Gender Transformations Gender, an identity created in a social process of interaction, often in response to strong social norms and expectations, and sometimes associations with biological markers Gender Revolution? Gender inequality persists—how so? AND there has been change in last 60 years—mostly for women: Women in sports Women’s graduation rates from college Rates of women’s employment Women in traditionally male professions and elected office Percent of Men and Women Employed, 1950–2015 Unpaid Household Labor Globally, 66% of women’s labor is unpaid, compared to 34% of men’s labor Housework and childrearing constitute the bulk of unpaid labor Husbands’ and Wives’ Weekly Housework Hours, 1965–2010 Women’s entry to the labor force Story of economic changes Story of feminist activism and new opportunities BUT, how open is the labor market? Men and women do different kinds of labor That is, there is occupational sex segregation—women and men work in jobs in which most of the other workers are the same gender Women’s Work? Secretaries, dental hygienists, preschool and kindergarten teachers, nurses, elementary teachers, child care workers Home health aides, food prep, retail sales (service sector jobs) Men’s Work? In historically male-dominated occupations, despite some change women are still a significant minority: --30.5% of physicians --34.4% of lawyers --2.6% of pilots --1.5% of carpenters Global Care Chain Story of increased demand for domestic labor, filled by women from developing nations Global care chain Explanations for Occupational Sex Segregation Women choose different jobs from men: 1) Socialized to do so, we desire them 2) Demands of work and family 3) Women make the best of opportunities available to them Explanations for Occupational Sex Segregation Discrimination 1) Overt discrimination due to gender ideology or social closure 2) Recruitment practices Women’s Pay as a % of Men’s Wages vary by race and gender Explanations for Earnings Gap Pure or overt discrimination Human capital theory Dual labor market theory or occupational segregation Women are socialized to negotiate less strongly Gender The system of social forces that structure how being male or female affects what is expected of you, how you are treated, and what opportunities you have. [Paula England, author of Ch. 12] I would add: how being assigned male or female at birth affects… Gender Gender—expectations about the behaviors, appearances, roles. The psychological, social and cultural aspects of masculinity and femininity. Basis for distribution of resources and opportunities. Intersectionality Gender, race, and class identities and systems of social stratification are all intertwined. There is no universal experience of being a woman or a man. To study gender from this perspective is to take an intersectional approach. Explanations for Gender Essentialist: the idea that gender is based in biology, in differences in anatomy, chromosomes, hormones, and biology explains observable social differences between men and women. Explanations for Gender Social Constructionist: Social processes create gender differences and gender inequality. Through small group interaction, socialization, schooling, media representations, religions, economic opportunities, and the policies of governments, a gender system establishes and reproduces the expectations of a person and rewards based on one’s sex. Nonbinary Gender Identity Evidence of social construction of gender Different than trans identities Gender as a binary is changing fast in US—Risman argues social media has a huge role in this gender revolution #NonbinaryIsntWhite Constructing Nonbinary Gender https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G CNxikfI9uQ “We are all Trans” Intersex Advocacy Group https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cA UDKEI4QKI #nobinary Neither sex nor gender can be understood as binary (two mutually exclusive) categories Evidence in intersex Evidence in nonbinary people https://www.npr.org/2019/05/01/719157989 /olympic-champion-caser-semenya-losescase-to-compete-without-hormonesuppressan
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