Chapter Eight: Organizing the Body A. Different Logics 1. The preferences for how one organizes information are often culturally bound. a. To learn how to write or speak in another language, one must learn the logic preferred by speakers of that language. b. Even non-native speakers who English with little or no accent and use the grammar and syntax like a native speaker, may find writing and formal speaking in English difficult. 2. The creation of a piece of rhetoric, whether written or spoken, is a process of making choices. a. The choices are often culturally driven. b. Rhetorical preferences are often passively learned. c. Each culture has preferences for the ways they construct, organize and support arguments and ideas in formal speech and writing. 3. Robert Kaplan developed the concept of contrastive rhetoric, which examines the similarities and differences in writing logic across cultures. a. He found that there is no one right way to construct an argument, present an idea, or organize information, there are only preferred ways based on the culture and expectations of the audience. b. Each culture uses many forms and styles depending on the purpose of the communication. 4. Rhetorical preferences of the U.S. American approach. a. Uses an audience centered perspective. b. English speaking Americans place responsibility for understanding on the writer, so there is a strong preference for a direct, clear, and coherent structure free from digressions. c. Focus on a single idea or thesis that is developed by previewing the thesis and main points in an introduction, develop each of main point in order, then review the thesis and main points in the conclusion. d. Individual points are organized to show the relationship and relative importance of one idea to another. i. In essays, the main idea usually leads a paragraph and the support for that idea follows. ii. Paragraphs are made up of concise sentences that explicitly state the relevance and importance of the idea. iii. Paragraphs and main points are carefully and explicitly connected to each other through a series of connectives. e. Because the U.S. and Canada are individualistic countries, American English values originality and personal expression of opinions. 5. Other rhetorical styles a. Arab writing is characterized by circular reasoning, repetition, an informal style and highly expressive language that aims to create an insider relationship between author and reader. b. Asian writing is less direct, stresses aesthetics; as such, they use language that is more figurative, use imitation of respected writers and extensive use of quotation are common. c. German, writing along with the writing of other Romance and Slavic languages, is characterized by frequent digressions and extraneous information within main points that are otherwise organized linearly. 6. Do not be afraid to incorporate your own style with the new style. B. Preparation Outlines 1. The preparation outline is the structure of the speech that provides a visual representation of how various points and sub-points relate to each other and the overall thesis. a. The preparation outline includes all the important information you will need in your speech, including: i. The general purpose, specific purpose, thesis, and main points ii. Evidence, examples, stories, and explanations for main points iii. An introduction that gains the audience’s attention, establishes the speaker’s credibility, and previews the speech iv. A conclusion that summarizes the main points and leaves the audience with something to think about v. Connectives that help the speaker move smoothly from one point to the next vi. A works cited sheet at the end to show where the speaker found the supporting materials. b. Outlining rules: i. Identify each component of the outline clearly: ii. Use full sentences for the first two to three subdivisions: iii. Do not use questions for main points, propositions, or claims iv. Use consistent symbolization: v. Only use one sentence for each number or letter: vi. Every subdivision should have between two and five points: vii. Do not include connectives in the symbolization system. 2. Organizing the Body: As a non-native speaker, using a clear, predictable organizational pattern can relieve some of the linguistic worries because the organization makes following the discussion much easier for the audience. a. Organizational Patterns i. Chronological organization refers to organizing the main points according to time or sequence. ii. Spatial organization refers to organizing the main points according to where something exists in space. iii. Problem-solution order shows the existence of a problem then presents a solution to the problem. iv. Problem-cause-solution order: A speaker may add a main point on the cause if the solution addresses the cause of the problem. v. Causal organization shows a cause and effect relationship. vi. Topical organization divides a topic into logically related categories. b. Persuasion Specific Organizational Patterns: Monroe’s Motivated Sequence, criteria-satisfaction, and comparative advantages. c. Choosing an Organizational Pattern i. Focus on what best suits the purpose of the speech and which pattern seems to fit most closely to that purpose. ii. Avoid adding on an extra point or two to a pattern. iii. Settle on a pattern, and then fit the main points to that pattern. d. Adding Sub-points, Sub-sub-points i. Sub-points and sub-sub-points are your supporting materials. ii. Be sure each sub-point directly addresses the main point it follows and that each sub-sub-point addresses the point it follows. iii. Do not include irrelevant or tangential information, no matter how interesting it may be. iv. Within your main points you will need to follow a logical organizational pattern, as well. v. At each subdivision, indent one full tab. e. Connectives help a speaker move smoothly from one main point to the next. i. Signposts: words or phrases that point to where you are in the speech (e.g., second, third, to begin, to conclude, in conclusion, in summary, therefore, however, yet, and in closing). ii. Previews: tell what the speaker will be talking about next (e.g. the thesis statement is the most important preview because it previews all the main points). iii. Summaries: the opposite of previews, that review what has already been discussed (e.g. The most important summary is in the conclusion when the speaker reviews the main points). iv. Transitions wrap-up one point and introduce the next in one sentence giving the speaker a smooth way to lead the audience out of one main point and into the next. 3. Introductions and Conclusions a. The principle of primacy-recency explains why introductions and conclusions solidify a speaker’s message. i. Primacy refers to the first thing an audience hears and recency refers to the last thing an audience hears. ii. Even if the audience doesn’t listen well to the body of the speech, they can still receive and retain much of the message through the introduction and conclusion. b. An effective introduction fulfills four objectives aimed at the audience. i. Gain the attention of the audience: it is not only important that your attention getter gets the audience’s attention, but that it is related to your topic and purpose. • Quotations • Startling Statistics • Stories • Relating to the Audience • Humor • Questions • Arouse curiosity • State the importance ii. Relate the topic directly to the audience: Address the WIIFM: What’s In It For Me? iii. Establish the speaker’s credibility: In the U.S., asserting one’s expertise and experience is considered appropriate, even necessary. iv. Preview the body of the speech: Copy the thesis statement from the top of the outline and paste it into main point IV of the introduction. c. Conclusions lead the audience out of the speech by summarizing the main points and leaving the audience with something to think about by doing three things: i. Signal the end of the speech: Say something that clearly tells the audience that you are done with the body of the speech and are almost done speaking (e.g. Before I leave, In closing, To conclude, on a final note, etc.). ii. Briefly, summarize the body of the speech: Go beyond restating the thesis by including additional information revealed in the body of the speech. iii. Leave the audience with impact: Use the same techniques available for developing an attention getter for ending with impact. C. The Speaking Outline 1. A speaking outline, also called a keyword outline, is a brief version of your preparation outline that includes only a few words to remind the speaker what s/he wants to say and in what order. 2. The speaking outline includes all the same lettering and numbering of the original outline. 3. The speaking outline makes extemporaneous speaking powerful. a. By eliminating most of the words and phrases, the speaker must choose the exact wording of the speech at the moment they are spoken. b. By having few words to focus on, the speaker can engage in more eye contact, respond to audience feedback and include new information. 4. When making a speaking outline: a. Start with a new document. i. If using a computer, do a save as and work from the new document. ii. If not using a computer, recreate the same format for the new outline as was used for the original. b. Keep: i. Title at the top of the page, but erase the name, the general and specific purpose statements and the thesis at the top of the page. ii. Keep the identifiers Introduction, Body, and Conclusion. iii. Keep the thesis statement, quotes, statistics, and cues. c. Delete or eliminate: i. All but one to three words of each main point and subdivision (with the exception of the thesis, quotes, statistics, and cues). ii. The works cited page. 5. A speaking outline is most useful when formatted the same as the original, but feel free to enlarge the font to make it easier to read from a distance. D. Using Note Cards 1. Think of each note card as representing one main point. a. Use one note card each for the introduction, each main point and the conclusion. b. If the speech has three main points, use no more than five note cards. 2. When writing the note cards, follow the same guidelines as you did in creating a speaking outline. a. Maintain the outline structure, but reduce each line to three words or less, keeping the important quotes and statistics. b. Number and label each card clearly in case they become out of order. 3. When you begin your speech, hold the note cards low and in one hand. a. Lift them just enough to see them (waist level is best) and do not hold them up in front of your face. b. Practice using your note cards until you feel comfortable speaking naturally while maintaining eye contact. E. Practice 1. Practice involves both the preparation and the speaking outlines. a. After you have created both outlines, practice your speech no more than three times using your preparation outline. b. Practice out loud, standing up and in front of a mirror. 2. The first time you practice the speech, say the entire speech as naturally as possible and while looking at yourself as much as possible in the mirror. a. During the next two practices, change the wording found on the page. b. After practicing three times, put it away. 3. Practice with your speaking outline as many times as you like. a. Practice in a variety of settings, for friends and family, and while using your presentational aids. b. Practice several times by making yourself talk even if you can’t remember what the original outline said. c. Each time you practice your speech, say it a little differently. Chapter Fourteen: Persuasive Speeches A. The Merriam Webster Dictionary defines persuasion as “the act or process of moving another to a belief, position, or course of action.” 1. In other words, persuasion is convincing others to believe, think, or do something that they might not otherwise believe, think or do. 2. Persuasion doesn’t always seek to move us to action, as in the example above, but sometimes we simply want people to agree with our opinions or to see the world the way we see it. B. Significance of Persuasion 1. We use persuasion and are the targets of persuasion, not only everyday, but hundreds of times everyday. 2. Persuasion is not necessarily a “bad” thing. a. Persuasion is part of being human and adds to the collective knowledge and greater good of humanity. b. Scientists and theorists use their best evidence from experiments and research to persuade others in their field that their explanations are the most reasonable to explain certain phenomena. c. We need persuasion in our everyday lives to help us reach our goals and meet our needs. d. Because a persuasive speaker is asking the audience to change or act in some way, the persuasive speaker is held to the highest ethical standard. i. When the speaker stands to gain something from the audience’s compliance, the speaker must take great care to not manipulate or deceive the audience in any way. ii. Because the speaker is asking the audience to make a choice that follows the speaker’s wishes, the speaker is acting as a leader. iii. This gives the speaker relatively more power than the audience. iv. Persuasive speaking often relies on tapping the audience’s emotions to move them to action. C. Types of persuasion 1. Propositions of Fact a. Factual propositions, then, propose or claim that something is true, was true or will be true, or is false. b. When we are persuading someone that something is true or false that may be difficult or impossible to prove definitively, we propose the truth of the situation using a proposition of fact. i. In this way, propositions of fact are aimed at convincing people that one answer to a question is more likely to be true than others. ii. Because we may never know the one true answer to a question of fact, the best we can do is provide our best evidence and reasoning to support our case. c. Although similar to informative speeches that provide a variety of supporting materials to explain and clarify the facts about a subject without taking a position, persuasive speeches on questions of fact advocate for one possible version of what is true by taking a firm stand. d. Because of this similarity to informative speeches, you can organize a proposition of fact speech using the same organizational patterns—that is topically, spatially, or causally. 2. Propositions of Value a. Propositions of value go beyond a factual claim to include an opinion or conclusion about some aspect of reality. i. Propositions of value are claims aimed to change the way people think or feel about a subject. ii. They express an opinion about what is right or wrong, good or bad, fair or unfair, easy or difficult, smart or stupid, etc. iii. They involve personal opinion; therefore, they cannot be proven right or wrong. b. When arguing a proposition of value, you might use the criteriasatisfaction organizational pattern. i. The speaker establishes a set of criteria for the evaluation and then defends the reasons a particular object, person, philosophy, event, or situation meets or exceeds the criteria. ii. The criteria-satisfaction organizational pattern is used in movie and book reviews and in some legal arguments. iii. Your first main point would establish the criteria for evaluation. iv. The second main point evaluates the person, object, or event based on that criteria. 3. Propositions of Policy a. Propositions of policy are claims aimed at changing a rule, regulation, or specific course of action. b. They include facts and values, but they go beyond them to suggest whether or not something should be done. c. Propositions of policy seek passive agreement or immediate action. i. Passive agreement: when the audience is not the group you want to actually take the action, but just a group of people you want to agree with you so that they might spread the word or put pressure on those that would take the action. ii. If you are asking the audience immediately in front of you to take the action, you are doing a policy speech asking for immediate action. d. If you are from a traditionally high context culture that prefers to avoid direct statements and, in particular, direct requests, you may find the U.S American persuasive style to be too direct, rude even. e. Both types of policy speeches must address the need, plan and the practicality of the action being advocated. f. When doing a policy speech, organize the speech using problemsolution, problem-cause-solution, or comparative advantage order. g. Monroe’s Motivated Sequence, another persuasion specific organizational pattern, is a five point organizational pattern used when a speaker is calling for a specific action from the audience. i. Monroe’s anticipates the audience’s questions: Who are you and what do you want? Is there a problem here? What can I do about it? What is in it for me? What do you want me to do? ii. The speech is organized into five main points that answer these questions. iii. Unlike the other organizational methods, Monroe’s does not include a separate introduction and conclusion section to the outline because they are contained in steps I and V respectively. D. Making a Persuasive Argument: Logos, Ethos, Pathos, & Mythos 1. Proofs are the various types of evidence a speaker uses to establish the truth of an argument. a. Persuasive arguments are constructed by arranging claims, premises, and evidence in believable and compelling ways. b. A claim is what the speaker is arguing for. c. The claim or proposition is expressed in the form of the thesis statement or central idea. 2. Logos a. Logos refers to the logic persuaders use in constructing arguments. i. The logic of a speech consists of the ways in which evidence and reasoning are used. ii. Evidence refers to anything used to verify the truthfulness or accuracy of a premise or claim. iii. Reasoning refers to the way in which the evidence, premises and claims are put together in the argument. b. What counts as logic varies by culture. c. In persuasion, the main points are often evidence for the argument in the form of a premise. i. Premises are a type of evidence that act as the building blocks of an argument; they are the minor propositions of an argument from which the conclusions are drawn. ii. In deductive arguments, the speaker offers premises the audience can agree to first that lead the audience to accept the speaker’s conclusion. iii. When the premises are not easily agreed upon, the speaker needs to prove the premises with further evidence. iv. The quality of the individual premises and evidence and how they are linked together determine the quality of the argument. d. Persuasive arguments need to be both true and valid to be considered good arguments. i. An argument is true if each of the premises is shown or is believed to be true. ii. An argument is considered valid if the premises guarantee the acceptance of the conclusion. 3. Ethos a. Ethos refers to the speaker’s credibility. b. Speakers can improve their overall credibility by paying special attention to establishing their competence and character. i. Competence refers to the speaker’s knowledge and expertise. ii. Character refers to a speaker’s perceived trustworthiness. c. Building perceived competence. i. Before, during, and aftge the speech begins, the speaker should look calm, self-assured, relaxed. ii. Increase your perceived competence by what you say. iii. Increase your perceived competence by finding common ground with your audience. d. Building perception of character. i. Speakers increase their perceived trustworthiness by building a reputation as honest and reliable. ii. A speakers claims, especially claims that seem less believable, must be verified and do not manipulate or stretch the truth in any way to build the perception of character. iii. Addressing counter arguments and reasonable concerns honestly and openly tells the audience that you have nothing to hide and are therefore believable. 4. Pathos a. Pathos refers to the emotional appeals persuaders use to motivate. b. Emotional appeals are intended to make an audience feel. c. Negative emotions are the feelings most often evoked in speeches, such as fear, anger, sadness, and guilt. d. When using emotional appeals, the speaker must abide by the highest of ethical standards. e. To ensure that your emotional appeals are ethically sound, use emotional appeals in conjunction with solid evidence and reasoning and only use emotional appeals directly related to the topic and purpose. 5. Mythos or the Narrative Approach a. Mythos refers to narrative proof or storytelling. i. The narrative approach refers both to a logical form of evidence and an organizational style. ii. Early civilizations used storytelling to pass on wisdom from one generation to the next. b. As a communication tool, narration is effective because it is interesting, repeatable, clear, easy-to-follow, and easy to remember. c. Using narration in a speech can help you stay focused and keep the audience’s attention. d. Narrative causes people to listen and reason differently than other forms of speech. i. Narrative follows a natural timeline that compels us to hear the ending once we have started hearing the beginning of a story. ii. Narratives are stories about people. iii. Through description, narratives remove us from the here and now to a place more wonderful or terrible than the present. iv. Narrative transcends cultural barriers because it is primitive and speaks to the child in us. e. For a narrative to be effective, it must contain both probability and fidelity. i. Narrative probability refers to the coherency of the story, whether or not a story “holds together” or is believable. ii. Narrative fidelity refers to the truthfulness or reasonableness of the story. D. Differences in Persuasive Style 1. As mentioned above, not all cultures have the same preferences for evidence nor for how arguments are put together called “persuasive styles.” 2. Quasilogical a. Although in the United States we refer to our preferred persuasive style as simply logical, this highly structured, direct and linear argument is an example of the quasilogical persuasive style. b. The quasilogical persuasive style is the preferred, but not the exclusive, style used in many Western cultures. c. This style is derived from the formal logic introduced by Aristotle and follows the Western rhetorical tradition. d. It relies on objective evidence such as witnesses, expert testimony and statistics and is often arranged deductively. e. The quasilogical style relies most heavily on the proof of logos. 3. Presentational a. The presentational style relies on personal experience, feelings, and emotions. b. Cultures that prefer this style trust human experience and the emotional appeals of the persuader over objective evidence. c. Latino cultures, Middle Eastern cultures and African American culture often prefer this style of persuasion. d. The manner in which the information is presented is paramount to the presentational style, such as emotional, creative uses of language and a dynamic delivery style. e. The presentational style, then, relies more on the proof of ethos than either pathos or logos. 4. Analogical a. The reliance on stories, analogies, or parables to make an argument is known as the analogical style or narrative approach. b. The values of collectivism underlie the analogical style. i. Audiences that prefer this style of persuasion find tradition, experiences of others or heroes from the past to be more persuasive than facts, statistics, or an eloquent speaker. ii. The stories are designed to tap into the emotional logic of the audience. E. Avoiding Common Errors in Reasoning: Logical Fallacies 1. When an argument’s reasoning does not follow the premises, even when the premises are true, we call this a logical fallacy. 2. Following is a brief list of some of the more common informal logical fallacies people use when trying to persuade: a. Ad hominem—Latin for “to the man”—A logical fallacy that attacks the people making an argument instead of the argument itself. b. Appeal to Tradition—A logical fallacy that asserts that something should be done because that is the way it has been done in the past. c. Bandwagon—A logical fallacy that urges people to adopt a policy or engage in an activity because other people are already doing it. d. Begging the Question—A logical fallacy that attempts to prove the truth of a claim by using one or more premises that assumes the very thing trying to be proved. e. Composition—A logical fallacy that assumes that what is true of the part is automatically true of the whole. f. Division—A logical fallacy that assumes that what is true of the whole is automatically true of the parts. g. False Dilemma (either/or dilemma)—A logical fallacy that claims that only one of two possibilities exist when in fact there are more. h. Hasty Generalization—A logical fallacy wherein an inference is about an entire population made from only a sample of that population. i. Non Sequitur—Latin for “does not follow”—A logical fallacy wherein the claim or conclusion does not follow the premises of the argument. j. Post hoc ergo propter hoc—Latin for “after this therefore because of this”—a logical fallacy that assumes because one event occurred before another, the first is necessarily the cause of the second. k. Red Herring—diverts attention from the issue at hand by bringing up a seemingly related issue or a new subject that does not support the argument actually in question. l. Slippery Slope—A logical fallacy that claims that one step in a particular direction will inevitably lead to an unstoppable series of steps ending in the worst-case scenario. 
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