Chapter 4 : Assistance in Learning (pp. 79-106)
Assistance in Learning: Chapter Objectives
It is the supreme art of the teacher to awaken joy in creative expression and knowledge.
ALBERT EINSTEIN
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VOICES FROM THE CLASSROOM
Ms. Ludisch was a dedicated teacher. No one could deny that. She had more than 25 years experience in teaching,
mostly in the field of foreign languages. She was a no-nonsense type of teacher, was often terse with students, and
expected a high level of achievement. One semester, she gave all 17 students in her class a failing grade for a sixweek session; she was adamant that the students were lazy and just didn't want to learn French. She berated the
students often.
The principal called her to his office to discuss student and parent complaints, as well as rumors circulating in the
school. Ms. Ludisch was extremely upset and explained that she had standards that had to be met and that she
wasn't changing her teaching practices or grading policy for anyone. All 17 of these “trifling” students, as she
expressed it, would fail for the year if they didn't significantly improve their work habits. She would not change!
If you guessed that this was a fictitious class, you would be wrong. This was a real class. Is Ms. Ludisch providing
enough support and assistance to get students “over the hard parts” in foreign language lessons? This chapter
discusses critical ways to assist students to improve comprehension and thereby raise student achievement.
PREPARING TO READ
1. Can you predict what this chapter on “assisting comprehension” will be about? How and why would we help a
student to comprehend?
2. Following is a list of terms used in this chapter. Some may be familiar to you in a general context, but in this
chapter, they may be used in unfamiliar ways. Rate your knowledge by placing a plus sign (+) for those you are
certain you know, a check (✓) for those you have some knowledge of, and a zero (0) for those you don't know. Be
ready to locate them in the chapter and pay special attention to their meanings.
______ adjunct strategies
______ mapping
______ constructivism
______ segments of text
______ reciprocal teaching
______ structure of text
______ discourse analysis
______ collaborative reasoning
______ question-answer relationship
______ fix-up strategies
3. Match the words in the left column with their definitions in the right column:
1. Adjunct strategies
2. Constructivism
3. Segments of text
4. Structure of text
5. Discourse
analysis
6. Metacognition
a. The act of thinking about one's own thought patterns
b. Small sections of subcategories of texts
c. Strategies used to assist someone in reading
d. How paragraphs are arranged and ordered in a textbook
e. The study and identification of organizational structure in written
material
f. Active construction of meaning by the learner
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OBJECTIVES
As you read this chapter, focus your attention on the following purposes. You will:
1. Identify why helping students to read is so important.
2. Describe why students have reading difficulties in content area subjects.
3. Describe the importance of adjunct strategies for teaching reading comprehension.
4. Identify constructivism, constructivist learning, and the theory underlying the construct.
5. Identify how to help students construct meaning while reading.
6. Identify strategies for teaching short segments of text.
7. Describe the importance of teaching the structure of text.
8. Describe strategies for teaching the structure of text.
9. Identify how to use questioning strategies to teach comprehension.
10. Describe fix-up strategies to improve comprehension in reading.
Shoe-New Business MacNelly. Distributed by King Features Syndicate.
Providing Assistance in the Construction of Meaning
An important aspect of any classroom is time spent reading in class during which teachers can assist students to
learn the material. Lawrence and colleagues (2009) found that when teachers provided in-class time for students to
read and discuss text with peers, students were more engaged in the learning and felt more able to interact with the
text on meaningful levels. Yet Pilonieta (2010) found that most reading materials are not set up to provide
comprehension strategy instruction during the reading lesson. Teachers must learn the important skill of strategic
assistance for successful comprehension. An important step in the PAR (preparation, assistance, and reflection)
Lesson Framework is the Assistance Phase in which students develop and deepen their understanding of any
learning activity. Consider this chapter's opening scenario; teachers such as Ms. Ludisch might motivate students in
the Preparation Phase of PAR but then provide little or no guidance to students as they learn.
Teachers need to know that reading is more than a basic skill. Mature readers take part in a complex process that is
analytic, interactive, constructive, and strategic (Guthrie, Schafer, Von Secker, & Alban, 2000; Lederer, 2000). Fluent
readers are independent readers who sample text, predict, confirm hypotheses, and self-correct quickly
(Schoenbach, Greenleaf, Cziko, & Hurwitz, 1999). In addition, apprehension
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and reflection are requisites of comprehension. A reader must apprehend and ponder the significance of the content.
This analysis must be active, generating strategies that aid the reader while reading and in future reading. Mature
readers must also set their own purposes for reading, maintain meaning over time, cope with the complexities of text,
draw inferences, and respond critically to an author's meaning (Whitehead, 1994).
Other important factors determine how much a student comprehends. Both novice and expert readers use existing
knowledge to construct meaning from text. That is, a reader's world knowledge and specific knowledge of a topic play
a crucial role in the comprehension process (Ozuru, Dempsey, & McNamara, 2009). In addition, not all readers will
interpret the same reading material in the same way. Differences in background knowledge and experiences can
cause different interpretations and even lead to invalid interpretations of text (Pressley, 2002). Motivation and
emotions, discussed in Chapter 2, seem to play pivotal roles for students who have reading difficulties (Sideridis,
Mouzaki, Simos, & Protopapas, 2006). Hall (2007) explains that motivation plays a significant role in struggling
readers’ ability to comprehend text. In one study, this researcher found that poorly performing students refused to
take part in certain classroom reading activities when such activities compromised an image of success that the
students were trying to project to their peers.
Chapter 2 discusses the pivotal role motivation plays in reading comprehension.
It should be noted that a mature reader's ability to use strategies in a coordinated fashion does not necessarily
develop because teachers provide students with opportunities to read, such as oral classroom reading. Students
benefit most from being taught comprehension strategies that are based on sound research (Neufeld, 2005).
Morrison and Wlodarczyk (2009) maintain that even young students can benefit from comprehension strategy
instruction that emphasizes higher order thinking skills. Teaching such strategies and reinforcing them over time help
students learn in a self-regulated fashion.
Improving Comprehension through the Use of Instructional Strategies
To find out about students’ awareness of reading and perceived use of reading strategies for learning, a teacher
might rely on a test such as the Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategies Inventory (MARSI) by Mokhtari and
Reichard (2002), which uses a self-report instrument. Activity 4.1 shows some of the test questions along with the
Likert scale used. The entire test can be found in the appendix.
Strong evidence suggests that students can be taught comprehension strategies; such instruction is an excellent way
to improve understanding of authentic texts (Duke & Pearson, 2002; Kropiewnicki, 2006). Unfortunately, much
research also shows that comprehension instruction is often not occurring in content area classrooms (Neufeld, 2005;
Pressley, 2002a; Pressley, Wharton-McDonald, Hampson, & Echevarria, 1998). Pressley (2002b) and his colleagues
found that students were given opportunities to practice comprehension strategies but were not explicitly taught why it
was important to use them. It is the instructor's role to teach students comprehension strategies as well as text
information (Elder & Paul, 2009).
After giving the MARSI, teachers can pick strategies for instruction that coincide with problem areas students have
noted on the test. For instance, if students say they do not use context clues to learn new words (item 19 on the
MARSI), the teacher can teach the important skill of context clue discovery (see Chapter 7 about vocabulary). A
number of the strategies we cover in this chapter, such as directed reading instruction and questioning strategies, are
important for covering many of the potential problem areas in comprehension noted on the MARSI.
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ACTIVITY 4.1: Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategies Inventory
All items graded on a 1 to 5 Likert scale:
1. I never or almost never do this.
2. I do this only occasionally.
3. I sometimes do this (about 50 percent of the time).
4. I usually do this.
5. I always or almost always do this.
a. I have a purpose in mind when I read.
b. I take notes while reading to help me understand what I read.
c. I think about what I know to help me understand what I read.
d. I preview the text to see what it is about before I read it.
e. When text becomes difficult, I read aloud to help me understand what I read.
f. I try to guess the meaning of unknown words or phrases.
From Mokhtari, K., & Reichard, C. A. (2002). Assessing students’ metacognitive awareness of reading
strategies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(2), 249–259. Used with permission.
The MARSI is used to help teachers design reading comprehension instruction that meets the needs of students who
are having comprehension difficulties because of their lack of sophistication with using authentic textbook material.
Remember also that MARSI results will help students better self-monitor their own reading behaviors. Chang (2010)
found that students who adopt a self-monitoring strategy performed better academically and generally were positively
motivated.
To reinforce learning during the Assistance Phase, teachers need to use adjunct strategies (strategies during
reading) often. For instance, mapping is one activity that demonstrates the adjunct strategy of organizing information
into major and subordinate ideas (Al khawaldeh, Salem, & Alolaimat, 2010). This activity, sometimes called concept
mapping, provides a way for both the teacher and student to remember and organize key elements of knowledge
(Romance & Vitale, 1997). Furthermore, mapping can assist readers in understanding concept relationships and
thereby avoid fragmented or simple rote learning outcomes (Romance & Vitale, 1999). Mapping can also be done on
a computer. Liu, Chen, and Chang (2010) found that a computer-assisted concept mapping strategy had significant
benefit for reading of low-achieving students. Mapping has become a very popular activity for helping readers
develop comprehension. Just as travelers use a map to find their way, readers can use a diagram that shows the
route to understanding a passage, and they themselves can make maps to show their understanding.
Chapter 10 discusses software programs that help students learn the skill of mapping. For instance,
Inspiration is a software program that helps teachers create maps. Please visit the Education CourseMate website
at www.cengagebrain.com for a link to a website with many sample graphic organizers and maps.
The primary purpose of mapping is to visually portray the relationships of major and supporting ideas. Because maps
encourage students to refer to the reading material and engage in interactive learning, reading educators recognize
their value in assisting comprehension. Mapping can be used to teach vocabulary and to introduce outlining and note
taking, and also functions as a study aid (see Chapter 7 on vocabulary and Chapter 9 on study skills).
Mapping can also introduce a topic before any reading takes place. In such a case, the teacher probably has already
made the map or is relying on students’ prior knowledge to construct the map; thus, the strategy is to use prior
knowledge to prepare the readers.
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Mapping also can aid reading reflection. After the map is made, it becomes a study aid. The following are
suggestions for developing a map:
1. Identify the main idea of the passage. (Sometimes just a topic or a question may stimulate map generation.) Write
the main idea anywhere on the page, leaving room for other information to be written around it.
2. Circle the main idea.
3. Identify subordinate categories, which may be chapter subheadings.
4. Connect the subordinate categories to the main idea.
5. Show supporting details.
6. Connect supporting details to the idea or category they support.
7. Connect all notes to other notes in a way that makes sense.
Although mapping a whole chapter may be time consuming, mapping sections may help readers understand the
relationship between the superordinate (major idea) and the subordinate (minor ideas).
Maps engage readers as they read, reread, and study; and they demonstrate the hierarchical nature of exposition.
After teachers have mapped several times, students will become proficient at making their own maps. Because a
map is a diagram of information, it is a visual learning aid. Adding drawings to the map will often stimulate learning,
especially for younger readers. Such visual reinforcement capitalizes on visual literacy and right brain functions.
Activity 4.2 shows a map about “managing stress” from a high school health education class.
Email an Expert
Discovery Learning: Students in small groups make a map on a topic in history class and
send it as an email attachment to a director of a museum. Students ask for a reply in the form of a critique of how well
they constructed the map.
Time Commitment: Moderate. No more than one hour.
Why Do It? This use of technology enhances critical thinking skills, promotes group problem solving, and stimulates
writing.
Values: In addition to the skills mentioned, students learn to get assistance from an expert as a natural course of
learning.
Using mapping integrates all the communicative arts. Class discussion, which requires students to listen to one
another and speak about the topic, must take place for the map to be developed. Reading is the source of the
information mapped, and teachers can incorporate writing by asking students to use the map as a frame of reference
for writing about the reading topic. For instance, students could be assigned to write a six-paragraph essay about the
parts of a computer as generated from a map. A health education teacher who wants students to write a report could
have them use a map similar to the one in Activity 4.2. Students could refer to both primary and secondary sources to
find out more about each portion of the map.
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ACTIVITY 4.2: Mapping Activity for High School Health Education Class
Constructivism and Reading
When students can make sense of their learning by developing a knowledge base or constructing their own purposes
for reading a selection and developing tasks on their own that demonstrate their learning, they are constructing
meaning. That is, knowledge is not passively received but is actively constructed by the learners on the basis of prior
knowledge, attitudes, and values. This process is called constructivism. The constructivist theory of learning
emphasizes the important role of the learner in literacy tasks, allowing readers to feel comfortable with learning
because they are so fully integrated in putting it all together. In constructivist theory, students are asked through
active consideration and assimilation to internalize material and reshape or transform information into thought that
makes sense in their world (Brooks & Brooks, 1993). Constructivism emphasizes a student's ability to solve practical,
real-life problems. The teacher's role in this theory is to assemble required resources and act as a guide or facilitator
for students to formulate their own goals and learn by themselves (Inan, Lowther, Ross, & Strahl, 2010).
To see how questioning, constructivism and inquiry learning can be activated, view the video of a middle school
science teacher in action at the Education CourseMate website at www.cengagebrain.com .
In a constructivist environment, students must be encouraged to use higher order thinking skills to find meaning in
classroom experiences. Teachers do not stress the “one correct answer” to every question, with that answer being
the one supplied by the teacher. Student questioning must be encouraged, and in certain situations, teachers
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Look for WebQuests that teachers have constructed and WebQuest templates online; please visit the
Education CourseMate website at www.cengagebrain.com to find some links.
should accept a variety of possible interpretations. Constructivism requires more than factual recall to questions and
factual recall-type tests as the central proof that learning has taken place in their classrooms. Liaw (2004) has noted
how Web-based learning, with such popular strategies as distance learning, interactive multimedia, graphic displays,
and WebQuests, can be used innovatively to teach constructivist learning. Webbased learning environments can
provide an excellent opportunity for the teacher to act as a facilitator to help students discover from their own
background knowledge any new learning that must take place.
Constructivist learning can take place at any level of education. An example occurred when three professors who
were located in different states shared insights about online instruction through a threaded discussion (Richardson,
Fleener, & Thistlethwaite, 2004). By talking with each other online, each built new understandings and applications of
what a threaded discussion could add to their courses. Another example was a threaded discussion among students
from different schools, who all took a virtual tour of Jamestown and viewed the Werowicomoco exhibit. Then they
“conversed” to build understanding of the importance of different cultures in colonial history using cooperative
learning in an electronic environment. Chapter 10 provides more information about Web-based learning.
In a constructivist classroom, less time will be spent in drill and rote exercise routines. Consider how a debate can
facilitate constructivist thinking by watching the video of a high school social studies class on the Education
CourseMate website at www.cengagebrain.com .
Teachers should consider seven pedagogical goals needed for classroom teachers to implement constructivism
(Honebein, 1996):]
1. Give students knowledge of the learning process.
2. Provide students with experience appreciating multiple perspectives.
3. Make learning realistic and relevant.
4. Encourage ownership and voice in the learning process.
5. Provide a social context for learning.
6. Encourage use of multiple modes of representation.
7. Encourage learners’ self-awareness.
In addition, research suggests that constructivist learning is useful for improving interactivity in online
learning (Rudestam & Schoenholtz-Read, 2002). Please visit the Education CourseMate website
at www.cengagebrain.com to find:
• Reading materials on constructivist learning
• The ThinkQuest website, with examples of studentcreated websites
Dalgarno (2001) has noted that constructivism is emerging as a significant learning theory that emphasizes a studentcentered approach to learning. In a constructivist model, teachers do not transmit knowledge to passive learners;
instead, learners build information from the assistance that teachers provide (Weaver, 1994). The reader must
actively construct meaning by relating new material to the known using reasoning and developing concepts.
By discovering what learners do as they read and how they constantly strive to construct meaning while reading, we
can design strategies for assistance that enhance their learning. This can be illustrated by an encounter one of the
authors had in helping an elementary school youngster read a history passage about log cabins. The boy could not
say the two words oil lamp as he read the passage orally. Throughout the reading, he was not given the
pronunciation of these two words. After the reading, the boy was asked several questions to help him recall the story,
including one concerning what kind of lighting was used in the log cabin. The child quickly answered, “Oh, they had
an oil lamp.” This child was thinking as he read, trying to piece together the clues. He was processing what he knew
were unknown data. When he reached the stage of retelling the story, he realized that he did know; he had
successfully put the clues together. If the teacher had interpreted as a final product his failure to pronounce the words
while he was reading, he would have thought the boy did not know the words.
Constructivist theory remains only a theory (Dewey, Piaget, & Vygotsky); there is still no strong research to prove its
efficacy (Green & Gredler, 2002; Vermette et al, 2001). Proponents of constructivism do not even agree on what
makes for good constructivist teaching (Ali, 2004). What is your sense of its efficacy based on your experience as a
learner and teacher?
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In fact, all along the boy was constructing meaning. Ultimately, his processing led to a correct understanding. As this
experience illustrates, we must give our students every chance to process information, thus discovering meaning as
they read, before we measure their understanding.
Comprehending Segments of Text
Authors usually organize text by dividing it into meaningful sections or segments. These are usually signified by
subheadings. Readers must pay attention to these segments of text to gain information and focus on important
information. Teachers can use strategies that provide directed readings using small segments of text. Two important
strategies for doing this are explained next: the Directed Reading–Thinking Activity and the Guided Reading
Procedure.
Directed Reading–Thinking Activity
The Directed Reading–Thinking Activity (DR-TA) helps students understand that each segment of text can help them
figure out the next segment. The teacher must decide in advance how to segment the material for a DR-TA. The
organization of the material is the key factor affecting this segmentation. Studies by Stahl (2008) and El-Koumy
(2006) have shown that the DR-TA is beneficial in teaching referential and inferential learning. Because the text is
divided into smaller portions, students can focus on the process of responding to higher order questions (Fisher &
Frey, 2008). As advocated by Stauffer (1969a), the DR-TA has three basic steps: predicting, reading, and proving.
Predicting involves asking readers to use not only what they already know but also whatever they can learn from a
quick preview of the material to predict what the material is going to be about. Because students can be encouraged
to predict aloud and to justify their predictions, the DR-TA offers a lively listening and speaking opportunity within a
social context.
After students make overall predictions, teachers encourage readers to make predictions about specific portions of
text and then to read the appropriate portions to confirm or alter the predictions. How would this approach affect the
tone of the classroom and students’ attitude toward learning?
The key aspect of the DR-TA is predicting outcomes. Predicting prepares the reader for comprehension but cannot
stand alone. Students reflect aloud on predictions before going on to read another segment. If teachers are worried
that students will be reticent to make predictions, they can use a simple prediction guide, shown as Activity 4.3.
Students predict in the left column and write what actually happened in the right column. This step can show the
teacher whether the student is actively predicting and taking part in the process. The teacher guides the DR-TA
process, making sure that each student is actively involved in understanding each segment before continuing to the
next. The DR-TA is important because it teaches the correct reading process: predicting, reading, and proving that
the reading has occurred. Also, the DR-TA uses all three phases of the PAR Lesson Framework.
Figures 4.1 and 4.2 outline the DR-TA steps to apply to fiction and nonfiction material, respectively. Note that step 2
in the fiction DR-TA requests that readers read to find out whether the predictions they made were accurate. Step 4 in
the nonfiction DR-TA requests that readers read to find the answers to questions they have generated, and step 5
calls on students to think critically by defending responses. These steps focus on purposeful reading; they are the
foundation for a successful DR-TA. A teacher must decide in advance how to segment the material for a DR-TA. The
organization of the material is the key factor affecting this segmentation.
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ACTIVITY 4.3: Directed Reading–Thinking Activity Prediction Guide
My Prediction What Really Happened
FIGURE 4.1: DR–TA for Fiction
1. Previewing
Preread: Title
Pictures
Subtitles
Introduction (if story is long enough)
Close book and make hypotheses: What do you think will happen?
Why do you think that? (What gives you the clue?)
2. Verifying
Read: To find whether predictions were right
3. Reflecting on reading
Developing comprehension by
Checking on individual and group hypotheses
Staying with or redefining hypotheses
The prediction step of the DR-TA builds purpose for reading. When readers are asked what they think might happen
next and then read to verify their prediction, they are being encouraged to read purposefully. Readers become very
excited about this predictive involvement in their own reading. Often, they share their predictions orally before the
individual reading occurs. This activity incorporates listening and speaking. If students are asked to write on the
prediction guide what they predict during various
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FIGURE 4.2: DR–TA for Nonfiction
1. Previewing
Study: Title
Introduction
Subtitles
Pictures
Charts
Maps
Graphs
Summary or conclusion
End-of-chapter questions
2. Decision making
What is known after previewing?
What do we need to learn?
3. Writing
Writing specific questions students need to learn
4. Reading
Finding the answers to students’ written questions
5. Reflecting on the reading by
Determining answers to students’ questions
Having students defend their inferences by referring to text
Finding out what we still need to know
portions of the reading and then review those written predictions at the end of the DR-TA, they use writing to
determine purpose within the DR-TA.
Students keep and use this bookmark with each nonfiction reading to remind them of creative and
interesting prediction questions. The bookmark can teach students to see the importance of asking probing questions
that tap higher levels of thought. How else might you use this in your teaching? Please visit the Education
CourseMate website at www.cengagebrain.com for more ideas on teaching higher level thinking.
Often, students are quite imaginative when formulating predictions about fiction but do not carry this enthusiasm into
nonfiction material. The reason for this difference may be that they are not predicting the nonfiction outcome in the
same way they do for fiction. The procedure for nonfiction DR-TAs is to survey, question, and then read for answers.
The result, without proper preparation, can be similar to just “doing the questions at the end of the chapter.” This
defeats the purpose of the DR-TA, which is to allow students to create their own purpose in reading. One way we
have found to help students write higher level questions is through use of the “higher level questioning bookmark,”
adapted from one developed by the Maryland State Department of Education and shown as Activity 4.4.
In Activity 4.5, we present the DR-TA steps in an elementary lesson through the use of a What-I-Know Activity
(WIKA, introduced in Chapter 3). In this WIKA, students are given a four-column sheet and are asked to fill it in as
they go through the reading. In the first two columns, before reading, students discuss what they already know about
the topic after completing the preview and formulate questions to be answered in the reading. In the third column,
they use the time during and directly after the reading to answer the questions they generated. They place questions
they can't answer in the fourth column called “What I'd Still Like to Know.”
One point to note when adhering to the DR-TA process in fiction is that the predictions themselves show whether the
students are adequately comprehending the story. The postreading Reflection Phase enables the teacher to have
students do higher level thinking in evaluating whether they liked the story. Such evaluation and concomitant critical
thinking are needed for students to truly understand and appreciate a story.
The DR-TA teaches higher level thinking. When asking students to predict, one is teaching convergent inference.
When asking students to tell why they liked or disliked a story or asking them to do a creative follow-up activity, one is
teaching divergent inference.
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ACTIVITY 4.4: Higher Level Questioning Bookmark
QUESTION MARK: QUESTIONING FOR QUALITY THINKING
Knowledge: Identification and recall of information Who, what, when, where, how ___________? Describe
___________
Comprehension: Organization and selection of facts and ideas
Retell ___________ in your own words. What is the main idea of ___________?
Application: Use of facts, rules, and principles.
How is it an example of ___________?
How is it related to ___________?
Why is it significant ___________?
Analysis: Separation of a whole into component parts
What are the parts or features of ___________?
Classify according to ___________
Outline/diagram/web ___________
How does ___________ compare/contrast with ___________?
What evidence can you list for ___________?
Synthesis: Combination of ideas to form a new whole
What would you predict/infer from ___________?
What ideas can you add to ___________?
How would you create/design a new ___________?
What might happen if you combined ___________ with ___________?
What solutions would you suggest for ___________?
Evaluation: Development of opinions, judgments, or decisions
Do you agree ___________?
What do you think about ___________?
What is the most important ___________?
Prioritize ___________
How would you decide about ___________?
What criteria would you use to assess ___________?
Maryland State Department of Education; adapted by Mark Forget.
Cruse (2007) found that teachers gained a better perspective on their teaching and drew new insights into the
reading process when they used DR-TA lessons. The DR-TA is also compatible with the constructivist theory
discussed earlier in this chapter. What good readers do as they read is predict and speculate, read to confirm, and
stop reading and carry on a mental discussion of what they understand. Students are very active during reading.
Through using the prediction process, the material is divided into manageable units. DR-TAs provide a vehicle for
figuring out content as the reading occurs; they emphasize reading as a constructive process rather than a
measurement of comprehension. The DR-TA uses all the phases of the PAR Lesson Framework. The teacher does
not have to worry about whether he or she is preparing and assisting students because this is an integral part of the
strategy. The DR-TA is a powerful tool. A teacher who uses the DR-TA method implements all phases of the PAR
Lesson Framework.
Guided Reading Procedure
The Guided Reading Procedure (GRP), developed by Manzo in 1975, offers an excellent way to teach students to
gather and organize information around main ideas. GRP uses brainstorming to collect information as accurately as
possible and then rereading to correct misinformation and fill in conceptual gaps. The second reading is important
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ACTIVITY 4.5: DR-TA Responses for First-Grade Science Class on
Recycling Using a What-I-Know Activity
THIS WAS A LESSON FOR TIGER CUBS (CUB SCOUTS) ON RECYCLING
What I Already
Know
Some things have to
be thrown away, and
some things can be
recycled.
What I Want to
Know
How come some
kinds of paper can
be recycled but not
every kind?
What I'd Still
Like to Know
Paper that has wax on it, such as
boxes for frozen foods, can't be
recycled because of the wax.
Most shiny paper can't be
recycled because of wax.
Different things can
be recycled, such as
glass and cans.
Some paper can be
recycled, and some
can't.
There's a special
container for
recycling.
What I Know Now
Pizza boxes can't be recycled
because they are greasy. Probably
other greasy things can't be
recycled as well.
What happens to the Paper can be wet down and
stuff when it gets
squished (squooshed?) into pulp
there?
to make new paper.
A different truck, not
the garbage truck,
picks up recycling.
What do the little
numbers on things
mean?
People have to sort out our
recycling.
The numbers tell us what kind of
material the thing is made of.
Different places take different
numbered things for recycling.
Who decides what
can be recycled?
Who decides what
can be recycled?
Where does the
recycling truck take
Where does the
recycling truck
What I Already
Know
What I Want to
Know
our stuff?
What I Know Now
What happens to
glass and cans that
we put in recycling?
What I'd Still
Like to Know
take our stuff?
What happens to
glass and cans that
we put in
recycling?
because it heightens motivation—students read to prove that their statements are correct or disprove fellow students’
statements. Students’ purpose and focus intensify during this second reading segment. According to researchers
Colwell and associates (1986), GRP is a very effective teacher-directed technique. It can be used to help students
become more independent in their thinking and studying. Following are the steps teachers use to apply the guided
reading procedure:
1. Prepare the students for the lesson by clarifying key concepts about the reading; assess students’ background
knowledge. The teacher may ask students to explain vocabulary terms or make predictions concerning concepts
inherent to the reading.
2. Assign a selection of appropriate length and ask students to remember all they can about the reading. Manzo
(1975) gives these general guidelines for passage
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length: primary students—90 words, 3 minutes; elementary students—500 words, 5 minutes; middle school
students—900 words, 7 minutes; high school students—2,000 words, 10 minutes.
3. After the students have completed the reading assignment, have them close the book and relate everything they
know about the material they just read. Then list statements for the entire class to see without editing. Whenever
possible, assign two students to act as class recorders so you can focus on monitoring and guiding the class
discussion.
4. Direct students to look for inconsistencies and misinformation, first through discussion and then through a second
reading of the material. Work with students after the second reading to change all statements to make them true
before proceeding to the creation of categories.
5. Create major categories for the passage. If reading a narrative, help students organize and categorize concepts
into a loose outline. For nonfiction, students can put information into two, three, or four categories and title each
category. Then place gathered statements under the newly created categories.
6. To strengthen short-term recall, test students on the reading.
The main differences between the GRP and the DR-TA is that in the GRP, there are no initial student predictions of
outcomes; also, unlike the DR-TA, the GRP reading is timed, and there is a second reading of the passage
Activity 4.6 lists students’ facts and concepts while taking part in a guided reading procedure on welding metallurgy.
Students write statements they decide reflect the content and then check those statements during a second reading.
Last, they organize the statements. In this manner, students create their own categories of learning as an aid to
comprehension.
ACTIVITY 4.6: High School Welding Metallurgy
Part 1: Statements from students after first reading.
1. Chemical properties have a big influence on welding.
2. Heat is not a big factor in welding.
3. In hypoeutectoid mixtures, it is not necessary to use much steel.
4. All metals at some time form crystals.
5. The strength of a weld is most affected by its physical properties.
6. It is important to weld high carbon steels in a different manner than that of low carbon steels.
7. Oxygen must be prevented from contaminating the molten metal.
8. Steel is made of both carbon and iron.
9. There are generally three types of crystalline patterns.
10. These patterns are called space lattices.
Part 2: After students read a second time and reconsider statements, they group the facts listed in Part 1 under one
of the three categories below.
Material Properties Metal Structure Carbon in Steel
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Reciprocal Teaching
Palincsar and Brown (1986) describe a strategy to promote independent learning from a text. In this strategy,
called reciprocal teaching, students and teachers establish a dialogue and work together in comprehending text. At
the heart of reciprocal teaching are four shared goals: prediction, summarization, questioning, and clarification. First,
the teacher assigns a paragraph. Then the teacher summarizes the paragraph and asks students several questions
about it. The teacher then clarifies any misconceptions or difficult concepts. Finally, the students predict in writing
what will be discussed in the next paragraph or segment. When the next cycle begins, students (listeners) reverse
roles and become the modelers.
According to Palincsar and Brown (1986), this technique succeeds with small and large
groups, in peer tutoring, in science instruction, and in teaching listening comprehension.
Studies (Alfassi, Weiss, & Lifshitz, 2009; Halberstam, 2009; Sporer, Brunstein, & Kieschke, 2009) have shown that
reciprocal teaching provides assistance to students as they read and significantly improves achievement in both
regular classrooms and with students with disabilities. This strategy uses small segments of reading; thus, struggling
readers are not overwhelmed by too much reading. It is a highly structured method that incorporates all the language
arts—listening, writing, reading, and speaking.
Reciprocal teaching has been successfully adapted and used with English language learners (Klingner & Vaughn,
1996). Explicit explanations of language needed for each role (predictor, summarizer, questioner, and clarifier) are
provided as roles are demonstrated. Cue cards having language prompts are used for practicing each role and as
students work in small groups (Harper & de Jong, 2004). In this way, linguistic skills are scaffolded as reading skills
and critical thinking are developed.
Assisting Students in Learning Text Structure
Steven King (2002), in his book On Writing, says that the basic unit of writing is the paragraph. It is certainly true that
after children learn the basics of reading, most print language they encounter will be in paragraph form. Research
evidence suggests that the structure of text—how paragraphs are arranged and ordered—can affect the reading
comprehension of students (Goldman & Rakestraw, 2000). Evidence also suggests that students who are taught text
structure will use this knowledge to improve their writing and reading comprehension (Williams et al, 2009). The five
most prevalent organizational formations of text are sequential or chronological order, analysis, cause and effect,
comparison and contrast, and analogy or example. In chronological order, a logical order or sequence is given. In
analysis, an important idea is investigated by studying the parts of the idea to the whole. In cause and effect, an
event is given as the effect and theories are presented as causes of the event. In comparison and contrast, a writer
seeks to highlight similarities and differences between facts, events, or abstract concepts. Sometimes a writer uses a
specifically given example to explain a topic or concept.
Often, more than one structure is apparent in a single section of text. A writer may analyze means of a
comparison and contrast. A writer may show cause and effect accompanied by example. Different structures may
dominate at different grade levels and in different subjects. Table 4.1 gives examples of the text structures of some
content area subjects.
The study and identification of organizational structure in written material, as well as student and teacher verbal
interaction and reaction to text structure, are called discourse analysis. Gee (1996) has noted that students use
discourses such as networking, talking, and interacting to learn about the world. Chinn, Anderson, & Waggoner
(2001) include in discourse analysis such behaviors as teacher and student turn taking in discussions, questions,
decision-making authority, and control of the topic of discussion. Waggoner, Chinn, Yi, and Anderson (1995)
recommend the use of a technique called collaborative reasoning, which was found to be better than recitations
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TABLE 4.1 Some Organizational Structures Used Frequently in Content Area Textbooks
Science
Math
Social Studies English
Health
Sequence
Sequence Cause and effect Cause and effect
Compare and contrast
Cause and effect
Analysis Example
Compare and contrast
Cause and effect
Compare and contrast Example Analysis
Example
Sequence or chronological
TABLE 4.1 Some Organizational Structures Used Frequently in Content Area Textbooks
in improving student engagement and in teaching higher level thinking. Collaborative reasoning is an approach for
discussion in any content area that is intended to stimulate critical thinking. After reading a selection, the teacher
poses a central question that is worded so students take a position for or against the question. Students discuss the
question and must defend the position they take. In this manner, students collaboratively construct arguments
through a complex network of reasoning and through shared evidence (Chinn & Anderson, 1998). After prompting the
discussion with the central question, the teacher acts only as a moderator and mostly stays out of the discussion.
Students are encouraged to weigh evidence offered and decide whether to maintain or change their original
positions.
The collaborative reasoning strategy has been effective in teaching critical reading and thinking. Comprehension is
improved through this form of strategic instruction
Strategic instruction shows readers how to identify text structure (Garner & Gillingham, 1987). Overall comprehension
of the text is enhanced for the readers. One simple activity to raise awareness of organization is to have students
peruse the table of contents of a textbook and ask, “How did the author organize this writing? What overall structure
of organization do you see in the table of contents?” Also, a teacher may simply ask students to identify the text
structure used in a chapter, a section, or even a paragraph. Teachers can devise activities to assist readers in
identifying structures, as we explain in the next section. When readers learn to recognize text structure and the
relationships between large and small ideas and concepts, they take a major step toward independence in reading.
Strategies for Comprehending Text Structure
When the teacher uses activities to boost understanding of text structure, reading to learn is much easier (Kirkpatrick
& Klein, 2009). Activities help students and create an interesting learning environment. Here we present some of our
favorites.
MYSTERY CLUE GAME
The group mystery clue game is designed to help readers understand sequence. It works well when it is important for
students to understand a sequence of events. The idea for this activity comes from Turn-ons (Smuin, 1978); we have
adapted it to fit content materials.
1. To construct a mystery clue game, the teacher first studies the sequence of events in the material and writes clear,
specific clue cards for each event. More than one card may be made for each clue.
2. The teacher divides the class into small groups and gives each group member at least one clue card. Each group
can have one complete set of cards,
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but each group member is responsible for his or her own cards within that set.
3. No student may show a card to another member of the group, but students can read cards aloud or paraphrase so
that all group members know what is on each card. In this way, students who are poor readers will still be
encouraged to try to read and to participate.
4. Each group of students must use the clues the teacher gives them to solve the mystery. For example, they must
find the murderer, solve the equation, or find the chemical formula. There is usually a time limit.
5. A group scribe reports the group's solution to the whole class.
6. Students are instructed to read the material to find out which group came closest to solving the mystery.
This cooperative activity promotes oral language as well as reading, and it works well in most content areas. For
instance, science teachers can write clues about doing an experiment, mathematics teachers can write clues for
deriving a formula, and social studies teachers can write clues to sequencing historical events. The goal of the activity
is for students to approximate the sequence of events before reading and then read with the purpose of checking
their predictions. It is not necessary for students to memorize specific details. As they read, they will recall the clues
they were given and construct meaning.
Please visit the Education CourseMate website at www.cengagebrain.com for a link to the Great Cities
Universities video of Kenya Brown teaching a mystery clue game: Select Secondary Modules/Module Four/Video.
Activity 4.7 is a mystery clue game for a French lesson to help students master the Paris Metro. Students in small
groups have to read (translate) the 10 clue cards (without referring to their textbooks) and put the cards in the correct
chronological order. In doing so, students learn the logical steps in taking the Paris Metro and grasp the relationships
from the Metro essay, the grammar, and the vocabulary presented in the French textbook.
PATTERN GUIDES
Pattern guides (Herber, 1978) are most useful in helping students recognize a predominant structure such as cause
and effect or compare and contrast. To construct them, the teacher locates the pattern, chooses the major ideas to
be stressed, and designs the pattern-oriented guide.
Pattern guides can help students see causal relationships. Students need to learn to distinguish cause and effect
when reading text materials, especially in social studies, science, and vocational education. Simply asking students to
search for causes is often unsuccessful; students tend to neglect—or worse, misunderstand and misuse—this pattern
without the teacher's intervention, support, and patience. Moreover, finding causal relationships is difficult because
the cause of an event or situation may not be known or may not be traceable. Even so, students should endeavor to
distinguish cause and effect for practice in the thinking it affords. Activity 4.8 provides an example of a cause-andeffect guide for middle and high school English.
Teachers can also encourage students to make comparison–contrast maps such as the one shown as Activity 4.9.
These graphic organizers or concept maps stress similarities and differences, in this case comparing brown recluse
spiders with black widow spiders. Teachers may help students by constructing some of the map to get them started.
Or teachers can talk students through the map and in this way build the map with the students. Such maps provide
excellent ways to teach patterns of organization inherent in print material.
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ACTIVITY 4.7: Mystery Clue Game for A French Lesson
Luc et Jérome veulent aller au Louvre pour apprendre quelque chose pour leur cours d'art.
A la bouche du métro ils regardent le plan et ils comprennent qu'il faut prendre une correspondance. Ils prennent la
direction Porte de Clignancourt et ils prennent une autre correspondance aux Halles.
Bon! Ils sont là!
Après le musée, ils font des achats.
Ils n'ont pas de voiture. C'est trop loin—ils ne peuvent pas aller à pied ou prendre leurs vélos.
Le taxi est trop cher, ainsi ils veulent prendre le métro.
Ils vont au métro—c'est la station Maubert-Mutualité.
Ils achètent deux tickets.
D'abord, ils prennent la direction Boulogne–Pont de St Cloud, et ils changent à Odéon. Ils prennent la direction Pont
de Neuilly. Ils descendent au Louvre.
Ils entrent dans le Louvre où ils voient la Joconde (Mona Lisa) et la Vénus de Milo.
ENGLISH TRANSLATION IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER
1. Luke and Jeremy want to go to the Louvre to learn something for their art class.
2. They don't have a car. It is too far—they can't walk or take their bikes. A taxi costs too much, so they want to take
the Metro.
3. At the Metro entrance, they look at the map, and they understand that they will have to transfer to another line on
the Metro.
4. They go into the Metro station “Maubert-Mutualité.” They buy two tickets.
5. First, they take the “Boulogne–Pont de Saint Cloud” direction, and they change at “Odéon.”
6. They take the “Porte de Clignancourt” direction, and they make another change at “Les Halles.”
7. They take the “Pont de Neuilly” direction. They get off at the “Louvre.”
8. Good! They are there.
9. They enter the Louvre, where they see the Mona Lisa and the Venus de Milo.
10. After the museum, they do some shopping.
Adapted from an activity by Laura Clevinger.
ACTIVITY 4.8: Cause-and-Effect Study Guide Middle and High School
Someone's Hiding on Alcatraz Island
by Eve Bunting
Match the causes with the effects by putting the letter for the cause in the appropriately numbered blank.
Effects
__________1. Danny decided to leave the island
early.
__________2. Alcatraz was not used as a prison
after 1963.
__________3. The lady on crutches got tired and
decided to go back to the boat.
__________4. The Outlaws have targeted Danny.
__________5. The Outlaws are a dangerous gang.
__________6. The Outlaws come to Alcatraz Island
to find Danny.
Causes
a. Danny turns in the mugger, not
knowing his brother was an Outlaw.
b. A gang member mugs an old lady, and
Danny witnesses it.
c. Danny rescued her.
d. Officials were afraid prisoners would
dig their way out.
e. Danny knows he will have to be clever
to survive.
f. Danny can't leave because the gang
stalks him on the island.
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ACTIVITY 4.9: Similarities and Differences Map: Brown Recluse and
Black Widow Spiders Elementary Science
3+ LEVEL STUDY GUIDES
An excellent tool to teach comprehension is the three-level study guide developed by Herber (1978). The guide is an
effort to connect and integrate three distinct levels of comprehension through the use of a series of statements
designed for student reaction. The guide aids students in discerning the interconnectedness of literal, inferential, and
applied learning.
Add a fourth level to the 3+ level study guide to teach original Internet research on the topic. When students read a
passage and react to the three-level guide, they often become interested in the topic. With this heightened interest, it
is a natural progression for them to conduct research on the topic. An example of a 3+ level guide is given in Activity
4.10 for a high school English class on the poem “The Road Not Taken,” by Robert Frost
Here are the steps in making the guide:
1. Begin with making level 2 of the guide (interpretive level). Five or six statements are ideal. At this level the teacher
asks, “What are the main ideas and concepts I want to teach?” List them in statements that will be certain to elicit the
interest of the students. Teachers can put “The author means …” in front of each statement to ensure that the
statements truly belong in the interpretive level.
2. Go back and use the facts that support the interpretations you wrote in step 1. Teachers can put “The author says
…” in front of each statement to ensure that the statements truly belong in the factual level. Then add “distracters”—
statements that are untrue. When finished, you should have five or six statements at this level.
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ACTIVITY 4.10: High School English 3+ Level Study Guide
ON “THE ROAD NOT TAKEN,” BY ROBERT FROST
Instructions: After reading the poem, check those statements with which you agree. Be prepared to discuss why you
chose the statements you did and to refer to the poem to defend your answers.
I. Check the statements of fact in the poem.
______ 1. The narrator had come to a fork in the road.
______ 2. Only one of the roads was well used when the narrator arrived at the fork.
______ 3. The horse did not understand why they were stopping.
______ 4. Both roads had the same amount of use by others in the past.
______ 5. The poem took place in summer.
II. Check the statements that are possible interpretations of the poem.
______ 1. One can always go back and start over in life.
______ 2. A person may always wonder whether choices made were the best choices.
______ 3. The narrator is pleased by the choices he has made in life.
______ 4. What appears simple is often complex.
______ 5. Knowing oneself is a lifetime endeavor.
III. Check statements that show how this poem has application to our own lives.
______ 1. Life is a journey with no clear destination.
______ 2. Hindsight is always 20/20.
______ 3. Like a poem, life should begin in delight and end in wisdom.
______ 4. Following the crowd may be easy in the short term, but in the long run, this may prove foolhardy.
IV. Determine which of the following statements are true:
______ 1. Frost graduated from Harvard University.
______ 2. Frost taught at the high school level for six years.
______ 3. Frost was an English professor at Dartmouth College for 22 years.
Follow-up Questions
1. Frost went to England early in his life. Why was this trip so important in his development as a writer and poet?
2. Was Frost ever accorded any accolades or awards in his lifetime?
Please visit the Education CourseMate website at www.cengagebrain.com for a link to the source of
statements in Activity 4.10, Section IV.
3. As a final step, the teacher can ask, “What universal truths are depicted in this reading?” General statements of
application are listed in the third level, the applied level of the guide. Teachers can put “We can use …” in front of
each statement to ensure that the statements truly belong in the application level.
4. Finally, add student directions to the guide.
ORGANIZATIONAL (JOT) CHARTS
Jot charts organize text information by showing comparisons and contrasts. Students complete a matrix as a way to
see how ideas are alike and different. Jot charts are relatively simple to construct and can be used at any grade level
and in any content area. The teacher usually sets up the matrix and encourages students to fill it in as they read. In
this way, students understand the relationships and build meaning as they read.
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When completed, jot charts become a good study aid. When groups of students fill in jot charts, the social aspects of
learning are also included in the activity. We present an example of a jot chart for middle school mathematics as
Activity 4.11 on mathematical formulas.
ACTIVITY 4.11: Jot Chart: Formulas
Developed by Serena Marshall.
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Improving Comprehension through Questions and Questioning
Many researchers believe that dialogue between teachers and students should be the most important medium for
teaching and learning (Hillocks, 2002; Langer, 2001). The best dialogue may come in the form of teacher–student
questions. Classroom questioning strategies and questioning instruction can help with memory for what was read,
can improve students’ information-finding abilities, and can lead to more in-depth processing of text (McKeown &
Beck, 2003). Parker and Hurry (2007) found that even though teachers used questioning, they did not explain to
students the importance of questions and did not encourage students to generate their own questions.
Studies show that when asking questions of students, teachers give longer response time to higher achievers than to
lower achieving students. What effect could such a practice have in the classroom?
When questioning works, it works well. Studies show that the most effective teachers encourage higher level thinking
through questioning techniques (Taylor, Pressley, & Pearson, 2002; Zucker, et al, 2010). Questions can help
teachers know whether students understand text and can guide readers to consider many aspects of material.
Question-generated discussions help create meaning for readers (Alvermann, O'Brien, & Dillon, 1990; Barton, 1995).
Questions are excellent probes.
Sternberg (1994) argues that the ability to ask good questions and to know how to answer them is the most essential
part of intelligence. Well-considered questions are essential to guide students’ thinking and reasoning abilities
(Marashio, 1995). Often, however, questioning does not work well because teachers fall into the common trap of
writing questions that focus on literal comprehension. Research (Zucker et al, 2010) shows that teachers are asking
inferential questions more than literal questions. This is a good sign. Getting little practice in answering higher level
questions leaves students ill equipped to think critically. Elementary students are trapped into expecting only literal
questions; secondary students have the experience of mostly answering recall questions. Research shows, however,
that when instructional strategies are altered so that the focus is on inferences, critical thinking, and main ideas,
students respond with improved recall and greater understanding (Hansen, 1981; Hansen & Pearson, 1983; Raphael,
1984). Cooter, Joseph, and Flynt (1986) were able to show that third and fourth graders who were asked no literal
questions in a five-month period performed significantly better than a control group on inferential comprehension and
just as well on literal comprehension. Menke and Pressley (1994) encourage teachers and their students to
use why questions because their use greatly increases factual memory.
Another trap that teachers sometimes fall into is misjudging the difficulty of the questions they are asking or failing to
match questions to students’ abilities. Generally, questions are simplest when students must recognize and locate
answers in a text rather than close their books and try to recall the same information. Easy questions also include
those asked during or shortly after reading, questions that have only one or two parts, oral questions rather than
written ones, and those that allow students to choose an answer from among several alternatives. Some questions
should be asked in the simplest manner but others in more challenging ways. Teachers need to consider the difficulty
of their questions and their students’ abilities to answer them.
A final trap that often snares teachers is focusing more on the questions asked and the responses they expect than
on the students’ actual responses. Too often, teachers expect one response and do not consider an alternative. As
Dillon (1983) remarks, we should “stress the nature of questions rather than their frequency and pace, and the type of
student response rather than the type of teacher question” (p. 8). Students'
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answers tell a lot about their understanding of the topic. We need to listen for answers that let us know how well we
are assisting the development of comprehension.
Student-Generated Questions
Crapse (1995) reports that “Through the experience of honest questioning, I have observed students celebrating their
own insights and solutions to problems posed” (p. 390). Students can also develop their own questions using the
“higher level questioning bookmark” discussed earlier in this chapter and shown in Activity 4.4. How would you create
divergentthinking questions as a model for your students?
When students are encouraged to generate their own questions, they develop higher level understanding (Bintz &
Williams, 2005; Meyer, 2010). D. L. Van Blerkom and colleagues (2006) found that students who read and generated
questions comprehended authentic text better than those who read and took notes or read and highlighted. Ciardello
(1998) argues that the process of asking questions helps students to focus on and learn content, as well as develop
cognitive strategies that will help them understand new and challenging material. Ciardello describes a technique
called TeachQuest in which the teacher guides students through a series of steps to identify and classify divergentthinking questions. The goal is for students to generate their own divergent-thinking questions.
Questioning Strategies
THE QUESTION–ANSWER RELATIONSHIP
Raphael (2005) has studied and applied a questioning technique called question–answer relationship (QAR). This
has been found to be a practical way to teach students how to formulate questions at different levels of cognition
(Mesmer & Hutchins, 2002; Raphael & Au, 2005). Kinneburgh and Shaw (2009) found that instructing students in
how to use QARs with a science text increased students’ reading comprehension. QAR is a four-level taxonomy: (1)
right there, (2) think and search, (3) the author and you, and (4) on your own. The best way to introduce QAR is with
a visual aid showing the QAR relationship. Figure 4.3 shows one teacher's illustrated introduction to QAR. After
introducing QAR, the teacher uses a short passage to demonstrate how QAR is applied. To model the use of QAR,
the teacher provides, labels, and answers at least one question at each QAR level. The teacher then moves gradually
to having students answer questions and identifying the QAR for themselves. At various times throughout the school
year, the teacher should refer to QAR. Activity 4.12 lists QAR questions and answers for an early elementary social
studies lesson on the ecosystem and the environment.
Because QAR is a straightforward procedure that is easily implemented, quickly beneficial to students, and useful at
any grade and in any content area, we encourage content teachers to use it in their instruction. QAR has been
proven to increase students’ comprehension more than several other questioning strategies (Jenkins & Lawler,
1990). QAR fosters listening, speaking, and reading, and if students write their own questions, it also offers
opportunities for writing. Raphael and Au (2005) recommend QAR as being especially helpful in schools with diverse
populations. They maintain that it helps students with poor reading skills while at the same time teaching higher level
thinking skills.
Teachers view QARs as a way to organize reading instruction on comprehension and
comprehension strategy learning. Why might this be? How could you incorporate it to address a bilingual student or
to offer an interesting writing prompt
GUIDE-O-RAMAS AND MARGINAL GLOSSES
A guide-o-rama (Cunningham & Shablak, 1975) alerts the reader to notice certain information in a reading passage.
The teacher creates directions for these passages and encourages students to use the directions as they read. For
instance, if the teacher sees the word perverse used in an unusual way, he might write: “On page 13, second
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FIGURE 4.3 Introduction to QAR
paragraph, third line, the word perverse is used a little differently from what you'd expect. Pay attention to the
meaning.” A teacher provides several directions such as this for readers to refer to as they read conventionally or
electronically.
Readers have a panoramic view of the reading—hence the name guide-o-rama. We hope you notice that we are
using such glosses (notes to the reader) throughout our textbook!
Marginal glosses (Singer & Donlan, 1985) are often found in content textbooks. Glosses are comments that authors
make to their readers as asides, sometimes in the margin of the page. Because the comments are intended to help
readers understand the passage, they assist readers in developing comprehension. Teachers can write their own
marginal glosses, conventionally or in electronic format, if texts do not include them or if additional ones are needed.
They are easily inserted into electronic text or can be printed to match the conventional text. Also, a guide-o-rama
can be designed as a gloss.
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ACTIVITY 4.12: Question–Answer Relationship for Early Elementary
Study of People of the Ecosystem
Question 1: Right there!
What is found in abundance in the shallow water
along the riverbanks of the Mattaponi River?
Question 2: Think and search!
Why does the author think the American Bald
Eagle is important to the tribe?
Answer
Many species of waterfowl such as the Great
White Heron and the American Bald Eagle.
Answer
The American Bald Eagle is a symbol for
America. Tribal members believe the eagle
carries messages for the tribe to God.
Question 3: You and the author!
Answer
How have the Mattaponi Indians helped to
The tribe has helped to preserve the marshes.
maintain a healthy river system?
They respect and preserve the waterfowl, and
they maintain a reservation hatchery to
introduce fish into the ecosystem and thus
maintain balance in nature
Question 4: On your own!
Answer
The passage describes muskrats in detail. They The students can research other river animals
live on the banks of the Mattaponi River. Can
and discover that the animal in question is the
you name another animal similar to the muskrat, beaver.
but larger, that also has webbed feet and lives
along the streams and rivers?
QAR constructed after reading from a passage in Powhatans: Past and Present, edited by Angela L. Daniel
(“Silver Star”).
Here are some suggestions for making marginal glosses:
1. Fold a sheet of paper next to the margin of a text.
2. Identify the book page at the top of the master copy and line up numbers beside the teacher remarks and notes.
3. Write the marginal notes on the sheet of paper.
4. Duplicate and give students copies of these notes to match to text pages for use as students read.
Marginal glosses and guide-o-ramas are like having the teacher go home with the students and look over their
shoulders as they read, guiding their reading attention. These strategies can help students use features of texts as
well as help teachers facilitate comprehension by questioning. We suggest that the teacher select either very difficult
portions of text to gloss, or beginning portions, when the reading may be tougher. Making guide-o-ramas or glosses
for use throughout a text would be time consuming. However, it is worth the time to provide assistance in developing
comprehension of challenging reading. Activity 4.13 shows a gloss for high school earth science.
Strategy Repertoire
Striving readers often do not realize that reading calls upon them to know what to do at a given point
with the text they are reading (Gee, 1996). Consider the difficulties that Mark, our struggling reader, has with not
knowing strategies to use in his reading. Even if a student like Mark knows he should take action, he is hampered by
his limited repertoire of strategies to comprehend material. Proficient readers use such strategies
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ACTIVITY 4.13: Marginal Gloss for High School Earth Science
How can I use this information?
Place on top edge at p.______ in binding.
1. Vocabulary word _____________ Definition in
Complete this side first.
your own words: (Use the picture for help, if needed.) Part I: What do I know?
2. What do you think mass is?
Topic heading:
Vocabulary word:
3. Why do you think ice floats in water?
Using words, give the density formula:
4. Why do you think the average Earth density is
Recall: Volume = length × width × height
greater than the average density of the Earth's crust?
Average Earth density (include units):
5. Given a rock with a mass of 550g and a density of Average density of Earth's crust (include
2.75 g/cm3, calculate the volume of the rock.
units):
6. Bring a rock to class tomorrow—no larger than an Recall from Chapter 1 two (2) materials
egg!
found in the Earth's core:
1.
2.
7.
What brand-name product has used
density of the product in its advertising?
Developed by Nancy S. Smith.
deliberately and flexibly, adapting them to fit a variety of reading situations. When used for resolving comprehension
difficulties, these are often referred to as fix-up strategies. When struggling readers encounter difficulty with text,
their response may be to “shut down,” stop, or give up because the text is too difficult. Proficient readers, in contrast,
are aware of specific strategies—such as visual imagery, self-questioning, and rereading—that can be used to fix up
or resolve the comprehension difficulty (Activity 4.14).
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ACTIVITY 4.14: Fix-Up Strategies: Elementary Mathematics
VISUALIZATION
Visualize a tree house that you and your friends would like to build.
How would you measure it? In yards? In feet? In inches?
How big would it be? How would you measure it?
Name some objects that are 1 inch long.
Name some objects that are 1 foot long.
Think about some objects that are one yard long.
Think about something that is one mile long.
SELF-QUESTIONING
What are the standard units of length?
Why do I need to know them?
Why do we measure in fractions?
What if we couldn't measure in fractions?
REREADING
I will read and study the problem again, focusing on determining what “congruent” means as it applies to triangles.
Read the problem again to get the overall idea.
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The fix-up list in Activity 4.14 is especially effective with struggling readers, but teachers will also find
numerous other activities that can be effective in each chapter of this text. Can you think of other activities that you
have learned from reading this textbook?
Research suggests that whereas proficient readers spontaneously use fix-up strategies, struggling readers do not—
even though they can and do use fix-up strategies under teacher direction (Gambrell & Bales, 1986). Kletzein (1991)
investigated students’ self-reports of strategies when reading different kinds of materials. He found little difference in
the strategies used by good and poor readers, but good readers were more flexible and persistent. Poor readers did
not seem to know when to use appropriate strategies. In fact, the most important goal of reading instruction for
struggling readers may be to develop the ability to use strategies to enhance comprehension (Winograd & Paris,
1988). Embedding strategy instruction within content is an efficient way to help struggling readers in content
classrooms (Hinchman et al, 2004). To do so, teachers must have a repertoire from which to draw.
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Challenge Box: Mark, the Struggling Reader
Mark faces many challenges in comprehending text in his content classes. Although he likes science and math and
puts forth more effort in those classes, he reads slowly and laboriously. He compensates for poor reading skills by
listening carefully, relying on visuals and the Internet for basic information. He has begun to “zone out” in classes as
the expectations get higher.
What techniques can a teacher use in the classroom to assist a
struggling student like Mark learn at his potential?
First, to keep Mark from losing interest and daydreaming so much, teachers need to make certain they keep him
active doing activities he enjoys. To keep him tuned in, a teacher might create a classroom calendar of assignments
to help him maintain good organizational skills. Online programs that feature virtual field trips can be a catalyst to
spark Mark's interest in learning. Please visit the Education CourseMate website at www.cengagebrain.com
; teachers can find online resources to help a struggling student like Mark, including a free teacher-constructed and maintained calendar for classroom assignments and a website that creates virtual field trips for students.
How can the teacher assist Mark in improving his skills?
The DR-TA and the WIKA will help Mark manage his reading. As he improves his ability to make predictions, his
comprehension will improve. Mark and the teacher (or another student) can work together at Reciprocal Reading so
he can better comprehend text and feel less discouraged. Breaking the reading into small component parts can make
it easier for Mark to comprehend reading material. The GRP will point him in the right direction, and three-level study
guides will divide the comprehension process into three distinct areas for him.
Listening activities, such as podcasts, will encourage Mark to use his listening ability and word knowledge. He then
can transcribe his thoughts in a writing activity, critiquing the reading and telling what he remembers from the reading.
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Assistance in Learning: One-Minute Summary
This chapter has described activities to be used in the Assistance Phase of the PAR Lesson Framework. To
understand text, students must construct meaning by using their prior knowledge when encountering new
information. To facilitate comprehension, students need to be taught to be active seekers of knowledge and to use
constructivist principles of learning. We discuss constructivist theory and how it relates to better student achievement
in the classroom. Mapping techniques are described that help enhance constructivist learning.
In this chapter, we introduce strategies that enable students to better read segments of text, such as the DR-TA, the
GRP, and reciprocal teaching. We explain the importance of students’ understanding of text structure and present
three strategies—pattern guides, three-level study guides, and organizational (jot) charts—that help students discover
and relate to text structure. We also discuss questioning strategies as important for assisting comprehension in
reading. We explain teacher questioning and student-generated questions, as well as describing. Other questioning
strategies, such as guide-o-ramas and marginal glosses, can help students to better understand reading materials.
Finally, we suggest fix-up strategies to help students build a reading strategy repertoire.
Assistance in Learning: End-of-Chapter Activities
Assisting Comprehension
1. Discuss some good ideas for activities to teach comprehension to your students.
2. Should teachers stress constructivism and constructivist learning strategies in their classrooms? Why or why not?
3. What questioning strategies can you now use more effectively?
Reflecting on Your Reading
4. Your content organization (e.g., National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, National Council of Teachers of
English, National Council for the Social Studies, National Science Teachers Association,
International Reading Association) has most likely developed a set of standards that identify the performance criteria
relevant to classroom teachers. Standards usually delineate elements of foundational knowledge that a classroom
teacher should possess for teaching reading comprehension. Locate and become familiar with what the organization
recommends. Many strategies and activities described in the chapter can be used to assist students in
comprehension. Which do you think will be most useful in the classroom? Explain your response. Also, do you think
any of the strategies can be used for computer-based instruction?
Chapter 5 : Learning through Reflection (pp. 107-133)
Learning through Reflection: Chapter Objectives
Nothing is particularly hard if you divide it into small jobs.
HENRY FORD
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VOICES FROM THE CLASSROOM
A father tried to console his 7-year-old son after the boy came home from school distraught and crying. The boy
blurted out that the teacher would never let him finish any work or project he started. “I know I could do a good job if
she would just let me finish. But we always have to get to a new thing in a hurry,” said the boy. This is the lament of
many students, who are always feeling the pressure of finishing an activity under tight, even repressive, time
constraints. Teachers also feel time constraints. They wonder how they can find the time to teach strategically and
still teach content when state-mandated tests seem to constrain their instruction. The “hurry up and learn” concept of
teaching doesn't take into account that learning takes time. To truly learn something, students need time to dissect,
analyze, and reflect on new material.
PREPARING TO READ
1. Why is it important to reflect on learning after we finish reading a passage?
2. What is your definition of critical thinking? As you read and find out about critical thinking in this chapter, compare
your definition of the construct with that of the authors.
3. Following is a list of terms used in this chapter. Some may be familiar to you in a general context, but in this
chapter, they may be used in unfamiliar ways. Rate your knowledge by placing a plus sign (+) before those you are
sure that you know, a check mark (✓) before those you have some knowledge about, and a zero (0) before those you
don't know. Be ready to locate them in the chapter and pay special attention to their meanings.
______ reflective thinking
______ autonomous learners
______ comprehension monitoring
______ critical literacy
______ brainstorming
______ post-graphic organizers
______ text lookbacks
______ extended anticipation guides
______ student-generated questions
______ think-alouds
OBJECTIVES
As you read this chapter, focus your attention on the following objectives. You will:
1. Explain why it is important to help students become autonomous learners.
2. Describe why good communication skills are an asset in reading
3. Explain why it is important for students to monitor their own comprehension as they read.
4. Identify critical thinking skills that are important in reflection.
5. Evaluate a number of strategies that help foster reflective thinking and decide which will work best in your
classroom.
6. Explain the factors that distinguish cooperative learning from working in groups.
7. Select and use some cooperative learning techniques to teach reading in the content areas.
The Reflection Phase of Reading
Can the first grader in the Voices from the Classroom realize his potential when he rushes through activity after
activity in his daily work? To learn, students need to be in a relaxed atmosphere where they have time to reflect on
the assignment. Purmensky (2006) has said that true reflection turns experience into learning. The third step in the
PAR (preparation, assistance, and reflection) Lesson Framework is reflection, which takes place after reading has
been completed. Many agree that postreading reflective strategies are crucial for comprehension beyond the literal
level (Christensen, 2002; Massey & Heafner, 2004). But reflective thinking, for most students, does not develop
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naturally without teacher intervention to actively promote this skill in students (Tompkins, 2002).
Whereas the Preparation Phase of lessons helps motivate students and the Assistance Phase helps build
comprehension, the Reflection Phase helps clarify thinking and focus understanding. In this phase, students learn
better how to retain information. Full understanding cannot be achieved until students reflect in a meaningful way
about their learning. Although teachers may guide students by providing instructional support, the students’ role is
crucial at this stage.
A number of positive changes occur when students are directed through the Reflection Phase. First, students think
more in depth about what they have learned and have yet to learn about the lesson. Much has been written about the
necessity of such reflective thinking in the reading process. John Dewey is considered to be the first educator who
introduced the term reflective thought into the literature (Shermis, 1999). He considered reflective thinking to be
careful thought persisting toward an objective of coming closer to the truth (Dewey, 1933). A second positive change
of reflective thinking is that it helps students retain material they have read. The more students reflect, the longer they
will remember information, and the more likely they will be to use the knowledge in further learning. A third positive
aspect is that reflection provides a demonstration of one's learning through a system of informal evaluation. Teachers
can use the Reflection Phase to assess what students did and did not comprehend. In this chapter, we discuss all
these aspects of reflection.
Time → Reflective thought → Retention of material → Further Learning
When teachers take the necessary time to guide students in reflective thought, students will learn more and assume
more responsibility for their learning. How might you rethink in-class and out-of-class time to ensure that this
important step takes place?
Reflection Creates Autonomous Learners
Researchers Baker, Luo, and Hung (2007) have noted that simply providing students with literature does not
guarantee their interest, comprehension, or retention. These authors maintain that students do not become reflective
without carefully organized instruction. Students need to practice reading behaviors that take the form of discussion,
debate, lab application, writing, reorganizing, rehearsal, and other similar activities that let students process ideas
and contemplate complex interactions concerning schemata and knowledge (Forget, 2004). After reading, students
should think about new information, process ideas, and make sense of what they have read. This continual practice
in reflection helps students become autonomous learners (self-regulated learners). Such students are not restricted
in their learning because they know how to read for meaning, study, take appropriate notes, and organize
information. All teachers should teach to make all students autonomous learners, but this does not always occur.
A major goal of education is to create autonomous learners, as discussed in principle 11, Chapter 1.
An example of the importance of autonomous learning can be found in Stephen King's The Body (1982). This story
illustrates how cooperative study and will power can produce reflective readers who think critically and persevere in
the face of intimidation. Gordon and Chris decide, after their experience finding a body near the train tracks and
facing off with a gang of older boys, that they will escape their lonely and dangerous conditions by studying hard and
achieving academic success. Chris refuses to stay in the “shop courses” even though the guidance counselor
advises he do so. They study together for hours at a time, depending only on each other and their own fortitude. Both
graduate near the top of their class and go on to college.
In this chapter, we teach important ways to help students become autonomous learners. Keep a list of the techniques
as you read. Which ones seem most important?
Students can best become autonomous learners by monitoring their own comprehension as they
read. Comprehension monitoring—keeping mental track of one's own learning—can take place when students
demonstrate their comprehension through
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pausing, analyzing, recalling, and retelling of information in their own words. Good readers are adept at
comprehension monitoring, but poor readers seem to lose track of their reading and to have no particular strategies
for comprehending (Kolic-Vehovec, & Bajanski, 2007). Researchers (Van der Schoot et al, 2009) have noted that
students who are good at monitoring comprehension resolve any word ambiguity much better than poor
comprehenders. Research (Winne & Perry, 2000; Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001) has reiterated the critical importance
of comprehension monitoring to effective study, and some research (Wiley, Griffin, & Thiede, 2005) suggests that the
kinds of expository texts used may be a critical factor in comprehension monitoring. Kolic-Vehovec and Bajsanski
(2006) found that comprehension monitoring strategies were effective in grades five through eight. Strategies that will
aid students in monitoring their own comprehension are presented later in this chapter.
Important Skills to Emphasize in the Reflection Phase of Reading
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Students must learn to communicate effectively if they are going to think and reflect after they read. More than any
other phase of learning, reflective learning depends on informative communication. Researchers (Duffy & Hoffman,
1999; Villaune, 2000) have asserted that the key to successful teaching of communicative arts is the training of
independent and spirited teachers who understand that their job is to use methods and materials in ways that
accommodate student needs. Such teachers realize that just as students read to learn, they listen, speak, and write
to learn—and that students use all of the communicative arts to make sense of the world. As Summers (2006) states,
listening and speaking reflectively about reading reinforces that learning in a social context is imperative.
Oppenheimer (2003) illustrated the importance of learning as communication by describing a team of American
researchers who journeyed to Japan in the late 1990s to investigate why Japanese children ranked near the top of all
countries in standardized achievement tests at that time. What they found surprised them. Instead of classes steeped
in memorization and rote learning, the researchers found classes in which students were engaged in “active
exploration, argument, analysis, and reflection” (p. 360). Furthermore, they found that Japanese students didn't rush
from topic to topic (as in the United States) but worked in depth on discrete problems, examining some questions for
weeks at a time. Oppenheimer noted how much the classroom environment in Japan was at odds with Americans’
notions of what happens in Japanese schools. And it appears that Japanese schools, with the highest achieving
students in the world, were conducting classes that are compatible with the guidelines called for by the National
Council of Teachers of English.
Teachers must realize that the key element of the Reflection Phase of the PAR Lesson Framework is the
type of communication described in this section. All of the communicative arts are present in some form in good
communication, as stated in principle 2 in chapter 1.
In an Australian study, Gillies and Boyle (2006) found that teachers need training to use communication skills in
promoting student thinking and to scaffold student learning. They trained teachers specifically to challenge student
perspectives, ask more cognitive questions that allowed students to monitor their own comprehension, and provide
scaffolds for student learning. They found that students modeled many types of discourse used by the teachers in the
study, and the group communication skills that were used contributed to the students’ sense of security in learning.
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CRITICAL THINKING
Critical thinking as an important dimension of learning is emphasized in textbooks and in the research literature.
Research has shown the importance of critical thinking in changing students’ misconceptions in a learning
environment (Kowalski & Taylor, 2004). Educators have emphasized, however, that such critical thinking takes time
and a sustained mental effort—a fact that is sometimes lost on those in charge of setting curriculum in our rushed,
test-driven classroom environments (Jaimes, 2005). Most educators tend to agree about the benefits of teaching
critical thinking. Law and Kaufhold (2009) found that students who engaged in regular activities that promote the
development of critical thinking skills performed higher on tasks of higher order thinking. But even though there is
agreement that some elements of critical thinking need to be taught across the curriculum, the concept itself remains
so vague that educators are not certain about its meaning, about the best ways for classroom teachers to teach it, or
even about whether it can be taught. After examining a textbook that contained practice examples in teaching critical
thinking, a teacher once remarked, “It was a good book, but it really didn't contain much critical thinking.” This
comment underscores the subjective nature of the concept.
Two views of critical thinking are prevalent in the reading literature: narrow mastery versus all encompassing +
inductive
The literature generally supports two interpretations of critical thinking. One is a narrow definition of critical thinking as
the mastery and use of certain skills necessary for the assessment of statements. These skills take the same form as
logic or deduction and may include judging the acceptability of authority statements, judging contradictory statements,
and judging whether a conclusion follows necessarily from its premises (Beyer, 1983). A more encompassing
definition includes these skills as well as inductive types of skills, such as hypothesis testing, proposition generation,
and creative argument (Sternberg & Baron, 1985). Clark (1999) offers a definition that is more in line with this latter
view of the construct. Clark says that such reflective and critical thinking “is thinking for an extended period by linking
recent experiences to earlier ones in order to promote a more complex and interrelated mental schema” (p.1). We
agree with this latter, more inclusive definition and emphasize critical thinking in this broader sense throughout this
text.
As we have said, everyone agrees that one of the most important ways to emphasize reflection in reading is to ask
students to think critically about what they read. Hynd (1999) encourages teachers to teach critical thinking by
exposing middle and high school students to historical documents and multiple texts. This is now a much easier
undertaking because many primary source documents are available on the Internet. In this way, students can read
different or even opposing views and begin to think like historians. As students experience the process that historians
use in researching and writing about history, they may be able to apply this thinking process to other subjects as well.
Students have to consider the sources of information and when they were published to determine how to use them as
resources. Authentic materials also demonstrate to students that discourse takes many forms and formats,
depending on the time and situation. Thus, Hynd's research provides early support for use of many forms of
discourse (see principles 4 and 5 of Chapter 1), as advocated by Crystal (2003) and Moje (2008). Thinking like a
researcher enables students to think critically. By reinforcing the reading experience through critical thinking, teachers
can challenge students to think about content material in new ways.
Too often, however, classroom teachers, especially at the elementary level, shy away from teaching critical thinking.
One reason for this is that there is no clear definition of
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the construct. Another reason is that teachers mistakenly believe that critical means to find fault and emphasize the
negative. Also, critical thinking is a difficult construct to measure through teacher-made tests, and critical thinking
skills are not mandated for minimum competence in many subjects. Teachers are not well-trained in the skill of test
construction in general, much less in testing for critical thinking. In addition, some teachers have the notion that atrisk learners are not capable of critical thinking. Finally, teachers often say that they do not have adequate time to
plan instruction in critical thinking and lack appropriate materials and books to teach it properly. Despite these
perceived obstacles, teaching critical thinking should not be neglected at any grade level. This important ability leads
to greater success in academic subjects and will be useful to students after graduation. In short, critical thinking is a
skill that will aid students in all facets of life.
The topic of evaluating critical thinking on test is addressed in Chapter 12.
We can clarify our view of critical thinking by studying what happens when this skill is put to use. Two of the most
outward manifestations of critical thinking are problem solving and decision making. Research (Montague &
Applegate, 2000) attests to the importance of problem-solving skills in content area subjects. Critical thinking leads to
problem solving, which in turn leads to effective decision making. Students who use critical thinking are more
effective thinkers; both their creative and contemplative abilities improve. We offer the following steps that teachers
can use in helping students engage in problem solving:
1. Gather ideas and information. Students brainstorm to generate enough information to begin defining the
problem. They can play a “reading detective” game or do research to gather information from all possible sources.
2. Define the problem. Students recognize the need to resolve a situation that has no apparent solution. They
should be asked to clarify the nature of the task and completely describe the situation in writing.
3. Form tentative conclusions. This is a creative phase in which students suggest possible solutions from available
data.
4. Test conclusions. Students discuss in groups which conclusions work best as solutions to the problem. Poor
choices are eliminated until workable solutions remain. Students may also establish criteria for evaluating outcomes.
5. Make a decision. Students select one of the remaining solutions and give reasons for their choice.
Teachers can then construct study guides, such as the one in Activity 5.1, that provide cognitive activities to assist
students in using these problem-solving steps. It is especially important to start these types of activities in early
elementary classrooms because unsophisticated learners seldom let their minds journey across stories to think about
possible similarities.
Group decision making can also be taught through the use of a group-and-label technique. The teacher begins by
writing the topic on the board and telling the students that they will be reviewing important terminology. Then students
volunteer any terms they can think of that fall under the topic heading. The teacher may ask leading questions or
even eliminate this step by preparing a list in advance (on the board, on a worksheet, in a word processing file, on
BlackBoard). Students reorganize the list into smaller lists of items that have something in common and give each of
these sublists a label. Students may work individually or in small groups to reorganize and label the words. Activity
5.2 shows how grouping and labeling might work for a second grade social studies unit on communities.
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ACTIVITY 5.1: Critical Thinking Guide: Problem Solving
•
•
A problem arises.
Why do we need to solve the problem?
Ways to Solve Problem Reasons for Choosing Method
Method 1
Positive outcomes
Negative outcomes
Method 2
Positive outcomes
Negative outcomes
Method 3
Positive outcomes
Negative outcomes
Best way to solve problem Reasons for choosing to solve problem in this manner
Adapted from a decision-making model by J. McTighe and F. T. Lyman, Jr. (1988), Cueing thinking in the classroom: The
promise of theory-embedded tools. Educational Leadership 45(7), 18–24.
ACTIVITY 5.2: Group-and-Label Technique: Second Grade Social
Studies
The students will be asked to read Berkeley: Life on the James River Plantations in Colonial Days. A Book to Read
and Color by Mary Bell and Elva Mapp.
From a jumbled list of words taken from the text, the students will be asked to divide the words into five groups,
according to their similarities. The teacher will project these groups of words on the board. The students will label the
groups. These labels will be projected by the teacher as titles for the groups of words.
The five groups:
Leaders
Words to be grouped:
Thanksgiving
cutting lumber
Westover
Carter's Grove
tobacco growing
blacksmith
Colonel Benjamin
Harrison
steeple chasing
Anne Carter
General McClellan
Plantations Household Activities Occupations
Berkeley
Plantation school
John Carter
John Rolfe
shipyard
tannery
warming pan
making brick
stableyard pets
Shirley
Mount Vernon
seine netting
grist mill
fox hunting
John Hancock
William Henry
Harrison
Benedict Arnold
Cornwallis
Taps
Colonial
Activities
Elizabeth
Harrison
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Duke and Pearson (2002) list the attributes of good readers, and almost all of them involve the types of critical
thinking that we describe. These researchers say that good readers:
Are active readers.
Have clear, established goals in mind.
Constantly evaluate whether the reading is meeting their goals.
Look over the text to determine text structure.
Frequently make predictions.
Read selectively, making decisions about what to read carefully, what to read quickly, what not to read, and what to
reread.
Construct meaning as they read.
Revise and question meanings while reading.
Determine meanings of unfamiliar words and concepts as they read.
Draw from and use prior knowledge before and during reading.
Monitor their understanding of the text.
React emotionally and intellectually to text by evaluating the value and quality of the reading.
Read disparate texts differently.
Understand settings and characters in a narrative.
Summarize what they have read in expository text.
Process text even after they complete a reading.
See reading as a consuming, continuous, and complex activity.
Get satisfaction from reading and view it as productive.
Which one of the attributes of good readers do you consider the most essential in your content area?
Please visit the Education CourseMate website at www.cengagebrain.com and view several websites
that list online books for teaching critical thinking in the broad sense discussed here.
All of these reading behaviors include critical thinking in its broader sense. Remember that students think critically
when they monitor comprehension, determine text structure, read selectively, revise and construct the meanings of
words and concepts, use prior knowledge to evaluate and analyze text, concern themselves with the value of what is
being read, summarize text, and in general regard reading as a satisfying and complex activity.
Students in kindergarten through twelfth grade are seldom taught to reflect and solve problems except in
published programs on thinking or in “critical thinking” sections of basal reading materials. But teachers do not need
published “thinking” programs, and they cannot depend on textbooks to teach critical thinking skills. They must
integrate their own critical thinking lessons with those of...
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