How to Use This Book The Business Writer’s Companion offers a concise yet thorough guide to business writing and communication in an easy-to-use format. • Twelve tabbed sections organize the book’s entries in thematic groups. • A brief table of contents on the inside front cover provides a convenient listing of all twelve tabs. • Alphabetically arranged entries within each tabbed section make it easy to find specific topics. • At the beginning of each tab, a brief Preview discusses the entries in that section, lists them with page numbers, and describes relevant e-Pages. • Underlined cross-references in each entry link to related entries both within and outside that tab. When a cross-reference directs to an entry outside its tab, the tab number appears in parentheses. • A complete table of contents at the front of the book lists all entries, figures, Writer’s Checklists, Digital Tip e-Pages, and more. • A user-friendly index provides a comprehensive list of terms and topics covered in the book, including topics that are not featured as main entries. • A complete list of model documents and e-Pages in the book’s final pages makes it easy to navigate the examples, visuals, and tutorials available in print and online. • The inside back cover provides instructions for accessing e-Pages, book-specific integrated media that takes advantage of what the Web can do. • Web Links throughout the book point to up-to-date, annotated, and organized online resource lists on the Student Site, available at bedfordstmartins.com/bwc. About the Authors Gerald J. Alred is Professor Emeritus of English at the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, where he is a teaching-award recipient and an adviser to the Professional Writing Program. He is the author of numerous scholarly articles and several standard bibliographies on business and technical communication, and he is a founding member of the editorial board of the Journal of Business Communication. He is a recipient of the prestigious Jay R. Gould Award for “profound scholarly and textbook contributions to the teaching of business and technical writing.” Charles T. Brusaw served as a faculty member at NCR Corporation’s Management College, where he developed and taught courses in professional writing, editing, and presentation skills for the corporation worldwide. Previously, he worked in advertising, technical writing, public relations, and curriculum development. He has been a communi­ cations consultant, an invited speaker at academic conferences, and a teacher of business writing at Sinclair Community College. Walter E. Oliu served as Chief of the Publishing Services Branch at the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, where he managed the agency’s printing, graphics, editing, and publishing programs as well as daily operations of the agency’s public Web site. He has taught at Miami Uni­ v­ersity of Ohio, Slippery Rock State University, Montgomery Col­­­lege, and George Mason University. Workplace Technology Adviser Richard C. Hay is owner and manager of a Web-based company that provides computer hosting, programming, and design solutions for or­­­­ ganizations, including thousands of college writing, advising, and academic support centers across the United States. He is publisher of the peer-reviewed Writing Lab Newsletter, has taught business and technical writing at the University of  Wisconsin–Milwaukee, sits on the boards of two nonprofit organizations and is president of Quest Theater Ensemble in Chicago. S E V E N T H E d i t i on The Business Writer’s Companion Gerald J. Alred Charles T. Brusaw Walter E. Oliu Bedford / St. Martin’s Boston    New York For Bedford/St. Martin’s Publisher for Composition and Business and Technical Writing: Leasa Burton Developmental Editor: Alyssa Demirjian Publishing Services Manager: Andrea Cava Production Supervisor: Samuel Jones Executive Marketing Manager: Molly Parke Editorial Assistant: Amanda Legee Project Management: Books By Design, Inc. Text Design: Claire Seng-Niemoeller; Books By Design, Inc. Cover Design: Billy Boardman Cover Photo : © Getty Images Composition : Achorn International, Inc. Printing and Binding : RR Donnelley and Sons President, Bedford/St. Martin’s: Denise B. Wydra Editorial Director for English and Music: Karen S. Henry Director of Marketing: Karen R. Soeltz Production Director: Susan W. Brown Director of Rights and Permissions: Hilary Newman Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008, 2005 by Bedford/St. Martin’s All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, me­­­ chanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except as may be expressly permitted by the applicable copyright statutes or in writing by the Publisher. Manufactured in the United States of America. 8 7 6 5 4 3 f e d c b a For information, write: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 75 Arlington Street, Boston, MA 02116  (617-399-4000) ISBN 978-1-4576-3299-0 Acknowledgments Acknowledgments and copyrights are continued at the back of the book on page 430, which constitutes an extension of the copyright page. Preface The Business Writer’s Companion is the best guide to the business writing essentials that help students land, navigate, and stand out on the job. A concise, topically arranged version of our popular Business Writer’s Handbook, this easy-to-use guide addresses the most common types of business writing and communication. More than just a guide, however, the Companion places writing in a real-world context with quick access to more than sixty sample documents illustrating the most common types of business writing. With decades of combined academic and professional experience, we have developed the Companion as a reliable reference for both the classroom and the workplace. Anticipating the needs of today’s business writers, we have added a brand-new, comprehensive entry on the professional usefulness of social media and the etiquette of balancing a professional online presence with a personal online identity. Further, new Bedford Integrated Media connects the book’s topics to the Web with sample documents and video tutorials in e-Pages that help students practice the way professionals use technology in the workplace. We also have been guided by the smart and generous reviews of colleagues and users across the country. In response to their suggestions, we’ve revised and updated entries throughout the book on topics such as layout and design, job search, résumés, and more. A Student Site is integrated with the text to offer expanded online resources, including additional models and annotated Web Links. The Companion’s Organization and Cross-Referencing System The Companion’s entries are thematically organized into twelve tabbed sections. At the beginning of each tabbed section, a brief preview lists and introduces the entries, which are alphabetically arranged within that section. Within each entry, underlined cross-references link readers to related entries both within that section and in other tabbed sections. When referencing an entry in a different tabbed section, the crossreference includes a tab number in parentheses. Features Concise, comprehensive coverage of the writing process along with in-depth treatment of grammar and usage provides detailed help v vi  Preface for every stage of writing—from preparation, audience analysis, and research, to drafting, revising, and proofreading. Real-world sample documents offer students authentic and effective models of business correspondence for a variety of workplace situations. Sample documents in the e-Pages include questions that help students think about audience, purpose, and context. Additional, annotated examples on the book’s Student Site offer even more variety in sample reports, proposals, letters, memos, e-mails, résumés, and other documents. A popular quick-reference design makes information easy to find. In addition to the cross-references throughout the book that help students find related entries, the Complete List of Model Documents and e-Pages provides easy access to sample documents. Tips and checklists help students tackle complex tasks such as proofreading and revising, communicating with international audiences, and evaluating sources. Cross-references on each Preview page and in the Digital Tip boxes direct students to the e-Pages relevant to each print section. Emphasis on the latest workplace technologies stresses the importance of tailoring every document, post, and message to its purpose and medium. Up-to-date instruction gives students the latest advice on writing and designing for the Web, conducting Internet research, and approaching new software. New to This Edition A brand-new, comprehensive entry on social media includes a new Writer’s Checklist as well as strategic advice on identifying the social network that best fits a brand’s audience and purpose, adapting writing to the unique strengths of each site, and balancing a professional online presence with a personal online identity. New Bedford Integrated Media features sample documents and video tutorials on how to use technologies to support workplace writing. Explore such topics as adding digital enhancements to formal reports—including linked tables of contents, mouseover elements, and interactive forms and graphics—as well as commenting on collaborative documents and organizing effective online meetings. As mentioned earlier, clear cross-references on Preview pages and in Digital Tip boxes direct students to the relevant e-Pages. A comprehensive list of all e-Pages can be found in the Complete List of Model Documents and e-Pages at the end of the book. You and your students can access the e-Pages at bedfordstmartins.com/bwc. Students receive access automatically with the purchase of a new book. If the activation code printed on the inside back cover of the student edition does not work, it might have expired. Students can purchase access at the Student Preface  vii Site. Instruc­­tors receive access information in a separate e-mail with access to all of the resources on the Student Site. You can also log in or request access information at bedfordstmartins.com/bwc. Updated job-search coverage integrates the latest advice on how candidates can successfully write their way to a new position, including advice on using social media to establish and expand a network of professional connections, tips for different interview formats, and suggestions for crafting successful follow-up correspondence. Updated Professionalism and Ethics Notes throughout the book highlight tips that advise students on how to act courteously and conscientiously in the workplace. Revised coverage of research and documentation reflects the most up-to-date changes in both MLA and APA styles. You Get More Digital Choices for The Business Writer’s Companion The Business Writer’s Companion doesn’t stop with a book. Online, you’ll find both free and affordable premium resources to help students get even more out of the book and your course. You’ll also find convenient instructor resources, such as sample syllabi, handouts, and in-class activities and suggested responses. To learn more about or to order any of the products below, contact your Bedford/St. Martin’s sales representative, e-mail sales support (sales_support@bfwpub.com), or visit the book’s catalog page at bedfordstmartins.com/bwc/catalog. Student Site for The Business Writer’s Companion bedfordstmartins.com/bwc Send students to free and open resources, choose flexible premium resources to supplement your print text, or upgrade to an expanding collection of innovative digital content. Free and open resources for The Business Writer’s Companion provide students with easy-to-access reference materials, visual tutorials, and support for working with sources. • 200+ up-to-date, annotated Web Links organized into 40 business writing topics • 5 free sample documents on ModelDoc Central • 5 free videos of real writers from VideoCentral • 4 free tutorials from ix visual exercises by Cheryl Ball and Kristin Arola • Bedford Bibliographer: a tool for collecting source information and making a bibliography in MLA, APA, and Chicago styles viii  Preface VideoCentral is a growing collection of videos for the writing class that captures real-world, academic, and student writers talking about how and why they write. Writer and teacher Peter Berkow interviewed hundreds of people to produce 140 brief videos about topics such as revising and getting feedback. VideoCentral can be packaged with The Business Writer’s Companion for free. An activation code is required. To order VideoCentral packaged with the print book, use ISBN 978-14576-7590-4. Re:Writing Plus gathers all Bedford/St. Martin’s premium digital content for writing into one online collection. It includes hundreds of model documents, exercises in visual rhetoric and documentation, and VideoCentral. Re:Writing Plus can be purchased separately or packaged with the print book at a significant discount. An activation code is required. To order Re:Writing Plus packaged with the print book, use or ISBN 978-1-4576-7997-1. Instructor Resources bedfordstmartins.com/bwc/catalog You have a lot to do in your course. Bedford/St. Martin’s wants to make it easy for you to find the support you need—and to get it quickly. Instructor resources for The Business Writer’s Companion include 15 free Business Writing Lessons and more than 30 free Web and Research Projects, in addition to sample syllabi and other resources. Teaching Central offers the entire list of Bedford/St. Martin’s print and online professional resources in one place. You’ll find landmark reference works, sourcebooks on pedagogical issues, awardwinning collections, and practical advice for the classroom—all free for instructors. Bits collects creative ideas for teaching a range of writing topics in an easily searchable blog format. A community of teachers—leading scholars, authors, and editors—discuss revision, research, grammar and style, technology, peer review, and much more. Take, use, adapt, and pass the ideas around. Then, come back to the site to comment or to share your own suggestions. Content cartridges for the most common course management systems—Blackboard, WebCT, Angel, and Desire2Learn—allow you to easily download Bedford/St. Martin’s digital materials for your course. Acknowledgments We are deeply grateful to the many instructors, students, professional writers, and others who have helped shape The Business Writer’s Companion, Seventh Edition. For their sound advice on this revision, we wish to express our thanks to the following reviewers who completed Preface  ix questionnaires: Thurlene Anderson, Fashion Institute of Design & Merchandising; Elizabeth Aydelott, Lane Community College; Greg Brecht, University of South Florida, St. Petersburg; Stephen Byars, University of Southern California, Marshall School of Business; Carol Davis, California State University, Monterey Bay; Robert Goldberg, Prince George’s Community College; Kathie Holland, University of Central Florida; Leslie Jacoby, San José State University; Joanna Johnson, University of Miami; John Krajicek, Mays Business School, Texas A&M University; Carolyn Leeb, DePaul University; Ana Madani, Miami University; William Magrino, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey; Dorothy McCawley, University of Florida; Richard Potter, Florida Atlantic University; Jim Schwartz, Wright State University Lake Campus; Christine Sneed, DePaul University; Huatong Sun, University of Washington Tacoma; Allison UrzuaBlaul, Sullivan University; and Jeff Walls, Indiana Institute of Technology. For this edition, we are indebted to Richard C. Hay, owner and manager of Twenty Six LLC, who assessed the coverage and models throughout and provided specific advice to ensure that the book reflects the current use of workplace technology and business practice. We are also grateful to Richard for his help with previous editions, including his review of the entry on adapting to new technologies and his insightful advice about the entry on blogs and forums. We thank Rachel Spilka, Renee Tegge, and Ulrike Mueller for advice about workplace writing, grammar and usage, global communication, and social media. Rachel and Ulrike have been consultants on previous editions, and we are grateful for their ongoing support. We are indebted to Eva Brumberger for her work on design principles and how it enriched the coverage in this edition. For contributions to previous editions, we especially thank Quinn Warnick, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, for developing the entry “adapting to new technologies.” We also thank Erik Thelen for providing insights on workplace technology. For other special reviews and advice on the use and adaptation of workplace technology for business writing, we thank Michelle M. Schoenecker, Nick Carbone, and Paul Thomas. Finally, we thank Sally Stanton for expertly reviewing the “proposals” entry and developing the section on grant proposals. We thank Rebekka Andersen for providing invaluable and fresh insights on many subjects, especially in the “proposals” entry. We thank Eileen Puechner, Senior Technical Editor at Johnson Controls, Inc., for her advice on workplace communication. We are also grateful to Kim Isaacs, Advanced Career Systems, Inc.; Matthias Jonas, Niceware International, LLC; Lisa Rivero, Milwaukee School of Engineering; and Peter Sands, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee. We most gratefully acknowledge the leadership of Bedford/St. Martin’s, beginning with Joan Feinberg, co-president of Macmillan Higher x  Preface Education; Denise Wydra, president of Bedford/St. Martin’s; Karen Henry, Editorial Director for English and Music; and Charles Christensen, retired president; for their support of this book. We would also like to acknowledge the contributions of others at Bedford/St. Martin’s over the years — Nancy Lyman, who conceived the first edition of this book; Carla Samodulski, for her expert editorial guidance; Mimi Melek, for her editorial development of the second edition; Ellen Thibault, for editing the third edition; Caroline Thompson, for editing the fourth edition; and Amy Gershman, for editing the fifth and sixth editions. For this edition, we thank Andrea Cava and Samuel Jones of Bedford/St. Martin’s for ensuring the high-quality production of the book, and Herb Nolan of Books By Design for his energy, care, and professionalism in turning manuscript into bound book. We are also pleased to acknowledge the guidance of Kate Mayhew on related Bedford/ St. Martin’s titles, as well as the unfailing support of Amanda Legee, editorial assistant at Bedford/St. Martin’s. We thank Alyssa Demirjian, associate editor at Bedford/St. Martin’s, for her energy, insight, and thoroughly professional editorial direction throughout the project. We gratefully acknowledge the ongoing contributions of many students and instructors at the University of  Wisconsin–Milwaukee. Finally, special thanks go to Janice Alred for her many hours of substantive assistance and for continuing to hold everything together. Gerald J. Alred Charles T. Brusaw Walter E. Oliu Complete Contents Brief Contents (inside front cover)  How to Use This Book  i description  12 • Figure 1–2. Simple Description  12 ethics in writing  13 Preface  v Five Steps to Successful Writing  xxv Preparation  xxvi Research  xxviii Organization  xxix Writing  xxxi Revision  xxxi • • ETHICS NOTE  13 Writer’s Checklist: Writing Ethically  14 global communication  15 • • Web Link: Intercultural Resources  15 Writer’s Checklist: Communicating Globally  16 introductions  16 1. The Writing Process Preview  2 audience  3 Analyzing Your Audience’s Needs  3 Writing for Varied and Multiple Audiences  3 collaborative writing  4 Digital Tip: Using Collaborative Software  4 Tasks of the Collaborative Writing Team  5 • • • Planning  5 PROFESSIONALISM NOTE  5 Research and Writing  5 Reviewing  5 Revising  6 PROFESSIONALISM NOTE  6 Writer’s Checklist: Writing Collaboratively  6 conclusions  6 • Figure 1–1. Conclusion  1 Routine Openings  16 Opening Strategies  17 Objective  17 Problem Statement  17 Scope  17 Background  17 Summary  18 Interesting Detail  18 Definition  18 Anecdote  19 Quotation  19 Forecast  19 Persuasive Hook  19 Full-Scale Introductions  20 organization  20 outlining  22 Advantages of Outlining  22 Types of Outlines  22 Creating an Outline  23 Digital Tip: Creating an Outline  24 paragraphs  25 7 Assessing Context  9 Signaling Context  10 Topic Sentence  25 Paragraph Length  26 Writing Paragraphs  26 Paragraph Unity and Coherence  27 defining terms  11 persuasion  28 context  9 bedfordstmartins.com/bwc xi xii  Complete Contents • • ETHICS NOTE  28 point of view  28 • Figure 1–3. Persuasive Memo  29 • ETHICS NOTE  31 • ESL Tip for Stating an Opinion  31 preparation  31 • Writer’s Checklist: Preparing to Write  31 process explanation  32 promotional writing  32 • • ETHICS NOTE  33 Web Link: Writing Promotional Case Histories  33 proofreading  34 • PROFESSIONALISM NOTE  34 • Writer’s Checklist: Proofreading in Stages  34 • Figure 1–4. Proofreaders’ Marks  35 Digital Tip: Proofreading for Format Consistency  36 Writer’s Checklist: Revising Your Draft  38 Digital Tip: Incorporating Tracked Changes  39 scope  39 writing a draft  39 • Review and Confidentiality  47 • • • PROFESSIONALISM NOTE  47 Writer’s Checklist: Observing Workplace Netiquette  48 ETHICS NOTE  48 Digital Tip: Sharing Electronic Files  49 Design Considerations  49 Salutations, Closings, and Signature Blocks  49 • Figure 2–1. E-mail Signature Block  50 • Writer’s Checklist: Managing Your E-mail and Reducing Overload  51 FAQs (frequently asked questions)  51 • ETHICS NOTE  52 • Writer’s Checklist: Developing FAQs  53 instant messaging  53 • ETHICS NOTE  54 • Figure 2–2. Instant-Message Exchange  54 • Writer’s Checklist: Instant Messaging Privacy and Security  55 repurposing  55 Writer’s Checklist: Writing a Rough Draft  40 2. Workplace Technology e-mail  47 Questions to Include  52 Organization  52 Placement  53 purpose  36 readers  37 revision  37 • ETHICS NOTE  46 41 Repurpose for the Context  56 Repurpose for the Medium  56 • ETHICS NOTE  56 Preview  42 selecting the medium  56 adapting to new technologies  43 E-mail  57 Memos  57 Letters  58 Faxes  58 Instant Messaging  58 Text Messaging  58 Telephone and Conference Calls  58 Voice-Mail Messages  59 Face-to-Face Meetings  59 Videoconferences  59 Technology Y   ou Need to Know  43 Strategies for Learning a New Technology  43 Digital Tip: Assessing Hardware, Software, and applications  44 blogs and forums  45 Organizational Uses  45 Writing Style  45 • Web Link: Developing Blogs and Forums  46 Complete Contents  xiii Web Communication  60 • Web Conferencing  60 Professional Networking  60 Web-Site Postings  60 documenting sources  73 APA Documentation  74 Digital Tip: Synchronizing Information  60 APA In-Text Citations  74 APA Documentation Models  75 APA Sample Pages  80 social media  61 Organizational Uses  61 Choosing the Appropriate Platform  61 Writing Style  62 • • PROFESSIONALISM NOTE  62 Writer’s Checklist: Judicious Use of Social Media  63 • Figure 3–1. APA Sample Page (from a report)  80 • Figure 3–2. APA Sample List of References  81 MLA Documentation  82 MLA In-Text Citations  82 MLA Documentation Models  82 MLA Sample Pages  86 text messaging  63 • PROFESSIONALISM NOTE  63 • Figure 3–3. MLA Sample Page (from a report)  86 • Figure 3–4. MLA Sample List of Works Cited  87 • ETHICS NOTE  88 • Web Link: Other Style Manuals and writing for the Web  64 Crafting Content for Web Pages  64 • Chunking Content  64 Headings  64 Lists  64 Keywords  65 Directional Cues  65 Graphics  65 Hyperlinks  65 Fonts  65 Line Length  66 Documentation Systems  88 interviewing for information  88 Determining the Proper Person to Interview  88 Preparing for the Interview  88 ETHICS NOTE  66 Digital Tip: Using PDF Files  67 Web Link: Web-Design Resources  67 3. Research and   Documentation Preview  70 • Web Link: Research and Documentation Resources  70 bibliographies  71 copyright  71 • ETHICS NOTE  71 • ETHICS NOTE  72 Permissions  71 Exceptions  72 • PROFESSIONALISM NOTE  88 • PROFESSIONALISM NOTE  89 • Writer’s Checklist: Interviewing Successfully  90 Conducting the Interview  89 Linking to Reputable Sites  66 Posting an Existing Document  66 Protecting User Privacy  66 Writing for a Global Audience  67 • Web Link: Alternative Forms of Copyright  72 Expanding Your Notes Soon After the Interview  89 Interviewing by Phone or E-mail  89 note-taking  90 69 • • ETHICS NOTE  91 Writer’s Checklist: Taking Notes  91 paraphrasing  92 • ETHICS NOTE  92 plagiarism  92 Citing Sources  92 Common Knowledge  93 • • ETHICS NOTE  93 Web Link: Avoiding Plagiarism  93 quotations  94 xiv  Complete Contents • ETHICS NOTE  94 Direct Quotations  94 Indirect Quotations  94 Deletions or Omissions  94 Inserting Material into Quotations  95 Incorporating Quotations into Text  95 • Figure 3–5. Long Quotation (APA Audience and Writing Style  112 Openings and Closings  113 Goodwill and the “You”Viewpoint  114 • Direct and Indirect Patterns  116 Direct Pattern  116 • Figure 4–5. Good-News Message  117 Style)  96 Indirect Pattern  117 research  96 • Figure 4–6. Courteous Bad-News Message  119 Primary Research  97 • Clarity and Emphasis  120 ETHICS NOTE  97 Secondary Research  97 Library Research Strategies  98 • web link: Storing Search and • Lists  120 Headings  120 Subject Lines  120 Note-Taking Results  98 • Online Catalogs (Locating Books)  99 Online Databases and Indexes (Locating Articles)  99 Reference Works  99 cover letters  121 Writer’s Checklist: Correspondence and Accuracy  121 • Figure 4–7. Cover Message  122 inquiries and responses  122 Internet Research Strategies  100 • Writer’s Checklist: Using Tone to Build Goodwill  116 Search Engines  100 Writer’s Checklist: Using Search Engines and Keywords  101 • Writer’s Checklist: Writing Inquiries  122 • Figure 4–8. Inquiry  123 Responding to Inquiries  124 • Figure 4–9. Response to an Web Subject Directories  101 Evaluating Sources  102 Inquiry  124 Writer’s Checklist: Evaluating Print and Online Sources  103 international correspondence  125 • 4. Correspondence 105 Preview  106 • Figure 4–1. Acknowledgment  107 • Figure 4–2. Adjustment Letter (Company Takes Responsibility)  108 • Figure 4–3. Partial Adjustment (Accompanying a Product)  110 Full Adjustments  109 Partial Adjustments  110 complaints  110 correspondence  112 letters  126 Letter Format  127 Heading  127 Inside Address  127 • Figure 4–10. Full-Block-Style Letter (with Letterhead)  128 PROFESSIONALISM NOTE  110 • Figure 4–4. Complaint message  • • acknowledgments  107 adjustments  107 • Web Link: Sample International Correspondence  125 Writer’s Checklist: Writing International Correspondence  125 Web Link: Open Directory International Listing  126 111 Salutation  129 Subject Line  129 Body  130 Complimentary Closing  130 Writer’s Signature Block  130 Complete Contents  xv End Notations  130 • Figure 4–11. Alternative Headers for the Second Page of a Letter  131 Continuing Pages  131 Progress Reports  147 • Figure 5–3. Progress Report (Using Letter Format)  148 • Figure 5–4. Activity Report (Using e-mail format)  149 memos  131 Activity Reports  150 Memo Format  132 proposals  150 • PROFESSIONALISM NOTE  132 Additional Pages  132 • Web Link: Writing Memos  132 • Figure 4–12. Typical Memo Format (Printed or Attached to E-mail)  133 Figure 4–13. Alternative Headers for the Second Page of a Memo  134 Proposal Strategies  151 • Audience and Purpose  151 Project Management  151 Web Link: Proposal-Management Software  151 • Proposal Context and Types  152 refusals  134 Internal Proposals  152 • Figure 4–14. Refusal with Low Stakes  135 • Figure 4–15. Refusal with High Stakes  136 sales letters  137 • • ETHICS NOTE  138 Writer’s Checklist: Writing Sales Letters  138 • Web Link: Sales-Letter Resources  139 5. Business Writing Documents and Elements 141 Preview  142 feasibility reports  143 Report Sections  143 • Introduction  143 Body  143 Conclusion  143 Recommendation  143 Web Link: Feasibility Reports  144 incident reports  144 • ETHICS NOTE  144 investigative reports  144 • Figure 5–1. Incident Report (Using Memo format)  145 • Figure 5–2. Investigative Report  146 progress and activity reports  147 • • Writer’s Checklist: Writing Persuasive Proposals  152 Informal Internal Proposals  153 Web Link: Internal Proposals  153 Formal Internal Proposals  153 • Web Link: Complete Internal Proposal  153 • Figure 5–5. Special-Purpose Internal Proposal  154 External Proposals  156 Solicited Proposals  156 Unsolicited Proposals  156 Sales Proposals  157 • • • ETHICS NOTE  157 ETHICS NOTE  158 Web Link: Sample Sales Proposal  159 • • • Web Link: Sample Grant Proposals  160 Writer’s Checklist: Writing Grant Proposals  163 Web Link: Resources for Preparing Grant Proposals  163 Grant Proposals  159 reports  163 titles  164 Reports and Long Documents  164 Memos, E-mail, and Online Postings  165 Formatting Titles  165 Capitalization  165 Italics  166 Quotation Marks  166 Special Cases  166 xvi  Complete Contents trip reports  166 Sample Formal Report  179 • Figure 5–6. Trip Report Sent as E-mail (with Attachment)  167 trouble reports (see incident reports)  168 6. Formal Reports • Web Link: sample Online Formal Reports  179 • Figure 6–2. Formal Report  180 glossaries  197 tables of contents  197 169 7. Design and Visuals Preview  170 Digital Tip: Digitally Enhancing Formal Reports  170 abstracts  171 Types of Abstracts  171 Writing Strategies  171 • Figure 6–1. Informative Abstract (from a Report)  172 appendixes  173 executive summaries  173 • Writer’s Checklist: Writing Executive Summaries  174 formal reports  174 Digital Tip: Creating Styles and Templates  175 Front Matter  175 Title Page  175 Abstract  176 Table of Contents  176 List of Figures  176 List of Tables  176 Foreword  176 Preface  177 List of Abbreviations and Symbols  177 Body  177 • Executive Summary  177 Introduction  177 Text  177 Conclusions  177 Recommendations  178 Explanatory Notes  178 References (or Works Cited)  178 ETHICS NOTE  178 Back Matter  178 Appendixes  178 Bibliography  179 Glossary  179 Index  179 Digital Tip: Creating an Index  179 199 Preview  200 drawings  201 • Figure 7–1. Conventional Line Drawing Showing Custom Features  201 Figure 7–2. Cutaway Drawing  202 Writer’s Checklist: Creating and Using Drawings  202 ETHICS NOTE  203 • • • flowcharts  203 • Writer’s Checklist: Creating Flowcharts  203 • Figure 7–3. Flowchart Using Labeled Blocks  203 • Figure 7–4. flowchart using pictorial symbols  204 • Figure 7–5. Common ISO Flowchart Symbols (with Annotations)  205 global graphics  205 • Figure 7–6. Graphics for U.S. and Global Audiences  206 • Figure 7–7. International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Symbols  206 PROFESSIONALISM NOTE  207 Writer’s Checklist: Communicating with Global Graphics  207 • • graphs  208 Line Graphs  208 • Figure 7–8. Double-Line Graph (with Shading)  208 • Figure 7–9. Distorted and Distortion-Free Expressions of Data  209 ETHICS NOTE  209 • Bar Graphs  209 • Figure 7–10. Bar Graph (Quantities of Different Items During a Fixed period)  210 Pie Graphs  210 Picture Graphs  210 Complete Contents  xvii • Web Link: Resources for Preparing Gantt Charts  210 • Figure 7–11. gantt chart showing project schedule  211 • Figure 7–12. Pie Graph (Showing Percentages of the Whole)  212 • Figure 7–13. Picture Graph  212 • Writer’s Checklist: Creating tables  224 Table Elements  224 • Figure 7–19. Elements of a Table  224 Table Number  225 Table Title  225 Box Head  225 Stub  225 Body  225 Rules  225 Footnotes  225 Source Line  225 Continuing Tables  225 Graphs  213 headings  214 • Writer’s Checklist: Using Headings  214 • Figure 7–14. Headings Used in a Document  215 layout and design  216 Design Principles  216 Grouping  216 Contrast  216 Repetition  217 Typography  217 Typeface and Type Size  217 • Figure 7–15. Primary Components of Letter Characters  217 Type Style and Emphasis  218 • Figure 7–16. Type Sizes (6- to • Figure 7–20. Informal Table  226 Informal Tables  226 visuals  226 Selecting Visuals  227 • ETHICS NOTE  227 Integrating Visuals with Text  227 • ETHICS NOTE  227 • Figure 7–21. Chart for Choosing Appropriate Visuals  228 • Writer’s Checklist: Creating and Integrating Visuals  230 14-Point Type)  218 Page-Design Elements  219 Justification  219 Headings  219 Headers and Footers  219 Lists  220 Columns  220 White Space  220 Color  220 Visuals  220 Icons  221 Captions  221 Rules  221 Page Layout and Thumbnails  221 lists  221 • Web Link: Designing Documents  222 • Figure 7–17. Bulleted List in a • Paragraph  222 Writer’s Checklist: Using Lists  223 organizational charts  223 • Figure 7–18. Organizational Chart  224 8. P  resentations and Meetings 231 Preview  232 listening  233 Fallacies About Listening  233 Active Listening  233 Step 1: Make a Conscious Decision  233 Step 2: Define Your Purpose  233 Step 3: Take Specific Actions  234 Step 4: Adapt to the Situation  234 meetings  234 Planning a Meeting  235 Determine the Purpose of the Meeting  235 Decide Who Should Attend  235 Choose the Meeting Time  235 Digital Tip: Scheduling Meetings Online  235 Choose the Meeting Location  236 Establish the Agenda  236 xviii  Complete Contents Digital Tip: Conducting Online Meetings  236 Figure 8–1. Meeting Agenda  237 • acceptance / refusals (for employment)  255 • Figure 8–2. E-mail to accompany an • Figure 9–1. Acceptance (for Employment)  255 • Figure 9–2. Refusal (for Conducting the Meeting  238 • Assign the Minute-Taking  237 Agenda  238 • Deal with Conflict  239 Close the Meeting  239 application cover letters  256 Writer’s Checklist: Planning and Conducting Meetings  240 minutes of meetings  240 • Figure 8–3. Minutes of a Meeting (Partial Section)  241 • Writer’s Checklist: Items Included in Minutes of Meetings  241 • Determining Your Purpose  242 Analyzing Your Audience  243 Gathering Information  243 Structuring the Presentation  243 • Figure 9–3. Application Cover Letter (College Student Applying for an Internship)  258 Figure 9–4. Application Cover Letter (RECENT Graduate Applying for a Graphic Design Job)  259 Figure 9–5. Application Cover Letter (Applicant with Years of Experience)  260 • Closing  260 interviewing for a job  261 Before the Interview  261 The Introduction  243 The Body  244 Transitions  245 The Closing  245 • PROFESSIONALISM NOTE  262 • PROFESSIONALISM NOTE  263 • ETHICS NOTE  263 During the Interview  262 Using Visuals  246 ETHICS NOTE  246 Flip Charts  246 Whiteboards or Chalkboards  246 Presentation Software  246 • Figure 8–4. Presentation Slides  247 • PROFESSIONALISM NOTE  247 • Writer’s Checklist: Using Visuals in a Presentation  248 • Web Link: Preparing Presentation Slides  248 Delivering a Presentation  248 • Practice  249 Delivery Techniques That Work  249 Presentation Anxiety  250 Writer’s Checklist: Preparing for and Delivering a Presentation  250 9. Job Search and Application Preview  254 PROFESSIONALISM NOTE  257 Opening  257 Body  257 • presentations  242 • Employment)  256 PROFESSIONALISM NOTE  256 Behavior  263 Responses  263 Conclusion  264 After the Interview  264 job search  264 • Figure 9–6. Follow-up Correspondence  265 • PROFESSIONALISM NOTE  266 Networking and Informational Interviews  266 Campus Career Services  267 Strategic Web Searches  267 Social Media  267 • • PROFESSIONALISM NOTE  267 Web Link: Finding a Job  268 • Web Link: O*NET Online  268 Job Advertisements  268 Trade and Professional Journal Listings  268 253 Employment Agencies ( Private, Temporary, Government)  269 Complete Contents  xix Internships  269 Direct Inquiries  270 • Web Link: Direct-Inquiry Application Cover Letters  270 Job or Internship Applications  270 • • • • ETHICS NOTE  270 Web Link: Sample Job Application  270 Writer’s Checklist: Completing a Job Application  271 ETHICS NOTE  271 résumés  272 • ETHICS NOTE  272 Sample Résumés  273 • Web Link: Annotated Sample Résumés  273 Analyzing Your Background  273 • Figure 9–7. Student Résumé (for an Entry-Level Position)  274 • Figure 9–8. Résumé (Highlighting Professional Credentials)  275 • Figure 9–9. Student Résumé (for a Graphic Design Job)  276 • Figure 9–10. Résumé (Applicant with Management Experience)  277 • Figure 9–11. Résumé (Experienced Applicant Seeking Career Change)  278 Figure 9–12. Advanced Résumé (Combining Functional and Chronological Elements)  279 • Returning Job Seekers  281 Organizing Your   Résumé (Sections)  282 Heading  283 Job Objective vs. Tagline  283 • PROFESSIONALISM NOTE  283 • PROFESSIONALISM NOTE  286 Scannable and Plain-Text Résumés  286 Web Link: Keywords and Digital Formats for Résumés  287 Web-Posted Résumés  287 E-mail–Attached Résumés  287 289 Preview  290 abstract / concrete words  291 affectation  291 • • ETHICS NOTE  291 Web Link: Affected Writing Revised  292 awkwardness  292 • Writer’s Checklist: Eliminating Awkwardness  292 biased language  293 • PROFESSIONALISM NOTE  293 Sexist Language  293 Other Types of Biased Language  294 business writing style  294 • ETHICS NOTE  295 buzzwords  295 • Web Link: Buzzwords  296 clichés  296 coherence  296 compound words  297 conciseness  297 Causes of W   ordiness  298 • Writer’s Checklist: Achieving Conciseness  299 connotation / denotation  300 emphasis  300 Achieving Emphasis  300 Position  300 Climactic Order  301 Sentence Length  301 Sentence Type  301 Active Voice  301 Repetition  302 Intensifiers  302 Direct Statements  302 Long Dashes  302 Typographical Devices  302 Qualifications Summary  284 Education  284 Employment Experience  284 Related Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities  285 Honors and Activities  285 References and Portfolios  286 Digital Formats and Media  286 • 10. Style and Clarity euphemisms  302 • ETHICS NOTE  302 expletives  303 figures of speech  303 garbled sentences  304 idioms  305 xx  Complete Contents • Web Link: Prepositional Idioms  305 intensifiers  305 jargon  306 logic errors  306 • ETHICS NOTE  306 Lack of Reason  306 Sweeping Generalizations  306 Non Sequiturs  307 False Cause  307 Biased or Suppressed Evidence  307 Fact Versus Opinion  307 Loaded Arguments  308 • Web Link: Understanding an Argument  308 nominalizations  308 parallel structure  308 Faulty Parallelism  309 plain language  310 • • Writer’s Checklist: Using Plain Language  311 Web Link: Plain-Language Resources  311 positive writing  311 • ETHICS NOTE  312 repetition  312 sentence variety  313 Sentence Length  313 Word Order  314 Loose and Periodic Sentences  314 subordination  315 telegraphic style  316 11. Grammar 325 Preview  326 • Web Link: Getting Help with Grammar  327 adjectives  327 Limiting Adjectives  327 Articles  327 Demonstrative Adjectives  327 Possessive Adjectives  328 Numeral Adjectives  328 Indefinite Adjectives  328 Comparison of Adjectives  328 Placement of Adjectives  329 Use of Adjectives  329 • ESL Tips for Using Adjectives  330 adverbs  331 Types of Adverbs  331 Comparison of Adverbs  332 Placement of Adverbs  332 agreement  333 appositives  333 articles  334 • ESL Tips for Using Articles  335 clauses  335 complements  337 conjunctions  338 dangling modifiers  339 English as a second language (ESL)  339 Methods of Transition  319 Transition Between Sentences  319 Transition Between Paragraphs  320 Count and Mass Nouns  340 Articles and Modifiers  340 Gerunds and Infinitives  341 Adjective Clauses  342 Present-Perfect Verb Tense  342 Present-Progressive Verb Tense  342 ESL Entries  343 unity  321 vague words  321 word choice  321 mixed constructions  343 modifiers  343 • PROFESSIONALISM NOTE  317 tone  317 transition  318 • Web Link: Wise Word Choices  322 “you” viewpoint  322 • Web Link: English as a Second Language  343 Stacked (Jammed) Modifiers  344 Misplaced Modifiers  345 Complete Contents  xxi Squinting Modifiers  345 mood  346 • ESL Tips for Determining Mood  346 nouns  347 Types of Nouns  347 Noun Functions  348 Collective Nouns  348 Plural Nouns  349 objects  349 person  350 phrases  350 possessive case  351 Singular Nouns  351 Plural Nouns  351 Compound Nouns  352 Coordinate Nouns  352 Possessive Pronouns  352 Indefinite Pronouns  352 prepositions  353 Prepositions at the End of a Sentence  353 Prepositions in Titles  354 Preposition Errors  354 pronoun reference  354 pronouns  355 Stylistic Use  363 Constructing Effective Sentences  363 • sentence faults  365 sentence fragments  366 tense  367 Past Tense  368 Past-Perfect Tense  368 Present Tense  368 Present-Perfect Tense  368 Future Tense  369 Future-Perfect Tense  369 Shift in Tense  369 • ESL Tip for Using Possessive Pronouns  357 Gender  358 Number  358 Person  359 Types of V   erbs  370 Forms of V   erbs  371 Finite Verbs  371 Nonfinite Verbs  371 Properties of V   erbs  372 • • Using the Active Voice  374 Improving Clarity  374 Highlighting Subjects  374 Achieving Conciseness  375 Using the Passive Voice  375 • • ESL Tips for Understanding the Subject of a Sentence  361 Sentence Types  362 Structure  362 Intention  363 ETHICS NOTE  375 ESL Tip for Choosing Voice  376 12. Punctuation and   Mechanics sentence construction  360 • ESL Tips for Avoiding Shifts in Voice, Mood, or Tense  372 Web Link: Conjugation of Verbs  373 voice  373 restrictive and nonrestrictive elements  359 Subjects  360 Predicates  361 ESL Tips for Using the Progressive Form  369 verbs  370 Case  356 • ESL Tips for Understanding the Requirements of a Sentence  364 Preview  378 abbreviations  379 Using Abbreviations  379 • Writer’s Checklist: Using Abbreviations  379 Forming Abbreviations  380 377 xxii  Complete Contents • Names of Organizations  380 Measurements  380 Personal Names and Titles  381 Common Scholarly Abbreviations and Terms  381 Web Link: Using Abbreviations  382 apostrophes  383 Showing Possession  383 Indicating Omission  383 Forming Plurals  383 brackets  383 capitalization  384 Proper Nouns  384 Common Nouns  384 First Words  385 Specific Groups  385 Specific Places  385 Specific Institutions, Events, and Concepts  385 Titles of W   orks  386 Professional and Personal Titles  386 Abbreviations and Letters  386 Miscellaneous Capitalizations  386 colons  387 Colons in Sentences  387 Colons with Salutations, Titles, Citations, and Numbers  387 Punctuation and Capitalization with Colons  388 Unnecessary Colons  388 comma splice  389 commas  389 Linking Independent Clauses  390 Enclosing Elements  390 Introducing Elements  391 Clauses and Phrases  391 Words and Quotations  391 Separating Items in a Series  392 Clarifying and Contrasting  393 Showing Omissions  393 Using with Numbers and Names  393 Using with Other Punctuation  394 Avoiding Unnecessary Commas  395 contractions  396 dashes  396 dates  397 ellipses  398 exclamation marks  399 hyphens  399 Hyphens with Compound Words  399 Hyphens with Modifiers  400 Hyphens with Prefixes and Suffixes  400 Hyphens and Clarity  400 Other Uses of the Hyphen  401 • Writer’s Checklist: Using Hyphens to Divide Words  401 italics  401 Foreign Words and Phrases  401 Titles  402 Proper Names  402 Words, Letters, and Figures  402 Subheads  403 Exceptions  403 numbers  403 Numerals or Words  403 Plurals  404 Measurements  404 Fractions  404 Money  404 Time  405 Dates  405 Addresses  405 Documents  405 • ESL Tips for Punctuating Numbers  406 parentheses  406 periods  407 Periods in Quotations  407 Periods with Parentheses  408 Other Uses of Periods  408 Period Faults  408 question marks  409 quotation marks  410 Complete Contents  xxiii Direct Quotations  410 • ETHICS NOTE  410 Words and Phrases  411 Titles of W   orks  411 Punctuation  411 semicolons  412 With Strong Connectives  412 For Clarity in Long Sentences  412 slashes  413 spelling  414 Appendix: Usage 415 Preview  416 • Web Link: Online Dictionaries  417 a lot  418 above  418 accept / except  418 affect / effect  418 also  418 amount / number  419 and/or  419 as / because / since  419 as such  419 as well as  419 average / median / mean  419 bad / badly  420 between / among  420 bi- / semi-  420 can / may  420 criteria / criterion  420 data  420 different from / different than  420 each  420 e.g. / i.e.  421 etc.  421 explicit / implicit  421 fact  421 few / a few  422 fewer / less  422 first / firstly  422 former / latter  422 good / well  422 he / she  423 imply / infer  423 in / into  423 its / it’s  423 kind of / sort of  423 lay / lie  423 like / as  424 media / medium  424 Ms. / Miss / Mrs.  425 nature  425 on / onto / upon  425 only  425 per  425 percent / percentage  426 reason is [because]  426 regardless  426 that / which / who  426 there / their / they’re  426 to / too / two  427 utilize  427 via  427 when / where / that  427 whether  428 while  428 who / whom  428 who’s / whose / of which  428 your / you’re  429 Index  431 Complete List of Model Documents and e-Pages  461 this page left intentionally blank Five Steps to Successful Writing Successful writing on the job is not the product of inspiration, nor is it merely the spoken word converted to print. It is the result of knowing how to structure information using both text and design to achieve an intended purpose for a clearly defined audience. The best way to ensure that your writing will succeed — whether it is a proposal, a résumé, a Web page, or any other document — is to approach writing using the following steps:   1.   2.   3.   4.   5. Preparation Research Organization Writing Revision You will very likely need to follow those steps consciously at first. The same is true the first time you use new software, interview a job candidate, or chair a committee meeting. With practice, the steps become nearly automatic. That is not to suggest that writing becomes easy. It does not. However, the easiest and most efficient way to write effectively is to do it systematically. As you master the five steps, keep in mind that they are interrelated and often overlap. For example, your readers’ needs and your purpose, which you determine in step 1, will affect decisions you make in subsequent steps. You may also need to retrace steps. When you conduct research, for example, you may realize that you need to revise your initial impression of a document’s purpose and audience. Similarly, when you begin to organize your information, you may discover the need to return to the research step. The time required for each step varies with different writing tasks. When writing an informal memo, for example, you might follow the first three steps (preparation, research, and organization) by simply listing the points in the order you want to cover them. In such situations, you gather and organize information mentally as you consider your purpose and audience. For a formal report, the first three steps require wellorganized research, careful note-taking, and detailed outlining. For a routine e-mail message to a coworker, the first four steps might merge as you type the information on the screen. In short, the five steps ex­­­­ pand, contract, and at times must be repeated to fit the complexity or context of the writing task. xxv xxvi  Five Steps to Successful Writing Dividing the writing process into steps is especially useful for collaborative writing, in which you typically divide the work among team members, keep track of a project, and save time by not duplicating effort. When you collaborate, you can use e-mail to share text and other files, suggest improvements to each other’s work, and generally keep everyone informed of your progress as you follow the steps in the writing process. See also collaborative writing (Tab 1).* Preparation Writing, like most professional tasks, requires solid preparation (Tab 1). In fact, adequate preparation is as important as writing a draft. In preparation for writing, your goal is to accomplish the following four major tasks: • • • • Establish your primary purpose. Assess your audience (or readers) and the context. Determine the scope of your coverage. Select the appropriate medium. Establishing Your Purpose.  To establish your primary purpose (Tab 1), simply ask yourself what you want your readers to know, to believe, or to be able to do after they have finished reading what you have written. Be precise. Often a writer states a purpose so broadly that it is almost useless. A purpose such as “to report on possible locations for a new research facility” is too general. However, “to compare the relative advantages of Paris, Singapore, and San Francisco as possible locations for a new research facility so that top management can choose the best location” is a purpose statement that can guide you throughout the writing process. In addition to your primary purpose, consider possible secondary purposes for your document. For example, a secondary purpose of the research-facilities report might be to make corporate executive readers aware of the staffing needs of the new facility so that they can ensure its smooth operation in whichever location is selected. Assessing Your Audience and Context.  The next task is to assess your audience (Tab 1). Again, be precise and ask key questions. Who exactly is your reader? Do you have multiple readers? Who needs to see or use the document? What are your readers’ needs in relation to your subject? What are your readers’ attitudes about the subject? (Are they skeptical? supportive? anxious? bored?) What do your readers already * Throughout this book, words and phrases shown as links — underlined and set in an alternate typeface — refer to specific entries. The tab number in parentheses indicates the entry’s location. If no tab number appears, the entry is in the same tabbed section as the entry you are reading. Five Steps to Successful Writing  xxvii know about the subject? Should you define basic terminology, or will such definitions merely bore, or even impede, your readers? Are you communicating with international readers and therefore dealing with issues inherent in global communication (Tab 1)? For the research-facilities report, the readers are described as “top management.” Who is included in that category? Will one of the people evaluating the report be the human resources manager? That person likely would be interested in the availability of qualified professionals as well as the presence of training, housing, and even recreational facilities available to employees in each city. The purchasing manager would be concerned about available sources for needed materials. The marketing manager would give priority to a facility’s proximity to the primary markets and transportation to important clients. The chief financial officer would want to know about land and building costs and about each country’s tax structure. The chief executive officer would be interested in all this information and perhaps more. As in this example, many workplace documents have audiences composed of multiple readers. You can accommodate their needs through one of a number of ap­­­ proaches described in the entry audience (Tab 1). In addition to knowing the needs and interests of your readers, learn as much as you can about the context (Tab 1). Simply put, context is the environment or circumstances in which writers produce documents and within which readers interpret their meanings. Everything is written in a context, as illustrated in many entries and examples throughout this book. To determine the effect of context on the researchfacilities report, you might ask both specific and general questions about the situation and about your readers’ backgrounds: Is this the company’s first new facility, or has the company chosen locations for new esl esl Tip for Considering Audiences In the United States, conciseness (Tab 10), coher­ence (Tab 10), and clarity characterize good writing. Make sure readers can follow your writing, and say only what is necessary to communicate your message. Of course, no writing style is inherently better than another, but, to be a successful writer in any language, you must understand the cultural values that underlie the language in which you are writing. See also global communication (Tab 1), copyright (Tab 3), plagiarism (Tab 3), and awkwardness (Tab 10). Throughout this book, we have included ESL Tip boxes like this one with information that may be particularly helpful to nonnative speakers of English. The entry English as a second language (ESL) (Tab 11) includes a list of entries that may be of particular help to ESL writers. xxviii  Five Steps to Successful Writing facilities before? Have the readers visited all three cities? Have they already seen other reports on the three cities? What is the corporate culture in which your readers work, and what are its key values? What specific factors, such as competition, finance, and regulation, are recognized as important within the organization? Determining the Scope.  Determining your purpose and assessing your readers and context will help you decide what to include and what not to include in your writing. Those decisions establish the scope (Tab 1) of your writing project. If you do not clearly define the scope, you will spend needless hours on research because you will not be sure what kind of information you need or even how much. Given the purpose and audience established for the report on facility locations, the scope would include such information as land and building costs, available labor force, cultural issues, transportation options, and proximity to suppliers. However, it probably would not include the early history of the cities being considered or their climate and geological features, unless those aspects were directly related to your particular business. Selecting the Medium.  Finally, you need to determine the most ap­­­­­ pro­­­priate medium for communicating your message. Professionals on the job face a wide array of options — from e-mail, voice mail, videoconferencing, and blogs to more traditional means, such as letters, memos, reports, and face-to-face meetings. The most important considerations in selecting the appropriate medium are the audience and the purpose of the communication. For example, if you need to collaborate with someone to solve a problem or if you need to establish rapport with someone, written exchanges could be far less efficient than a phone call or a face-to-face meeting. However, if you need precise wording or you need to provide a record of a complex message, communicate in writing. If you need to make frequently updated information accessible to employees at a large company, the best choice might be to place the information on the company’s intranet site. If reviewers need to make handwritten comments on a proposal, you may need to provide paper copies that can be faxed, or you may use collaborative software to insert and route comments electronically. The comparative advantages and primary characteristics of the most typical means of communication are discussed in selecting the medium (Tab 2). See also writing for the Web (Tab 2) and the entries in Tab 5, “Business Writing Documents and Elements.” Research The only way to be sure that you can write about a complex subject is to thoroughly understand it. To do that, you must conduct adequate Five Steps to Successful Writing  xxix research, whether that means conducting an extensive investigation for a major proposal — through interviewing, library and Internet research, careful note-taking, and documenting sources — or simply checking a company Web site and jotting down points before you send an e-mail message to a colleague. The entries in Tab 3, “Research and Docu­­ mentation,” will help you with the research process. Methods of Research.  Researchers frequently distinguish between primary and secondary research (Tab 3), depending on the types of sources consulted and the method of gathering information. Primary research refers to the gathering of raw data compiled from interviews, direct observation, surveys, experiments, questionnaires, and audio and video recordings, for example. In fact, direct observation and hands-on experience are the only ways to obtain certain kinds of information, such as the behavior of people and animals, certain natural phenomena, mechanical processes, and the operation of systems and equipment. Secondary research refers to gathering information that has been analyzed, assessed, evaluated, compiled, or otherwise organized into accessible form. Such sources include books, articles, reports, Web documents, e-mail discussions, business letters, minutes of meetings, and brochures. Use the methods most appropriate to your needs, recognizing that some projects will require several types of research and that collaborative projects may require those research tasks to be distributed among team members. Sources of Information.  As you conduct research, keep in mind all available information sources: • Your own knowledge and that of your colleagues • The knowledge of people outside your workplace, gathered through interviewing for information (Tab 3) • Internet sources, including Web sites, directories, archives, and discussion groups • Library resources, including databases and indexes of articles as well as books and reference works • Printed and electronic sources in the workplace, such as brochures, memos, e-mail, and Web documents The amount of research you will need to do depends on the scope of your project. Start by considering all of your potential sources, and then focus on those that are most useful. Organization Without organization, the material gathered during your research will be incoherent to your readers. To organize information effectively, you xxx  Five Steps to Successful Writing need to determine the best way to structure your ideas; that is, you must choose a primary method of development. The entry organization (Tab  1) describes typical methods of development used in on-the-job writing. Methods of Development.  To choose the development method best suited to your document, consider your subject, your readers’ needs, and your purpose. An appropriate method will help focus your information and make it easy for readers to follow your presentation. For example, if you are writing instructions for assembling office equipment, you might naturally present the steps of the process in the order readers should perform them: the sequential method of development. If you are writing about the history of an organization, your account might naturally go from the beginning to the present: the chro­ n­­­­olo­­­­­gical method of development. If your subject naturally lends itself to a certain method of development, use it — do not attempt to impose another method on it. Often you will need to combine methods of development. For ex­­ ample, a persuasive brochure for a charitable organization might combine a specific-to-general method of development with a cause-and-effect method of development. That is, you could begin with persuasive case histories of individual people in need and then move to general information about the positive effects of donations on recipients. Outlining.  Once you have chosen a method of development, you are ready to prepare an outline. Outlining (Tab 1) breaks large or complex subjects into manageable parts. It also enables you to emphasize key points by placing them in the positions of greatest importance. By structuring your thinking at an early stage, a well-developed outline ensures that your document will be complete and logically organized, allowing you to focus exclusively on writing when you begin the rough draft. An outline can be especially helpful for maintaining a collaborative writing team’s focus throughout a large project. However, even a short letter or memo needs the logic and structure that an outline provides, whether the outline exists in your mind, on a screen, or on paper. At this point, consider layout-and-design elements that will be helpful to your readers and appropriate to your subject and purpose. For example, if visuals such as photographs or tables will be useful, think about where they may be deployed and what kinds of visual elements will be effective, especially if they need to be prepared by someone else while you write and revise the draft. The outline can also suggest where headings, lists, and other special design features may be useful. See Tab 7, “Design and Visuals.” Five Steps to Successful Writing  xxxi Writing When you have established your purpose, your readers’ needs, and your scope, and you have completed your research and your outline, you will be well prepared to write a first draft. Expand your outline into para­ graphs (Tab 1), without worrying about grammar, language refine­ ments,  or punctuation. Writing and revising are different activities; re­­­­finements come with revision. Write the rough draft, concentrating entirely on converting your outline into sentences and paragraphs. You might try writing as though you were explaining your subject to a reader sitting across from you. Do not worry about a good opening. Just start. Do not be concerned in the rough draft about exact word choice unless it comes quickly and easily — concentrate instead on ideas. Even with good preparation, writing the draft remains a chore for many writers. The most effective way to get started and keep going is to use your outline as a map for your first draft. Do not wait for inspiration — you need to treat writing a draft as you would any on-the-job task. The entry writing a draft (Tab 1) describes tactics used by experienced writers — discover which ones are best suited to you and your task. Consider writing the introduction last because then you will know more precisely what is in the body of the draft. Your opening should announce the subject and give readers essential background information, such as the document’s primary purpose. For longer documents, an introduction should serve as a frame into which readers can fit the detailed information that follows. See introductions (Tab 1). Finally, write a conclusion that ties the main ideas together and emphatically makes a final, significant point. The final point may be to recommend a course of action, make a prediction or judgment, or merely summarize your main points — the way you conclude depends on the purpose of your writing and your readers’ needs. See conclusions (Tab 1). Revision The clearer a finished piece of writing seems to the reader, the more effort the writer has likely put into its revision (Tab 1). If you have followed the steps of the writing process to this point, you will have a rough draft that needs to be revised. Revising, however, requires a different frame of mind than does writing the draft. During revision, be eager to find and correct faults and be honest. Be hard on yourself for the benefit of your readers. Read and evaluate the draft as if you were a reader seeing it for the first time. Check your draft for accuracy, completeness, and effectiveness in achieving your purpose and meeting your readers’ needs and xxxii  Five Steps to Successful Writing expectations. Trim extraneous information: Your writing should give readers exactly what they need, but it should not burden them with unnecessary information or sidetrack them into loosely related subjects. Do not try to revise for everything at once. Read your rough draft several times, each time looking for and correcting a different set of problems or errors. Concentrate first on larger issues, such as unity (Tab  10) and coherence (Tab 10); save mechanical corrections, like spelling and punctuation, for later proofreading. See also ethics in writ­ ing (Tab 1). Finally, for important documents, consider having others review your writing and make suggestions for improvement. For collaborative writing, of course, team members must review each other’s work on segments of the document as well as the final master draft. For further advice and useful checklists, see revision (Tab 1) and proofreading (Tab 1). WEB LINK    Style Guides and Standards Organizations and professional associations often follow such guides as The Chicago Manual of Style, MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing, and United States Government Printing Office Style Manual to ensure consistency in their publications on issues of usage, format, and documentation. Because advice in such guides often varies, some organizations set their own standards for documents. Where such standards or specific style guides are recommended or required, you should follow those style guidelines. For a selected list of style guides and standards, visit bedfordstmartins .com/bwc and explore the Web Links at the Student Site. 1 The Writing Process The Writing Process 1 Preview The “Five Steps to Successful Writing” essay (page xxv) describes a sys­ tematic approach to writing and functions as a diagnostic tool for assess­ ing problems. That is, when you find that a document is not achieving its primary purpose, the five steps can help you pinpoint where a problem occurred. Was the audience not fully assessed? Is additional research needed? Does the document need further revision? Many entries in this section expand on the topics introduced in the “Five Steps,” such as audi­ ence, collaborative writing, selecting the medium (Tab 2), writing a draft, and others. Entries related to the research process, including such topics as finding, evaluating, and using sources, appear in Tab 3, “Research and Documentation.” audience  3 persuasion  28 collaborative writing  4 point of view  28 conclusions  6 preparation  31 context  9 process explanation  32 defining terms  11 promotional writing  32 description  12 proofreading  34 ethics in writing  13 purpose  36 global communication  15 readers  37 introductions  16 revision  37 organization  20 scope  39 outlining  22 writing a draft  39 paragraphs  25 Explore how technology can improve your writing process. Go to bedfordstmartins.com/bwc for e-Pages on collaborative writing, outlining, proofreading, and more. 2 audience  3 Considering the needs of your audience is crucial to achieving your purpose. When you are writing to a specific reader, for example, you may find it useful to visualize a reader sitting across from you as you write. (See correspondence, Tab 4.) Likewise, when writing to an audience composed of relatively homogeneous readers, you might create an image of a composite reader and write for that reader. In such cases, using the “you” viewpoint (Tab 10) and an appropriate tone (Tab 10) will help you meet the needs of your readers as well as achieve an effective business writing style (Tab 10). For meeting the needs of an audience composed of listeners, see presentations (Tab 8). Analyzing Your Audience’s Needs Determine the readers’ needs relative to your purpose and goals by asking key questions during preparation. • Who specifically is your reader? Do you have multiple readers? Who needs to see or use the document? • What do your readers already know about your subject? What are your readers’ attitudes about the subject? (Are they skeptical? Supportive? Anxious? Bored?) • What particular information about your readers (experience, training, and work habits, for example) might help you write at the appropriate level of detail? (See scope.) • What does the context or medium suggest about meeting the readers’ expectations for content? See layout and design (Tab 7) and selecting the medium (Tab 2). • Do you need to adapt your message for international readers? If so, see global communication, global graphics (Tab 7), and interna­ tional correspondence (Tab 4). In the workplace, your readers are often less familiar with the subject than you are. Be careful, therefore, when writing on a topic that is unique to your area of specialization. Be sensitive to the needs of those whose training or experience lies in other areas; provide definitions of nonstandard terms and explanations of principles that you, as a specialist, take for granted. See also defining terms. Writing for Varied and Multiple Audiences In writing to a varied audience, as in writing for the Web (Tab 2), visualize a few readers with different backgrounds but who share a purpose or need in reading your text. For documents aimed at multiple The Writing Process audience 1 The Writing Process 1 4  collaborative writing audiences with different needs, consider segmenting the document for different groups of readers: an executive summary for top managers, an appendix with detailed data for technical specialists, and the body for those readers who need to make decisions based on a detailed discussion. See also formal reports (Tab 6) and proposals (Tab 5). When you have multiple audiences with various needs but cannot segment your document, first determine your primary or most important readers — such as those who will make decisions based on your content — and be sure to meet their needs. Then meet the needs of secondary readers, such as those who need only some of the document’s contents, as long as you do not sacrifice the needs of your primary readers. See also persuasion and “Five Steps to Successful Writing” (page xxv). collaborative writing Collaborative writing occurs when two or more writers work together to produce a single document for which they share responsibility and decision-making authority. Collaborative writing teams are formed when (1) the size of a project or the time constraints imposed on it require collaboration, (2) the project involves multiple areas of expertise, or (3) the project requires the melding of divergent views into a Using Collaborative Software Collaborative writing software and online systems help teams of stu­ dents, employees, researchers, and others work together on a common writing task whether they are in the same office or in different countries. Online synchronous whiteboards, for example, allow teams to collabo­ rate online, discuss, and edit texts in real time. Many such technologies also make it easy to conduct live chat sessions for brainstorming ideas, share documents with new collaborators, track changes from one ver­ sion of a document to the next, alert collaborators when a document is altered, and export documents for offline editing. Word processing, Web-based file sharing, and collaborative systems like wikis enable team members to draft, review, edit, and comment with text or voice on their collective work. To see these processes in action, go to the e-Pages at bedfordstmartins.com/bwc and select “Reviewing Collaborative Docu­ ments,” “Using Collaborative Software,” or “Using Wikis for Collabora­ tive Work.”  collaborative writing  5 Tasks of the Collaborative Writing Team The collaborating team strives to achieve a compatible working relationship by dividing the work in a way that uses each writer’s expertise and experience to its advantage. The team should also designate a coordinator who will guide the team members’ activities, organize the project, and ensure coherence and consistency within the document. The coordinator’s duties can be determined by mutual agreement or, if the team often works together, assigned on a rotating basis. Planning.   The team members collectively identify the audience, pur­ pose, context, and scope of the project. See also meetings (Tab 8). At this stage, the team establishes a project plan that may in­ clude guidelines for communication among team members, version control (naming, dating, and managing document drafts), review proce­ dures, and writing style standards that team members are expected to follow. The plan includes a schedule with due dates for completing initial research tasks, outlines, drafts, reviews, revisions, and the final document. w  PROFESSIONALISM NOTE  Deadlines must be met because team members rely on each other and one missed deadline can delay the entire project. A missed project deadline can result in a lost opportunity or, in the case of proposals (Tab 5), disqualify an application. Individual writers must adjust their schedules and focus on their own writing process to finish drafts and meet the deadline. See “Five Steps to Successful Writing” (page xxv). w Research and Writing.   The team next completes initial research tasks, elicits comments from team members, creates a broad outline of the document (see outlining ), and assigns writing tasks to individual team members, based on their expertise. Depending on the project, each team member further researches an assigned segment of the document, expands and develops the broad outline, and produces a draft from a detailed outline. See also writing a draft and research (Tab 3). Reviewing.   Keeping the audience’s needs and the document’s purpose in mind, each team member critically yet diplomatically reviews the other team members’ drafts, from the overall organization to the 1 The Writing Process single perspective that is acceptable to the whole team or to another group. Many types of collaborations are possible, from the collaboration of a primary writer with a variety of contributors and reviewers to a highly interactive collaboration in which everyone on a team plays a relatively equal role in shaping the document. The Writing Process 1 6  conclusions clarity of each paragraph, and offers advice to help improve the writer’s work. Team members can easily solicit feedback by sharing files and then working with track and comment features that allow reviewers to suggest changes without deleting the original text. Revising.   In this final stage, individual writers evaluate their colleagues’ reviews and accept, reject, or build on their suggestions. Then, the team coordinator can consolidate all drafts into a final master copy and maintain and evaluate it for consistency and coherence. See also revision. w  PROFESSIONALISM NOTE  As you collaborate, be ready to tolerate some disharmony, but temper it with mutual respect. Team members may not agree on every subject, and differing perspectives can easily lead to conflict, ranging from mild differences over minor points to major showdowns. However, creative differences resolved respectfully can energize the team and, in fact, strengthen a finished document by compelling writers to reexamine assumptions and issues in unanticipated ways. See also listening (Tab 8). w Writer’s Checklist: Writing Collaboratively  Designate one person as the team coordinator.  Identify the audience, purpose, context, and scope of the project.  Create a project plan, including a schedule and style or format standards.  Create a working outline of the document.  Assign sections or tasks to each team member.  Research and write drafts of each document section.  Follow the schedule: meet due dates for drafts, revisions, and final versions.  Use the agreed-upon standards for style and format.  Exchange sections for team member reviews.  Revise sections as needed.  Meet the established deadlines. conclusions The conclusion of a document ties the main ideas together and can clinch a final significant point. This final point may, for example, make a prediction or offer a judgment, summarize key findings, or recommend conclusions  7 + ◆ Conclusion and Recommendation Enrolling employees in the deluxe program at AeroFitness would allow them to receive a one-month free trial membership. Those interested in continuing could then join the club and receive a 30 percent discount on the $1,200 annual fee and pay only half of the one-time membership fee of $500. The other half of the membership fee ($250) would be paid for by ABO. If employees leave the company, they would have the option of purchasing ABO’s share of the membership to continue at AeroFitness or selling their half of the membership to another ABO employee wishing to join AeroFitness. Club membership allows employees at all five ABO warehouses to participate in the program. The more employees who participate, the greater the long-term savings in ABO’s health-care costs. Overall, implementing this program will help ABO, Inc., reduce its health-care costs while building stronger employee relations by offering employees a desirable benefit. If this proposal is adopted, I have some additional thoughts about publicizing the program to encourage employee participation that I would be pleased to share. I recommend, therefore, that ABO, Inc., participate in the corporate membership program at AeroFitness Clubs, Inc., by subsidizing employee memberships. Offering this benefit to employees will demonstrate ABO’s commitment to the importance of a healthy workforce. Summarizes key points Points to benefits Makes a recommendation figure 1–1.  Conclusion The way you conclude depends on your purpose, the needs of your audience, and the context. For example, a lengthy sales proposal might conclude persuasively with a summary of the proposal’s salient points and the company’s relevant strengths. The following examples are typical concluding strategies. recommendation Our findings suggest that you need to alter your marketing to adjust to the changing demographics for your products. Figure 1-1 Alred_BWC_7e 1 The Writing Process a course of action. Figure 1–1 is a conclusion from a proposal to reduce health-care costs by increasing employee fitness through sponsoring health-club memberships. Notice that it summarizes key points, points to the benefits, and makes the recommendation. The Writing Process 1 8  conclusions summary As this report describes, we would attract more recent graduates with the following strategies: 1. Establish our presence on social-networking sites to reach more college students before they graduate. 2. Increase our advertising in local student newspapers and our attendance at college career fairs. 3. Expand our local co-op program and establish more internships. judgment Based on the scope and degree of the storm’s damage, the current construction code for roofing on light industrial facilities is inadequate. implication Although our estimate calls for a substantially higher budget than in the three previous years, we believe that it is reasonable given our planned expansion. prediction Although I have exceeded my original estimate for equipment, I have reduced my labor costs; therefore, I will easily stay within the original bid. The concluding statement may merely present ideas for consideration, may call for action, or may deliberately provoke thought. ideas for consideration The new prices become effective at the first of the year. Price adjustments are routine for the company, but some of your customers will not consider them acceptable. Please bear in mind the needs of both your customers and the company as you implement these price adjustments. call for action Please send us a check for $250 now if you wish to keep your account active. If you have not responded to our previous letters because of some special hardship, I will be glad to work out a solution with you. thought-provoking statement Can we continue to accept the losses incurred by inefficiency? Or should we take the necessary steps to control it now? Be especially careful not to introduce a new topic when you conclude. A conclusion should always relate to and reinforce the ideas presented context  9 For guidance about the location of the conclusion section in a report, see formal reports (Tab 6). For letter and other short closings, see cor­ respondence (Tab 4) and entries on specific types of documents throughout this book. context Context is the environment or circumstances in which writers produce documents and within which readers interpret the meanings of those documents, whether they are reports, e-mails, or Web pages. This entry considers the significance of context for workplace writing and suggests how you can be aware of it as you write. See also audience. The context for any document is determined by interrelated events or circumstances both inside and outside an organization. For example, when you write a proposal to fund a project within your company, the economic condition of that company is part of the context that will determine how your proposal is received. If the company has recently laid off a dozen employees, its management may not be inclined to approve a proposal to expand its operations — regardless of how well the proposal is written. When you correspond with someone, the events that prompted you to write shape the context of the message and will affect what you say and how you say it. If you write to a customer in response to a complaint, for example, the tone and approach of your message will be determined by the context — what you find when you investigate the issue. Is your company fully or partly at fault? Has the customer incorrectly used a product? Contributed to a problem? (See also adjustments, Tab 4.) If you write instructions for office staff who must use high-volume document-processing equipment, other questions will reveal the context. What are the lighting and other physical conditions near the equipment? Will these physical conditions affect the layout and design of the instructions? What potential safety issues might the users encounter? See also layout and design (Tab 7). Assessing Context Each time you write, the context needs to be clearly in your mind so that your document will achieve its purpose. The following questions are starting points to help you become aware of the context, determine how it will influence your approach and your readers’ interpretation of what 1 The Writing Process earlier in your writing. Moreover, the conclusion must be consistent with what the introduction promised the report would examine (its purpose) and how it would do so (its method). The Writing Process 1 10  context you have written, and assess how it will affect the decisions you need to make during the writing process. See also “Five Steps to Successful Writing” (page xxv). • What is your professional relationship with your readers, and how might that affect the tone, style, and scope of your writing? • What is “the story” behind the immediate reason you are writing; that is, what series of events or perhaps previous documents led to your need to write? • What is the preferred medium of your readers, and which medium is best suited to your purpose? See also selecting the medium (Tab 2). • What specific factors (such as competition, finance, and regulation) are recognized within your organization or department as important? • What is the corporate culture in which your readers work, and what key values might you find in its mission statement? • What are the professional relationships among the specific readers who will receive the document? • What current events within or outside an organization or a department may influence how readers interpret your writing? • What national cultural differences might affect your readers’ expectations or interpretations of the document? See also global communication. As these questions suggest, context is specific each time you write and often involves, for example, the history of a specific organization or your past dealings with individual readers. Signaling Context Because context is so important, remind your reader in some way of the context for your writing, as in the following opening for a cover message to a proposal.  During our meeting last week on improving quality, you mentioned that we have previously required usability testing only for documents going to high-profile clients because of the costs involved. The idea occurred to me that we might try less-extensive usability testing for many of our other clients. Because you asked for suggestions, I am proposing in the attached document a method of limited usability testing for a broad range of clients in order to improve overall quality while keeping costs at a minimum. Of course, as described in introductions, providing context for a reader may require only a brief background statement or short reminders. defining terms  11 Several weeks ago, a financial adviser noticed a recurring problem in the software developed by Datacom Systems. Specifically, error messages repeatedly appeared when, in fact, no specific trouble . . .  Jane, as I promised in my e-mail yesterday, I’ve attached the human resources budget estimates for the next fiscal year. As the last example suggests, always provide context for attachments to e-mail (Tab 2). defining terms Defining key terms and concepts is often essential for clarity. Terms can be defined either formally or informally, depending on your purpose, audience, and context. A formal definition is a form of classification. You define a term by placing it in a category and then identifying the features that distinguish it from other members of the same category. Term Category Distinguishing Features An auction is a public sale in which property passes to the highest bidder through successively increased offers. An informal definition explains a term by giving a more familiar word or phrase as a synonym. • Plants have a symbiotic, or mutually beneficial, relationship with certain kinds of bacteria. State definitions in a positive way; focus on what the term is rather than on what it is not. negative In a legal transaction, real property is not personal property. positive Real property is legal terminology for the right or interest a person has in land and the permanent structures on that land. Avoid circular definitions, which merely restate the term to be defined. circular Spontaneous combustion is fire that begins spontaneously. clear Spontaneous combustion is the self-ignition of a flammable material through a chemical reaction. 1 The Writing Process  The Writing Process 1 12  description In addition, avoid “is when” and “is where” definitions. Such definitions fail to include the category and are too indirect. a binding agreement between two or more parties. • A contract is when two or more parties agree to something. ^ description The key to effective description is the accurate presentation of details, whether for simple or complex descriptions. In Figure 1–2, notice that the simple description contained in the purchase order includes five specific details (in addition to the part number) structured logically. Shopping Cart Continue shopping Part No. Description Quantity IW 8421 Infectious-waste bags, 12″ × 14″, heavy-gauge polyethylene, red double closures with self-sealing adhesive strips 5 boxes containing 200 bags per box Print shopping cart Item Price Total $32.98 $164.90 Subtotal $164.90 $7.99 Shipping charges Total $172.89 Submit order FIguRE 1–2. Simple description Complex descriptions, of course, involve more details. In describing a mechanical device, for example, describe the whole device and its function before giving a detailed description of how each part works. The description should conclude with an explanation of how each part contributes to the functioning of the whole. In descriptions intended for an audience unfamiliar with the topic, details are crucial. Details will help readers conjure the specifics of the new image, object, or idea that the writer wants to convey, and can thus be the deciding factor in whether the new concepts are understood and the document is effective. In the following description of a company’s headquarters, notice the detailed discussion of colors, shapes, and features. The writer assumes that the reader knows such terms as colonial design and haiku fountain.  Their company’s headquarters, which reminded me of a rural college campus, are located north of the city in a 90-acre lush green ethics in writing  13 You can also use analogy to explain unfamiliar concepts in terms of familiar ones, such as “U-shape” in the previous example. See figures of speech (Tab 10). Visuals can be powerful aids in descriptive writing. For a discussion of how to incorporate visual material into text, see Tab 7, “Design and Visuals.” ethics in writing Ethics refers to the choices we make that affect others for good or ill. Ethical issues are inherent in writing and speaking because what we write and say can influence others. Further, how we express ideas affects our audience’s perceptions of us and our organization’s ethical stance. See also audience. v  ETHICS NOTE  No book can describe how to act ethically in every situ- ation, but this entry describes some typical ethical lapses to watch for during revision.* In other entries throughout this book, ethical issues are highlighted using the symbols surrounding this paragraph. v Avoid language that attempts to evade responsibility. Some writers use the passive voice (Tab 11) because they hope to avoid responsibility or to obscure an issue: “It has been decided” (Who has decided?) or “Several mistakes were made” (Who made them?). Avoid deceptive language. Do not use words with more than one meaning to circumvent the truth. Consider the company document that stated, “A nominal charge will be assessed for using our facilities.”  When clients objected that the charge was actually very high, the writer pointed out that the word nominal means “the named amount” as well as “very small.” In that situation, clients had a strong case in accusing the company of attempting to be deceptive. Various abstract words (Tab 10), technical and legal jargon (Tab 10), and euphemisms (Tab 10) are unethical when they are used to mislead readers or to hide a serious or dangerous situation, even though technical or legal experts could interpret those words or terms as accurate. See also word choice (Tab 10). *Adapted from Brenda R. Sims, “Linking Ethics and Language in the Technical Communication Classroom,” Technical Communication Quarterly 2, no. 3 (Summer 1993): 285–99. 1 The Writing Process wooded area. The complex consists of five three-story buildings of red-brick colonial design. The buildings are spaced about 50 feet apart and are built in a U-shape surrounding a reflection pool that frames a striking haiku fountain. The Writing Process 1 14  ethics in writing Do not deemphasize or suppress important information. Not including information that a reader would want to have, such as potential safety hazards or hidden costs for which a customer might be responsible, is unethical and possibly illegal. Likewise, do not hide information in dense paragraphs with small type and little white space, as is common in credit-card contracts. Use layout and design (Tab 7) features such as type size, bullets, lists, and footnotes to highlight information that is important to readers. Do not mislead with partial or self-serving information. For example, avoid the temptation to highlight a feature or service that readers would find attractive but that is available only with some product models or at extra cost. See also logic errors (Tab 10) and positive writing (Tab 10). Readers could justifiably object that you have given them a false impression to sell them a product or service, especially if you also deemphasize the extra cost or other special conditions. In general, treat others — individuals, companies, groups — with fairness and with respect. Avoid language that is biased, racist, or sexist or that perpetuates stereotypes. See also biased language (Tab 10). Finally, be aware that both plagiarism (Tab 3) and violations of copyright (Tab 3) not only are unethical but also can have serious profes­ sional and legal consequences for you in the classroom and on the job. Writer’s Checklist: Writing Ethically Ask yourself the following questions:  Am I willing to take responsibility, publicly and privately, for what I have written? Make sure you can stand behind what you have written.  Is the document or message honest and truthful? Scrutinize findings and conclusions carefully. Make sure that the data support them.  Am I acting in my employer’s, my client’s, the public’s, or my own best long-term interest? Have an impartial and appropriate outsider review and com­ ment on what you have written.  Does the document or message violate anyone’s rights? If information is con­ fidential and you have serious concerns, consider a review by the company’s legal staff or an attorney.  Am I ethically consistent in my writing? Consistently apply the principles outlined here and those you have assimilated throughout your life.  What if everybody acted or communicated in this way? If you were the intended reader, consider whether the message would be acceptable and respectful. global communication  15 global communication The prevalence of global communication technology means that the ability to communicate with audiences from varied cultural backgrounds is essential. The audiences for such communications include clients and customers as well as business partners and colleagues. Many entries in this book, such as meetings (Tab 8) and résumés (Tab 9), are based on U.S. cultural patterns. The treatment of such topics might be very different in other cultures where leadership styles, persuasive strategies, and even legal constraints differ. As illustrated in international correspondence (Tab 4), organizational patterns, forms of courtesy, and ideas about efficiency can vary significantly from culture to culture. What might be seen as direct and efficient in the United States could be considered blunt and even impolite in other cultures. The reasons behind these differing ways of viewing communication are complex. Researchers often measure cultural differences through such concepts as the importance of honor or “face saving,” perceptions of time, and individual versus group orientation. Because cultures evolve and global communication affects cultural patterns, you must be able to adapt to cultural variations. The checklist that follows offers useful approaches that can help you adapt. WEB LINK    Intercultural Resources Intercultural Press publishes “books on intercultural, multicultural and cross-cultural studies and informative country guides to help you do busi­ ness and form strong relationships in foreign countries.” (See http:// nicholasbrealey.com/boston/subjects/interculturalpress.html.) For other resources for global communication, visit bedfordstmartins.com/bwc and explore the Web Links at the Student Site. 1 The Writing Process If the answers to these questions do not come easily, consider asking a trusted colleague to review and comment on what you have written. The Writing Process 1 16  introductions Writer’s Checklist: Communicating Globally  Discuss the differing cultures within your company or region to rein­ force the idea that people can interpret verbal and nonverbal com­ munications differently.  Invite global and intercultural communication experts to speak at your workplace. Companies in your area may have employees who could be resources for cultural discussions.  Understand that the key to ...
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