donors from foreign governments and development banks, and can therefore handle the outpouring of aid that usually results during the relief and recovery period of a disaster. This contributes greatly to reducing levels of corruption and increasing the cost-effectiveness of generated funds. In several recent events, the UNDP has established formalized funds to handle large donor contributions, which have been used for long-term post-disaster reconstruction efforts. (See exhibits 10.3 and 10.4). When a major disaster operation requires extended efforts, the UNDP may accept and administer special extra-budgetary contributions to provide the national government with both technical and material assistance, in coordination with OCHA and other agencies involved in the UN Disaster Management Team (DMT). An example of such assistance includes the establishment and administration of a UN DMT Emergency Information and Coordination (EIC) Support Unit. Special grants of up to $1.1 million also may be provided, allocated from the Special Programme Resources funds for technical assistance to post-disaster recovery efforts following natural disasters. See exhibit 10.5 for information about the UNDP Capacity for Disaster Reduction Initiative (CADRI). UNICEF Like most major UN agencies, UNICEF (formerly known as the United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund) was established in the aftermath of World War II. Its original mandate was to aid children suffering in postwar Europe, but this mission has been expanded to address the needs of women and children throughout the world. UNICEF is mandated by the General Assembly to advocate for children’s rights, to ensure that each child receives at least the minimum requirements for survival, and to increase children’s opportunities for a successful future. Under the Convention on the Rights of 610 CHAPTER 10 PARTICIPANTS – MULTILATERAL ORGANIZATIONS EXHIBIT 10.3 UNDP IN SRI LANKA – A CHE RESPONSE AND RECOVERY OPERATION On May 19, 2009, the government of Sri Lanka declared military victory over the rebel Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, formally ending a decades-long armed conflict. In the wake of the war, UNDP demonstrated that developing and building on strong partnerships is key to ensuring a fast and well-targeted response. An estimated 300,000 IDPs gathered in camps during the first half of 2009. Many of them lacked basic documentation, making it difficult to access basic services and prove claims to land and assets. UNDP assisted the registrar general to establish a temporary office inside one of the largest camps with capacity to process 50 birth and marriage certificates per day, complemented by additional staffing capacity in Colombo to handle the increased number of document requests. Between July and December the camp office processed close to 10,000 requests, prioritizing those from children who needed identification to sit for national school exams. UNDP also supported mine action coordination and management. Survey and clearance activities advanced rapidly, and by the end of 2009 a total of 879 square kilometers of land had been released for resettlement. This allowed the pace of returns and resettlements to increase exponentially in the fourth quarter of 2009, with over 150,000 IDPs returning or resettling. In the Eastern Province, FAO, ILO, WFP, UNHCR, and UNDP continued to champion the “delivering as one” approach to support community-based recovery and contribute to the stability of returnees in selected divisions of the East. As the funding conduit, UNDP was in charge of the overall coordination of project implementation while also directly implementing small-scale infrastructure construction such as roads, wells, and community centers (which provided a space for cooperatives and trading groups to come together). The selection of target communities was informed through village profile maps and data generated by UNHCR, while WFP provided six months’ worth of food supply rations, until the foundations for agricultural self-reliance and food security for resettled families were laid. UNDP also launched a new initiative in 2009 to foster partnerships between Sri Lanka’s manufacturers and resettled communities. UNDP, with its presence in the field, played a catalytic role, identifying the resettled communities, facilitating meetings with the large consumer companies, securing fair and long-term contracts, and supporting training as well as supply of equipment to improve production. Through this project, 450 farming and fishing families in the North and the East have secured income for the next two to three years. Based on: UNDP, 2010. EXHIBIT 10.4 ROLE OF UNDP IN BANGLADESH AFTER CYCLONE AILA, 2009 On May 25, 2009, Cyclone Aila hit southern Bangladesh, resulting in widespread tidal flooding and the destruction of large parts of the region’s protective embankment network. Economic losses were estimated at $106 million and more than 29,000 families were affected in Satkhira, the district that had also suffered the most from Cyclone Sidr in 2007. Many of the affected were still recovering from the impact of the earlier disaster. The government of Bangladesh provided emergency relief and planned for the reconstruction of the damaged embankment network, but many of the most vulnerable families have been unable to return to their homes, which remain submerged. With funding from the UNDP Bureau of Crisis Prevention and Recovery (BCPR), an early recovery program focused on livelihoods was developed, covering all villages in the worst-affected part of Satkhira. The program included a cash-forwork component that built on self-recovery efforts of affected families. This resulted in the creation of an estimated 37,400 work days devoted to road repair and ground elevation. The program also included support for the restoration of essential community infrastructure; support to local small enterprises through working capital grants for carpentry tools, sewing machines, and tea stall equipment; and assistance for home-based income-generating activities, such as vegetable cultivation, crab fattening, handicrafts, poultry rearing, and fish drying. This effort benefited more than 4,000 families. Based on: UNDP, 2010.   UN Agencies and Programs 611 EXHIBIT 10.5 THE UN CAPACITY FOR DISASTER REDUCTION INITIATIVE (CADRI) CADRI was created in 2007 as a joint program of the UNDP Bureau for Crisis Prevention and Recovery (UNDP/BCPR), the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), and the secretariat of the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR). Recognizing that capacity development is a cross-cutting activity for disaster risk reduction as stipulated in the Hyogo Framework (HF), CADRI’s creation is designed to support all five priorities of the HF. CADRI was formally launched by the three organizations at the Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction Meeting, June 2007, Geneva. CADRI succeeds the UN Disaster Management Training Programme (DMTP), a global learning initiative, which trained United Nations, government, and civil society professionals between 1991 and 2006. DMTP is widely known for its pioneering work in developing high-quality resource materials on a wide range of disaster management and training topics. More than 20 trainers’ guides and modules were developed and translated. CADRI’s design builds on the success and lessons learned from the DMTP and reflects the significant evolution in the training and learning field since the start of the DMTP, particularly regarding advances in technology for networking and learning purposes. CADRI’s design also reflects the critical role that the UN system plays at the national level in supporting governments’ efforts to advance disaster risk reduction. In the context of the UN’s increasingly important role, CADRI provides capacity enhancement services to the UN system at the country level as well as to governments. These include learning and training services and capacity development services to support governments to establish the foundation for advancing risk reduction. Based on: CADRI, 2010. the Child (CRC), a treaty adopted by 191 countries, the UNHCR holds broad-reaching legal authority to carry out its mission. As of late 2014, UNICEF maintains country offices in more than 190 different nations. This is probably its greatest asset in terms of the agency’s disaster management capacity. Preparedness and mitigation for disasters among its target groups is a priority, with programs able to address both local-level action and national-level capacity building. In keeping with the recommendations laid out by the Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action for a Safer World, UNICEF incorporates disaster reduction into its national development plans. It also considers natural hazard vulnerability and capacity assessments when determining overall development needs to be addressed by UN country teams. Through public education campaigns, UNICEF works to increase public hazard awareness and knowledge and participation in disaster management activities. UNICEF country offices include activities that address these pre-disaster needs in their regular projects. For example, they develop education materials required for both children and adults, and then design websites so educators and program directors can access or download these materials for use in their communities. In situations of disaster or armed conflict, UNICEF is well poised to serve as an immediate aid provider to its specific target groups. Its rapid-response capacity is important because vulnerable groups are often the most marginalized in terms of aid received. UNICEF works to ensure that children have access to education, health care, safety, and protected child rights. In the response and recovery periods of humanitarian emergencies, these roles expand according to victims’ needs. (In countries where UNICEF has not yet established a permanent presence, the form of aid is virtually the same; however, the timing and delivery are affected, and reconstruction is not nearly as comprehensive.) The UNICEF Office of Emergency Programmes (EMOPS), which has offices in New York and Geneva, maintains overall responsibility for coordinating UNICEF’s emergency management activities. 612 CHAPTER 10 PARTICIPANTS – MULTILATERAL ORGANIZATIONS EXHIBIT 10.6 UNICEF OPERATIONS IN THE OCCUPIED PALESTINIAN TERRITORY, 2009 By the end of the three weeks of fighting in early 2009 in Gaza, 350 children had been killed and 1,600 injured, and much of Gaza’s infrastructure, including schools, health facilities, and vital infrastructure for water and sanitation, had been damaged. UNICEF was on hand to provide humanitarian support. It led the collective efforts of UN agencies on the ground to restore education, provide emergency water supplies and sanitation, maintain nutritional standards, and protect children from further harm. From the early days, UNICEF made sure that first aid and emergency medical kits, essential drugs, and water purification tablets flowed into Gaza. Emergency education supplies such as classroom tents and School-in-a-Box kits maintained some sense of continuity and normalcy for children. UNICEF and its partners were able to reach more than 200,000 school-age children. UNICEF raised global awareness of the harm being done to children through extensive media coverage and advocacy. Attention was also raised by the visits of the Special Representative of the Secretary–General for Children and Armed Conflict, Radhika Coomaraswamy—who called for the protection of children—and UNICEF Executive Director Ann M. Veneman, as well as Goodwill Ambassadors Mia Farrow and Mahmoud Kabil. UNICEF also extended psychosocial services, including in-depth counselling and structured recreational activities, across Gaza. Training reinforced the capacities of psychosocial workers to protect children and help them heal. Radio programmes and 200,000 leaflets designed for children warned of the risks of mines and unexploded ordnance left behind. UNICEF water tankers ensured a steady supply of clean drinking water to 135 schools with 110,000 students, while desalination units were installed to rid water of dangerous concentrations of chlorides and nitrates. To thwart the risk of acute malnutrition, UNICEF worked through 53 health clinics for mothers and children to offer supplements of micronutrients and fortified food. The quality and supply of teaching materials were improved through UNICEF’s provision of math and science teaching kits. Programmes for vulnerable adolescents concentrated on supporting remedial learning, relieving stress, and providing life skills-based education and opportunities to engage in civic activities. Through UNICEF’s systematic advocacy with partner organizations, almost half the attendees were girls. Source: UNICEF, 2010. EMOPS works closely with the UNICEF Programme Division, managing the UNICEF Emergency Programme Fund (EPF; see the following section) and ensuring close interagency coordination with other participating humanitarian organizations. In this role, UNICEF is also in the position to act as coordinator in specific areas in which it is viewed as the sector leader. For instance, UNICEF was tasked with leading the international humanitarian response in the areas of water and sanitation, child protection, and education for the 2004 Asia tsunami and earthquake response. (In Aceh province alone, more than 250 agencies addressed water and sanitation issues.) UNICEF maintains that humanitarian assistance should include programs aimed specifically at child victims. Its relief projects generally provide immunizations, water and sanitation, nutrition, education, and health resources. Women are recipients of this aid as well, because UNICEF considers women to be vital in the care of children. (See exhibit 10.6.) To facilitate an immediate response to an emergency situation, UNICEF is authorized to divert either $200,000 or $150,000 from country program resources (depending on whether the country program’s annual budget is above or below $2 million, respectively) to address immediate needs. If the disaster is so great it affects existing UNICEF programs operating in the country, the UNICEF representative can shift these programs’ resources once permission is received from the national government and UNICEF Headquarters. UNICEF also maintains a $75 million global EPF, which provides funding for initial emergency response activities.   UN Agencies and Programs 613 THE WORLD FOOD PROGRAMME The World Food Programme (WFP) is the UN agency tasked with addressing hunger-related emergencies. It was created in 1961 by a resolution adopted by the UN General Assembly and the UN FAO. Today, the program operates in 75 countries and maintains eight regional offices. In the year 2013 alone, the WFP provided 3.1 million metric tons of food aid to 80.9 million people in 75 countries through its relief programs. Over the course of its existence, the WFP has provided more than 70 million metric tons of food to countries worldwide. WFP was an early member of the former Inter-Agency Task Force for Disaster Reduction (see below) and maintains disaster risk reduction as one of its priority areas, focusing on reducing the impact of natural hazards on food security, especially for the vulnerable. The WFP Policy on Disaster Risk Reduction and Management, approved in 2011, highlights this role as being central to the organization’s work. WFP DRR programs seek to build resilience and reduce risk through such activities as soil and water conservation, rehabilitating infrastructure, and training community members in disaster risk management and livelihood protection. The MERET project in Ethiopia is one example. This program targets food-insecure communities in degraded fragile ecosystems prone to drought-related food crises. Other programs maintained by WFP include: • R4 Resilience Initiative: The Rural Resilience Initiative (R4) is a partnership between WFP and Oxfam America, with support from global reinsurance company Swiss Re, to test a new, comprehensive disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation approach. The program allows cash-poor farmers and rural households to pay for index insurance with their own labor, so they can both manage and take risks to build resilient livelihoods. • Livelihoods Early Assessment and Protection (LEAP): WFP has been assisting the government of Ethiopia to develop an integrated risk management system through the Livelihoods Early Assessment and Protection (LEAP) project. LEAP provides early warning data on food security that allows a rapid scale-up of the “National Productive Safety Net Programme” by activating contingency plans. When a serious drought or flood is detected, resources from a US$160 million contingency fund are made immediately available to ensure early and more effective emergency response, thereby protecting livelihoods and saving lives. • The Joint WFP/IFAD Weather Risk Management Facility (WRMF): WRMF supports the development of innovative weather and climate risk management tools, such as weather index insurance (WII). The goal of these programs is to improve quality-of-life issues and to reduce the incidence of food shortages. This program was launched in 2008 through funding from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. It has been piloted in China and Ethiopia. WFP has established a steering committee for disaster mitigation to help its offices integrate these activities into regular development programs. Examples of mitigation projects that focus on food security include water harvesting in Sudan (to address drought), the creation of grain stores and access roads in Tanzania, and the creation of early warning and vulnerability mapping worldwide. Because food is a necessity for human survival and is considered a vital component of development, a lack of food is, in and of itself, an emergency situation. The WFP works throughout the world to assist the poor who do not have sufficient food so they can survive “to break the cycle of hunger and poverty.” Hunger crises are rampant—more than 1 billion people across the globe receive less than the minimum 614 CHAPTER 10 PARTICIPANTS – MULTILATERAL ORGANIZATIONS standard requirement of food for healthy survival. Hunger may exist on its own, or it may be a secondary effect of other hazards such as drought, famine, and displacement. The WFP constantly monitors the world’s food security situation through its international Food Aid Information System (FAIS). Using this system, WFP tracks the flow of food aid around the world (including emergency food aid) and provides the humanitarian community with an accurate inventory and assessment of emergency food-stock quantities and locations. This database also includes relevant information that would be needed in times of emergency, such as anticipated delivery schedules and the condition and capabilities of international ports. In rapid-onset events such as natural disasters, the WFP is a major player in the response to the immediate nutritional needs of the victims. Food is transported to the affected location and delivered to storage and distribution centers. (See figure 10.3.) The distribution is carried out according to preestablished needs assessments performed by OCHA and the UNDP. The WFP distributes food through contracted NGOs that have the vast experience and technical skills to plan and implement transportation, storage, and distribution. The principal partners in planning and implementation are the host FIGURE 10.3 Rice donated by Japan is loaded by the World Food Programme onto 72 WFP trucks to feed survivors of the 2004 Asia tsunami and earthquake events Sources: Skullard, 2005; WFP, 2005.   UN Agencies and Programs 615 governments, who must request the WFP aid, unless the situation is a CHE without an established government, in which case the UN Secretary–General makes the request. The WFP works closely with all responding UN agencies to coordinate an effective and broad-reaching response, because food requirements are so closely linked to every other vital need of disaster victims. (See exhibit 10.7.) Figure 10.4 is an infographic showing how WFP responds in an emergency situation. During the reconstruction phase of a disaster, the WFP often must continue food distribution. Rehabilitation projects are implemented to foster increased local development, including the provision of food aid to families, who, as a result, will have extra money to use in rebuilding their lives; and food-for-work programs, which break the chains of reliance on aid as well as provide an incentive to rebuild communities. WFP administers the International Emergency Food Reserve (IEFR), which was originally designed to store a minimum of 500,000 tons of cereals. This program has not enjoyed the full support of donors as agreed in its creation, however, and as such, annual funding levels have fluctuated significantly. If supported, IEFR would manage separate resources provided by donors to address long-term operations such as CHEs, and would dedicate $15 million from its general resources for emergency assistance in addition to $30 million for long-term emergency assistance. The program’s Immediate Response Account is a cash account maintained for rapid purchase and delivery of food in emergency situations. Resources would be purchased from local markets (whenever possible), thereby ensuring food arrives sooner than other aid, which must move through regular channels. EXHIBIT 10.7 WFP DISASTER RESPONSE SYSTEM WFP response begins at the request of the affected country’s government. 1. In the early days of an emergency, while the first food supplies are being delivered, Emergency Assessment teams are sent in to quantify exactly how much food assistance is needed for how many beneficiaries and for how long. They must also work out how food can best be delivered to the hungry. 2. Equipped with the answers, WFP draws up an Emergency Operation (EMOP), including a plan of action and a budget. [The EMOP] lists who will receive food assistance, what rations are required, the type of transport WFP will use, and which humanitarian corridors lead to the crisis zone. 3. Next, WFP launches an Appeal to the international community for funds and food aid. The agency relies entirely on voluntary contributions to finance its operations, with donations made in cash, food, or services. Governments are the biggest single source of funding. [More than 60 governments support WFP’s worldwide operations.] 4. As funds and food start to flow, WFP’s logistics team works to bridge the gap between the donors and the hungry. [In 2012, the agency delivered 4.8 million metric tons of food aid by air, land, and sea.] (WFP 2014) Ships carry the largest WFP cargo, their holds filled to the brim with 50,000 tons or more of grain, cans of cooking oil, and canned food; the agency has 40 ships on the high seas every day, frequently rerouting vessels to get food quickly to crisis zones. In extreme environments, WFP also uses the skies to reach the hungry, airlifting or airdropping food directly into disaster zones. Before the aid can reach its country of destination, logistics experts often need to upgrade ports and secure warehouses. Trucks usually make the final link in WFP’s food chain, transporting food aid along the rough roads that lead to the hungry. Where roads are impassable or nonexistent, WFP relies on less conventional forms of transport: donkeys in the Andes, speedboats in the Mozambique floods, camels in Sudan, and elephants in Nepal. At this stage, local community leaders work closely with WFP to ensure rations reach the people who need it most: pregnant mothers, children, and the elderly. Based on: WFP, 2005. 616 CHAPTER 10 PARTICIPANTS – MULTILATERAL ORGANIZATIONS FIGURE 10.4 Infographic detailing how WFP responds to disasters Source: WFP, 2014.   UN Agencies and Programs 617 THE WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION The World Health Organization (WHO) was proposed during the original meetings to establish the UN system in San Francisco in 1945. In 1946, at the United Health Conference in New York, the WHO constitution was approved, and it was signed on April 7, 1946 (World Health Day). WHO proved its value by responding to a cholera epidemic in Egypt months before the epidemic was officially recognized. WHO serves as the central authority on sanitation and health issues throughout the world. It works with national governments to develop medical and health care capabilities and assist in the suppression of epidemics. WHO supports research on disease eradication and provides expertise when requested. It provides training and technical support and develops standards for medical care. WHO was an early member of the former Interagency Task Force for Disaster Reduction (see below), and continues to assist local and national governments as well as regional government associations with health-related disaster mitigation and preparedness issues. It does this primarily by providing education and technical assistance to government public health officials about early detection, containment, and treatment of disease and the creation of public health contingency plans. WHO activities address primary hazards, such as epidemics (e.g., avian influenza, malaria, dengue fever, SARS, swine flu, and MERS/CoV), and the secondary health hazards that accompany most major disasters. Through their website and collaboration with various academic institutions, WHO has also worked to advance public health disaster mitigation and preparedness research and information exchange. The WHO Director–General is a member of the IASC and the IASC Working Group. In those capacities, the WHO recommends policy options to resolve the more technical and strategic challenges of day-to-day emergency operations in the field. To incorporate public health considerations in UN interagency contingency planning and preparedness activities, the WHO also participates in the IASC Task Force on Preparedness and Contingency Planning. The WHO Emergency Risk Management and Humanitarian Response department was created to enable WHO to work closely with Member States, international partners, and local institutions in order to help communities prepare for, respond to, and recover from emergencies, disasters, and crises. The Emergency Response Framework (ERF) was developed in 2013 to clarify the WHO role and their responsibilities in emergency situations (WHO 2013). In the event of a disaster, WHO responds in several ways to address victims’ health and safety. Most important, it provides ongoing monitoring of diseases traditionally observed within the unsanitary conditions of disaster aftermath. WHO also provides technical assistance to responding agencies and host governments establishing disaster medical capabilities and serves as a source of expertise. It assesses the needs of public health supplies and expertise and appeals for this assistance from its partners and donor governments. Per the ERF, WHO is obligated to respond to emergencies under several conventions and agreements, including the International Health Regulations and the Interagency Steering Committee. The key functions of HAC in times of crises are: • Measure health-related problems and promptly assess health needs of populations affected by crises, identifying priority causes of disease and death; • Support Member States in coordinating action for health; • Ensure that critical gaps in health response are rapidly identified and filled; and • Revitalize and build capacity of health systems for preparedness and response. 618 CHAPTER 10 PARTICIPANTS – MULTILATERAL ORGANIZATIONS When other government agencies, private medical facilities, or NGOs cannot meet the public health needs of the affected population, WHO’s country-level Emergency Response Team and international Emergency Support Teams bring together expertise in epidemics, logistics, security coordination, and management, collaborating with UN agencies participating in response and recovery. WHO has several bilateral agreements with other UN agencies and NGOs (including the Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement) and coordinates the Interagency Medical/Health Task Force (IMTF), an informal forum that provides guidance on technical and operational health challenges in humanitarian crises. The WHO Global Emergency Management Team (GEMT) was created in 2011 to lead the planning, management, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of WHO’s emergency work (including national preparedness, institutional readiness, and emergency response for disasters that exhibit public health consequences.) The GEMT is made up of staff from both WHO headquarters and regional office Directors responsible for disaster risk management issues (e.g., preparedness, surveillance, alert, and response). As needed, other relevant staff are invited to join GEMT efforts. GEMT focuses on all-hazards emergency risk management, notably that of leadership on the Health Cluster. When technical expertise beyond that held by the team’s members is needed, the Global Emergency Network (GEN), comprising Directors (or delegates) of departments and programs that have various emergency management functions, is cons...
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