Lab 5 - Experimental Analysis of
Sedimentation:
A. Lab Objectives
1. Use settling column experiments to observe and characterize the settling of discrete and
flocculent particles under conditions typical of water and wastewater treatment
applications.
2. Compare the measured and theoretical settling velocities for the discrete particles
examined in the settling column tests.
3. Apply the results from the settling column tests for discrete, flocculent settling to size
and design full scale sedimentation tanks for specified flow rates and treatment
efficiencies.
B. Student Learning Outcomes
1. Describe and compare the 4 classes of sedimentation found in water and
wastewater treatment systems. Understand where sedimentation is applied in water
and wastewater treatment systems
2. Describe the fluid properties and forces and that influence the sedimentation of a
discrete particle in a fluid. Discuss how the Reynolds Number is used to determine
laminar or turbulent flow conditions and how it influences the settling velocity of
discrete particles.
3. Understand the derivation of terminal settling velocity for a discrete particle.
Measure the terminal settling velocity for a variety of particles and compare the
measurements to calculated settling velocity based on theory.
4. Understand the relationship between terminal settling velocity and surface loading
rate for a sedimentation tank.
5. Compute removal efficiency for a sedimentation tank.
6. Apply results from laboratory settling column studies to the design of
sedimentation tanks for flocculent settling (primary sedimentation tanks) and
hindered settling (secondary sedimentation tanks).
C. References and Reading
Tchobanoglous, G., Burton, F.L., and Stensel, H.D. (2003) Wastewater
Engineering,
Treatment and Resuse/ Metcalf and Eddy,
th
4 Edition. McGraw-Hill. pp 361-383.
D. Background
I.
Sedimentation Applications in Water and Wastewater
Treatment Systems
Sedimentation tanks are applied in several locations in most water and
wastewater treatment systems. The sedimentation tanks are designed as plug flow
reactors and can have either a rectangular (L/W >3) or a circular surface area. The
size of the tanks (depth and surface area) are largely dependent on the flow rate
and the nature of the solids that are to be settled and removed. In chemical
engineering terms, sedimentation tanks can be viewed as a liquid/solids separation
process.
Figure 1 shows a line schematic of a typical water treatment system for a
source water from a reservoir. The sedimentation tank is placed after the
chemicals coagulants are added to the water to help form settle-able solids. Figure
2 shows a schematic of a conventional wastewater system using biological
treatment. Sedimentation tanks are used in wastewater systems as grit removal
tanks to remove sand-like particles, primary sedimentation tanks to remove settleable organic solids, and secondary sedimentation tanks to remove activated sludge
(bacteria and other microorganisms).
II. Analysis of Discrete Particle Sedimentation
Solids settle in a fluid occur because of the difference in density between the fluid and the
solid. When a solid is immersed in a fluid, there are at least two general opposing forces
that act on the solid:
Eq. 1 Fg = gravitational force = Vp 𝛾 p
Eq. 2 Fb = buoyant force = Vf 𝛾𝑓
where Vp = volume of the particle,
𝛾 p = specific weight of the particle, Vf = volume of
fluid displaced by the particle, and
𝛾 f = specific weight of the fluid.
The buoyancy force (Fb) is the force of the fluid on the solid. If the solid has a
greater density than the fluid, the gravitational force overcomes the buoyancy force,
causing the solid to move downward, or settle, through the fluid. If the solid has a lower
density than the fluid, the buoyancy force overcomes the gravitational force, causing the
solid to move upward, or float, toward the surface of the fluid. As the particle begins to
move up or down (accelerate) due to the unbalanced gravitational and buoyant forces,
another force occurs on the particle – drag forces. Drag forces (Fd) are initially due to the
friction of the fluid on the surface of the particle. Drag forces generally cannot be
determined from theory, so engineers have used the results of experiments on a variety of
shapes to estimate the drag force. The general expression for a drag force is given as:
Eq. 3 Fd = Cd
A v2/2
where Fd= drag force on the surface of the particle, Cd = coefficient of drag
determined from experiments, = density of the fluid, A= cross-sectional area or the
projected plan area of the particle in direction of flow, and v = fluid velocity around the
particle.
When the drag force is added into the force balance, the velocity (v) of the particle
will adjust until the sum of Fd, Fb, and Fg equals zero (static equilibrium), at which point
the particle will continue to move at a constant velocity (no net force, therefore no
acceleration, but velocity is not necessarily zero). The velocity that brings the forces into
equilibrium is called the terminal velocity, or terminal settling velocity for the case when
the particle is settling through the fluid. An equation (Eq. 4) can be developed for the
terminal velocity by rearranging Fb –Fg – Fd = 0. To simplify sedimentation problems, it
is common to assume that the particles are spherical in shape, and the Cd values are well
documented from experiments using spherical particles (see fig 5-20 p 364 of Metcalf
and Eddy, or Fig. 11-5 p 293 of Droste).
where vs = terminal settling velocity;
p and w = density of particle and water,
respectively; d = particle diameter; g = gravitational constant; and Sgp = specific
gravity of the particle = 𝜌𝑝 /𝜌𝑤
This all seems very simple, but the problem with applying this equation is that the
coefficient of drag (Cd) is also a function of the velocity, as well as the shape and size of
the particle. It has been found that the Cd is best described as a function of the Reynolds
Number (Nr). Nr is a dimensionless parameter that has been found to be related to the
nature of the flow around the particle.
where Nr = Reynolds number, = density of fluid, = viscosity of the fluid, v = fluid or
particle velocity, and d = diameter of particle. Laminar flow predominates at low values
of Nr (Nr 2000), when the velocities tend to be
high and the fluid does not move in the distinct streamlines observed in laminar flow. The
fluid particles actually move in erratic, or somewhat random, “eddies” as the fluid moves
over the particle. There is a transition zone between laminar and fully developed
turbulent flow which occurs at Nr values greater than 1 and less than 2000.
Values for the fluid properties (𝜌, 𝜇) can be found in reference tables in appendices
usually given as a function of temperature. The viscosity is a property of the fluid that
describes its resistance to shear. Thick fluids, like molasses, are very viscous. It should
also be noted that “d” in Eq. 5 actually represents a characteristic length which varies
depending on the nature of the problem.
Based on the results of experiments to measure Cd, it was found that for laminar
flow conditions:
Eq. 6 Cd = 24/Nr ( Nr 2000), the Cd is approximately constant at 0.4, and vs can
be computed from Eq. 4.
To summarize, the equations given above describe discrete particle settling, which
is the simplest case of sedimentation. Discrete particle settling occurs when the particles
do not react or combine with each other and when the solids concentrations (number of
particles per unit volume of fluid) are relatively low.
Although discrete particle sedimentation is the simplest form of sedimentation, it
does occur to some extent in sedimentation tanks in both water and wastewater treatment,
and in natural systems such as ponds, lakes, and oceans. The most direct application of
discrete particle settling is in grit removal chambers which are used in wastewater
systems to remove sand-sized particles from the waste stream to protect downstream
pumps and equipment. The understanding of discrete particle settling is fundamental to
understanding the other classes of sedimentation (flocculent, hindered, and compression
sedimentation).
Sedimentation tanks are usually designed as plug flow reactors to minimize
disturbances in the fluid that would interfere with sedimentation. Most sedimentation
tanks are designed so that the water is introduced at the bottom of the tank and is forced
to flow upward to exit the tank. The upflow velocity (vu) can be calculated from the
continuity equation as:
Eq. 9 vu = Q/Asurf
where vu = upflow velocity, Q = volumetric flow rate, and Asurf = surface area of the
sedimentation tank (L x W for rectangular tanks). The only condition that must be met
for a discrete particle to settle is:
Eq. 10 vs > vu.
If Q and vs are known, the minimum surface area can be calculated by setting vu = vs
and rearranging Eq. 9. Hence, vu is an important design and operational parameter in all
sedimentation processes, and it is also referred to as the Surface Loading Rate or the
Overflow Rate. Note that for discrete particle settling, the depth of the tank does not
matter. In fact, an ideal discrete particle sedimentation tank would be a tray (depth = 0).
III. Analysis of Flocculent Settling
As the particle concentrations increase in a fluid, collisions between particles
occur which may result in the formation of larger particles that have higher settling
velocities. In addition, certain types of particles may have surface characteristics (such as
electrostatic surface charges) that attract other particles and enhance the agglomeration
process. The collision and agglomeration process is called flocculation, and the particles
that develop are called flocs. Chemicals called coagulants are often added to water prior
to sedimentation to enhance the flocculation process.
Flocculent settling is more complicated than discrete particle settling because the
particle size and settling velocity vary with time as the particle settles. The reactor depth
is important in flocculent settling because as the particles settle through the depth of the
tank, the chance for flocculation increases which will improve the sedimentation process.
There is a limit to the improved settling by flocculation, and this limit occurs when the
solids concentration becomes high (usually 1000 mg/L or greater). At the higher solids
concentrations, the solids begin to form blanket across the entire settling zone, and the
settling velocity becomes “hindered” due to the clogging effect of the solids blanket. So
flocculent settling is usually limited to dilute to moderate solids concentrations (100-1000
mg/L) which occur in water treatment systems and in primary sedimentation tanks of
wastewater treatment systems.
The analysis of flocculent settling must be examined experimentally for each
water, and the experimental procedure described below is often used to design
sedimentation tanks. Flocculent settling is very important in the design and operation of
almost all water and wastewater sedimentation processes.
IV. Analysis of Hindered Settling and Compression Settling
Hindered settling occurs when the settling flocculent particle concentration
becomes high enough to form a distinct sludge interface or blanket between the settling
solids and the clarified water. This occurs at solids concentrations generally over 1000
mg/L, and these high concentrations occur in secondary sedimentation tanks of
biological wastewater treatment systems. Once the sludge blanket or interface is formed,
the settling process becomes very efficient at trapping and removing solids as the blanket
passes downward through the water. The particles in the settling blanket all tend to move
or settle at the same rate, and because of this, hindered settling is also referred to as
“zone” settling.
As with flocculent settling, the tank surface area and depth are important for
hindered settling, and experimentation is needed for each wastewater to determine the
actual settling velocities and solids removal efficiencies. The experimental procedure
described below is one of two methods used for the design and analysis of secondary
sedimentation tanks. The other method, known as the solids flux approach, can be
reviewed from standard references such as Metcalf and Eddy.
Compression settling, the fourth class of sedimentation, occurs when the sludge
blanket reaches the bottom of the tank, and the particles begin to rest on top of each
other. The only additional settling of the sludge blanket occurs when the weight of the
particles on top of the blanket compress the solids in the bottom of the blanket. The result
is that the solids concentration in the sludge layer becomes higher and more dense, and
this process is also referred to as sludge thickening.
E. Equipment and Materials
Settling columns with depth measurements or a measuring tape
Stopwatch
Acetate beads of various sizes
Beakers
Micrometer
Thermometer
Analytical balance
Alum, Soda ash (Na2CO3), and kaolin, beakers and mixers for preparation of flocculent
suspension (200-300 mg/L TSS) and sludge (approx. 2000 mg/L TSS).
10L container
Turbidimeter (calibrated) and sample cells
4 plastic centrifuge tubes with caps
For Total Suspended Solids (TSS) analyses:
Glass fiber 1 um or 0.45um filter pads, filter flask and holder, vacuum pump, aluminum
weighing dishes, and drying oven (100 C).
F. Procedures I. Discrete Particle Settling
1. Prior to the lab, soak the acetate beads in water to remove any trapped air.
2. Fill a settling column with water. Mark the column approximately 1 foot from the
top of the column and 1 foot from the bottom of the column. Measure the distance
(settling distance) between these two marks. The settling velocity of the discrete particles
will be measured between these points. Measure the temperature of the water.
3. Measure the diameter and weight of the (dry) beads (take several measurements to
obtain an average, median, and standard deviation).
4. For each different type of particle, gently drop the particle into the water in the settling
column. The particle should reach a terminal settling velocity within a short distance
from the surface (approx. 1 ft). Use the stopwatch to measure the settling time between
the two marks on the settling column (about 1 foot from the top and 1 foot from the
bottom of the column). Take several measurements to get a representative average. The
settling velocity is then estimated as the settling distance divided by the settling time.
II. Flocculent Settling
1. Prior to the experiment, prepare 8 L of a flocculent suspension (approximately 300
mg/L of TSS) prepared from kaolin and alum floc using sodium carbonate for alkalinity
based on the following reaction:
Al2(SO4)3-18H2O + 3 Na2CO3 + 3 H2O => 2 Al(OH)3(s) + 3Na2SO4 + 3CO2 + 18
H2O
a. In a 2 L jar test beaker, add 2 L of tap water and place under a paddle stirrer at 200
rpm for mixing. First weigh and add 1.20 g of kaolin (measure and record the
exact weight added). Allow the clay to mix and hydrate for at least 15 minutes.
b. After the clay has mixed, weigh and add 2.8 g of soda ash (Na2CO3) to the beaker
and continue stirring. After 1 minute of mixing, weigh and add 5.1 g of alum
(Al2(SO4)3-18H20) to the beaker. Allow to mix for 1 minute at 200 rpm, and then
reduce the mixer speed to about 50-75 rpm to encourage floc formation for about
10- 15 minutes.
c. Measure out 6 L of tap water into a container, and pour the prepared 2 L
suspension into the container and gently stir to mix thoroughly. Measure the
temperature of the water and the turbidity of the mixture. Note: Usually these tests
are normally run using TSS measurements instead of turbidity. However, turbidity
measurements offer a much faster procedure, and a relationship can be developed
between turbidity and TSS for each suspension.
d. If desired, a calibration curve can be developed to translate the turbidity
measurements into total suspended solids concentration (TSS). Make 4 dilutions
of the original suspension (including a full strength sample) and measure the
turbidity and TSS of each sample. Plot the results and develop a regression
equation to predict TSS as a function of turbidity.
2. After mixing, gently pour the suspension into the settling column up to a height of
5 ft. Stir the contents of the column to obtain a uniform suspension by passing a
baffle up and down the column sever times, and immediately start the stop watch
after mixing. Withdraw a 20 ml sample from each of the sampling ports using a
plastic test tube (centrifuge tube with a screw cap – label the cap on each tube by
the port number for each sample). Each sampling port should be identified by its
distance (hi) from the water surface in the column.
3. Turn on the portable turbidimeter (the turbidimeter should be calibrated prior to
the experiment if necessary). Select a turbidity sample cell and rinse it with DI or
tap water. Make sure to shake the centrifuge tube thoroughly prior to pouring the
sample into the turbidity cell. Measure and record the turbidity of each sample. At
the start, the initial turbidity (and solids concentration) should be the same (or
similar) at each port if the contents are uniformly mixed. Use an average of the
samples from each port to represent the initial turbidity (it should be similar to the
turbidity measured in step 1-d).
4. Observe the column and examine the particles for floc formation and settling.
Collect samples every 10 minutes and measure the turbidity for each port until the
turbidity levels are near background (usually within 1- 1.5 hours).
G. Data Analysis and Discussion Questions
I. Discrete Particle Settling
1. Plot the settling velocity vs particle diameter for each type of particle tested. Does the
change in settling velocity between particle sizes of the same material vary with the
square of the diameter (as would be indicated by Stokes Law)?
2. Compute the Reynolds number for each particle and determine if laminar or turbulent
conditions exist. Do these results agree with your answer to question 1? Apply the
equations for discrete particle settling to estimate the settling velocity of each sized
particle, and compare the calculated velocities to the experimental measurements.
II. Flocculent Settling
There are two procedures for analyzing the sedimentation data for flocculent
settling to design a sedimentation tank to achieve a specified percent removal. The
abbreviated method simply measures the average turbidity and percent removal (%R) in
the column as a function of time. The traditional detailed method develops iso-removal
curves as a function of depth and time in the settling column. Both methods are explained
below, but for these labs, the abbreviated method is sufficient.
Average Concentration and % Removal Method
1. Calculate the average turbidity through-out the column for each time interval. Next
calculate the % Removal (%R) at each time step based on Eq 11:
Eq. 11 % Rt = (NTUo - NTUt)/NTUo x 100%
where %Rt = percent removal efficiency for the column at time t, NTUo= initial average
turbidity of the suspension in the column, and NTUt = average turbidity at time t.
2. Develop a graph of %Rt vs settling time (ts) using results from step 1. Also, the surface
loading rate or upflow velocity can be calculated for each time interval from step 4 as
H/ts, where H = total water depth and ts= settling time. Generate a graph of %Rt vs
surface loading rate (another name for the upflow velocity). These graphs can then be
applied to determine the detention time and surface loading rate needed to achieve a
specified percent removal.
3. In order to design the full scale sedimentation tank from the experimental data, the
required experimental surface loading rate is multiplied by a safety-factor of 0.65- 0.85,
and then the required surface area of the tank is determined from Eq.12:
Eq. 12 Surface Area (Asurf) = Q/vu
where vu is the surface loading rate adjusted for the factor of safety and can be calculated
as H/ts. The required depth for the tank is usually taken as the depth of the experimental
column multiplied by a safety factor of 1.25-1.50. This safety factor will only affect the
surface area of the tank. For a rectangular tank, a L/W ratio of 3/1 (or greater) is
recommended to ensure plug flow conditions.
Likewise, determine the depth (H) required for the full scale tank based on the detention
time required from the settling column tests using Eq 13: \
Eq. 13 td = Volume/Q = Asurf H/Q , or H= td (Q/Asurf)
The laboratory detention times are usually multiplied by 1.25-1.50 as a factor of safety
for the full scale design. Note that since flocculent sedimentation is dependent on depth,
the depth of the tank to be designed is assumed to be at least the same as the depth of the
settling column because it is not possible to predict how the suspension would settle at
other depths. The safety factor for the detention time provides for larger depths in the full
scale sedimentation tank.
H. Application Problems (Show your detailed answers in the Appendix)
I. Discrete Particle Settling
1. Assuming discrete particle settling with a continuous flow rate of 30 MGD, determine
the surface area of the sedimentation tank needed to remove each type of particle by
settling as a function of particle diameter.
2. Consider a single bacterial cell as a discrete particle with a diameter of 1x10-6 m and a
specific gravity of 1.01. Assuming laminar flow conditions, calculate how long would it
take for the cell the settle 1 foot in water at 20 oC? For a flow rate of 4 MGD, what
surface area would be required to settle individual cells? Is sedimentation a practical
method for removing individual bacterial cells?
II. Flocculent Settling
1. Apply the results from your experiment to determine the diameter and depth needed
for a full scale sedimentation tank to achieve a 80% removal of the test suspension at a
design flow rate of 20 MGD (million gallons per day).
2. Discuss how temperature would affect the settling characteristics. If you were
designing a sedimentation tank for flocculent settling, would the summer or winter
operating water temperature be the most critical condition (hint: examine how the
viscosity of water varies with temperature)?
Settling length (ft) =
o
Temperature of water ( C)=
4
21.2
3
Density of water (kg/m ) =
dynamic viscosity (kg/m s) =
gravitaional constant (m/s^2)=
Particle diameter
1.5 mm
3mm 6 mm
Total settling length (m)
Weight of particles (g)
Number of particles
Weight per particle (g)
Diameter of particle (m)
NR
0.0249
10
0.166
10
1.3921
10
0.00249
0.0166
0.13921
3
Volume of particle (m )
Specific weight (N/m3 )
Specific gravity
1
2
3
Average
Exp. Settling Velocity (m/s)
Members:
1.5 mm
15.9
15.84
16.09
15.943
Time (sec)
3mm
9.19
9.24
9.07
9.167
6 mm
5.87
5.53
5.60
5.667
Cd
Vs (m/s)
orange
1.5 mm
green
3mm
white
6 mm
1. Compute the Reynolds number (NR) for each particle and
determine if laminar, transition, or turbulent conditions exist.
(base on the temperature, find the viscosity and desity of water
)
2. Find the Cd based on NR
3.Apply the equations for discrete particle settling to estimate
1. Plot the settling velocity (Y-axis) vs particle
diameter (X-axis) for each type of particle
tested.
2. Compare plots v vs. d; v vs. d2; v vs. d0.5
ch particle and
conditions exist.
and desity of water
ttling to estimate
Settling Distance =
5
ft
m
Turbidity (NTU) of
Tap Water
Mixture
1
2.38
308
2
2.32
320
Average
2.35
314
1ft
Time (min)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
314.00
83.20
50.70
36.60
25.20
24.80
18.90
Turbidity (NTU) of water at each sampling port
2ft
3ft
4ft
1
2
3
4 Average
314.00
314.00
314.00
314.00
273.00
344.00
319.00
254.80
95.20
172.00
362.00
169.98
38.80
46.30
77.50
49.80
29.40
30.10
31.90
29.15
23.90
24.80
30.70
26.05
20.00
23.30
20.50
20.68
%Rt
Vu (m/s)
1. Calculate %R.
2. Plot %R vs settling time (ts)
3. Plot %Rtotal (Y-axis) vs Surface loading rate
(X-axis)
REPORTS AND PROJECTS
REQUIREMENTS
A. REPORTS WRITING
1.Lab reports should be written from the perspective of a practicing engineer to the
extent possible. The reports should be written for a general technical audience
(such as another engineering student or faculty). Assume that the assignments are
projects that you are assigned to work on by your project manager or client. Therefore,
phrases such as: “the students were given the test specimens ....,” should be avoided.
In addition, the stated objectives of the lab should be technical objectives, not
“educational objectives.” For instance, a practicing engineer is not likely to tell his client
that he did the work to learn how to use the equipment.
2. All reports should be prepared using a Word processor (Microsoft Word) and
submitted online. Students will be responsible for maintaining copies of all
reports in the event that a file is lost or revisions are necessary. All text should be
double spaced. Margins (at least one-inch) should be provided on all sides of the
page. Pages should be consecutively numbered beginning with page 1 following
the title page.
3.All Tables and Figures must be presented in similar format to the ASCE
journals. They should be properly numbered (Figure 1, Table 1), titled, and labeled
(including units), and they should appear as soon as possible after they are
referred to in the text.
4. For figures (graphs, sketches, pictures, or other illustrations), the figure
number and title appear at the bottom of the figure. Table numbers and titles
appear at the top of each table. Original data records and sample calculations DO
NOT belong in the body of the report, but should be included in titled appendices. The
results should be presented in tabular or graphical format, and should include all
pertinent data and information to allow the reader to independently check the
work.
5. All equations must be sequentially numbered ( ie. Eq. 1 or Equation 1.), and all
variables in the equation must be identified the first time they appear in the report.
6.Avoid the use of personal pronouns such as “we” or “I”. Although these pronouns are
acceptable and may be preferred in other writing styles, they are not widely accepted by
technical journals in engineering. Engineering journals prefer an objective view point ;
the work being described should be reproducible by anybody following the procedures
described in the study. The use of “we” and “I” is subjective and may imply that only
the authors could do the work.
7.Avoid the use of colloquialisms, jargon, and meaningless or unnecessary phrases (ie.
-"the results were as expected", or "this was a good experiment”). All parts of the
lab report should directly support the objectives of the lab.
8. Use proper spelling and grammar -points will be deducted from lab reports if
grammar and spelling errors persist. Help from the University Writing Center
should be considered, or may be required, if writing problems are not corrected.
References will be made available for help with technical writing.
9.Sections and Content of the Lab Reports: Students should take pride in their lab
reports since they represent the work that was put into the lab. A "short report form" will
be used for the lab reports for these experiments, and will include the following sections:
a. Title Page:
b Table of Contents:
c. Abstract: a brief one to two-paragraph summaries of the objectives, work conducted
during the experiment, and significant results or findings. Sometimes a background
statement may be provided at the beginning of the abstract.
d. Introduction: Background statement on the relevance of the lab from an engineering
perspective; objectives of the lab; overview, or scope, of the work.
e. Procedures and Methods: This section consists of two subsections: (1) the
experimental procedures performed to acquire the data, and (2) the methods applied to
analyze the data to produce the results and achieve the objectives.
i.
Many students fail to recognize that the equations and statistical methods
applied to obtain the results are as important as the raw data. The reader
expects to see these methods discussed in this section in order to understand
how the objectives of the work were achieved. After reading these details in
the Procedures and Methods Section, the reader will know what to look for
and expect in the Results and Discussion Section. Students may wish to use
subheadings, such as Experimental Procedures and Data Analyses, to help
write and organize this section.
ii.
Provide a general description of the work conducted during the experiment
with particular attention to any deviations from the lab manual. Do not provide
a step by step set of instructions that are found in the lab manual! Theories,
formulas, and equations that are applied to the data, or otherwise examined
during the experiment, should be presented and discussed in this section
(Data Analyses). Equations should be numbered and all symbols or
parameters in the equation should be identified as you would find in a technical
journal article.
f. Results and Discussion: Tables and graphs should be used to present your data,
calculations, and results. Discussion must be provided to describe and explain the
data and significance of the information in the tables and graphs. Comparison of results
with theory or accepted formulas should be discussed. Sources of error should be
discussed with respect to your findings and the significance of these errors with respect
to the objectives of the lab
g. Conclusions: Summarize objectives, significant results, and discuss conclusions
and recommendations.
h. References: Provide a bibliographic list of references used in the lab report.
I. Appendix Include the original data sheets from lab, calculations (or at least one
complete set of well documented sample calculations),application problems, and any
other related information which supports the lab report, but does not fit in the main
report. All information and data needed to develop the results of the lab or project
should be presented either in the main report or the appendix.
10.Check List (in appendix):
Students should use the check list to proofread the report and revise the formats,
contents of the report if necessary. The check list should be placed in the last page
of the report.
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