Chapter Five Entering the Social World: Socioemotional Development in Infancy and Early Childhood © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. 5.1 Beginnings: Trust & Attachment Learning Objectives • What are Erikson’s first three stages of psychosocial development? • How do infants become emotionally attached to mother, father, and other significant people in their lives? • What are the different kinds of attachment relationships, how do they arise, and what are their consequences? • Is attachment jeopardized when parents of infants and young children are employed outside the home? © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Erikson’s Stages of Early Psychosocial Development • Basic trust vs. mistrust – With a proper balance of trust and mistrust, infants can acquire hope • Autonomy vs. shame and doubt – A blend of autonomy, shame, and doubt gives rise to will, the knowledge that within limits, youngsters can act on their world intentionally • Initiative vs. guilt – Purpose is achieved with a balance between individual initiative and a willingness to cooperate with others © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. The Growth of Attachment • Attachment to caregivers is a critical aspect of Erikson’s first stage (basic trust vs. mistrust) • Evolutionary psychology: many human behaviors are successful adaptations to the environment – Humans are social beings who also form parent-child attachments – These are adaptations promoting survival to the reproductive years, thereby sustaining the species’ existence © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Steps Toward Attachment • Bowlby proposed four stages of attachment: – – – – Preattachment stage (birth to 6–8 weeks) Attachment in the making (6–8 weeks to 6–8 months) True attachment (6–8 months to 18 months) Reciprocal relationships (18 months on) © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Forms of Attachment • Ainsworth’s Strange Situation paradigm: – Three phases (~3 minutes each) ▪ Child and mother first occupy an unfamiliar room filled with toys ▪ Mother leaves room momentarily ▪ Mother then returns to room – Observe child’s reactions during each phase – Classified four types of attachment ▪ Three insecure types; one secure © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Four Types of Attachment Relationships (1 of 2) • Secure attachment (60–65%): baby may or may not cry upon separation; wants to be with mom upon her return and stops crying • Avoidant attachment (20%): baby not upset by separation; ignores or looks away when mom returns © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Four Types of Attachment Relationships (2 of 2) • Resistant attachment (10–15%): separation upsets baby; remains upset after mom’s return and is difficult to console • Disorganized attachment (5–10%): separation and return confuse the baby; reacts in contradictory ways (e.g., seeking proximity to the returned mom, but not looking at her) © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Quality of Attachment (1 of 2) • Quality of attachment during infancy predicts parent-child relations during childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood – Securely attached infants depend on their parents for care and support – Infants with insecure attachment later report being angry with their parents – Babies attach to their mothers and fathers, and the quality of the attachment is the same © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Quality of Attachment (2 of 2) • Mothers spend more time caregiving and are more skillful at parenting than fathers. – Fathers typically spend more time playing with their babies than taking care of them – Physical play is the norm for fathers; mothers spend more time reading and talking to babies – These gender differences have become smaller © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Consequences of Attachment • Consequences of Attachment – Infant–parent attachment lays the foundation for all the infant’s later social relationships ▪ Secure attachment: o ▪ Non-satisfying first relationship: o ▪ Prototype for later successful relationships More prone to problems in their social interactions as preschoolers School-age children are less likely to have behavior problems if they have successful attachment relationships © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. What Determines Quality of Attachment? • Secure attachment results from predictable, sensitive, and responsive parenting – Internal working mode ▪ Positive model ▪ Negative model • Parental training helps parents interact more affectionately, responsively, and sensitively © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Attachment, Work, & Alternate Caregiving • Day care’s quality or length of stays – Early child care found no effects of the childcare experience on attachment – One exception: Mothers who were less sensitive and responsive ▪ When placed in low-quality child care, children more likely to have an insecure attachment. – Children who experience many hours of child care ▪ ▪ More often overly aggressive; more conflicts with teachers; less self-control More likely to experience low-quality care © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. 5.2 Emerging Emotions: Learning Objectives • At what ages do children begin to express basic emotions? • What are complex emotions, and when do they develop? • When do children begin to understand other people’s emotions? How do they use this information to guide their own behavior? © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. The Function of Emotions • Emotions have functional (adaptive) value (e.g., guiding behavior and facilitating relationships) © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Experiencing and Expressing Emotions • Theorists distinguish complex from basic emotions – Basic emotions consist of: ▪ A subjective feeling, a physiological change, and an overt behavior – Joy, sadness, anger, fear, distress, disgust, interest, and surprise all occur in 8 to 9 months • Studying infants’ facial expressions and overt behaviors reveals their probable trajectory © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Development of Basic Emotions • Newborns: pleasure and distress • 2 to 3 months: sadness • 2 to 3 months: social smiles – Occur upon seeing a human face – Sometimes accompanied by cooing – Express pleasure at seeing another • 4 to 6 months: anger – Reflects an increasing understanding of goals and their frustration © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Development of Basic Emotions: Stranger Wariness and Disgust • 6 months: stranger wariness – Infants tend to be less fearful of strangers when the environment is familiar – Baby's anxiety depends on the stranger's behavior – Adaptive as a natural restraint against wandering away from familiar others © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Emergence of Complex Emotions • Complex emotions include guilt, embarrassment, and pride – To be experienced, child first must understand the self and behavior in relation to whether they have met standards or expectations – This self-understanding emerges around 15–18 months – Complex emotions emerge at 18–24 months © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Later Developments • With increasing cognitive development, children experience basic and complex emotions in more and different situations – Regret and relief are expressed by around 5 and 6 years of age – By 9 years, these emotions are being expressed appropriately (cognitive growth) ▪ Reasons for fear shift from the dark and imaginary creatures to school, health, and personal harm © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Cultural Differences in Emotional Expression • Many basic and complex emotions are expressed similarly around the world • Expressing emotions differs across cultures – Asian children are encouraged to show emotional restraint – European American 11-month-olds cried and smiled more than Chinese infants of same age © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Recognizing & Using Others’ Emotions • 4–6 months: differentiate among faces expressing happiness, sadness, and fear – Engage in social referencing – 14-month-olds remember earlier observed emotional reactions of parents to particular objects – 18-month-olds use the reactions of one adult to another adult’s behavior to guide their own behavior © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Recognizing Others’ Emotions: Factors in Emotional Understanding • Factors contributing to children’s understanding of emotion – Parents and children frequently discussing past emotions (especially negative ones, such as fear and anger) – Parents explaining how feelings differ and feelings’ situational elicitors – Positive and rewarding relationship with parents and siblings © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Regulating Emotions • Emotion regulation: controlling what one feels and how to communicate feeling – Dependent on cognitive processes ▪ Attention and reappraisal • Not all children regulate their emotions well – Those who don’t tend to have problems ▪ ▪ ▪ More frequent conflicts with peers Less satisfying peer relationships Less adaptive adjustment to school © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. 5.3 Interacting with Others: Learning Objectives • When do youngsters first begin to play with each other? How does play change during infancy and the preschool years? • What determines whether children help one another? © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. The Joys of Play • Even two 6-month-olds look, smile, and point at each other • 12 months: parallel play, in which children play alone but are keenly interested in what others are doing • 15–18 months: simple social play, in which children do similar activities and talk or smile at each other • 24 months: cooperative play, theme-based play where children take special roles © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Make-Believe (1 of 2) • Promotes cognitive development • Helps children explore frightening topics • Promotes language, memory, reasoning, and understanding the thoughts, beliefs, and feelings of others © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Make-Believe (2 of 2) • Culture influences – India and Peru – parents do not routinely engage in pretend play with their children and children do not begin pretend play until older – The content of pretend play reflects cultural values ▪ European American children—adventure and fantasy ▪ Korean American children—family roles and everyday activities © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Solitary Play • Usually not an indicator of problems • Can reflect uneasiness with others for which professional help should be sought if child – Wanders aimlessly among others – Hovers over others who are playing © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Gender Differences in Play • 24–36 months: children spontaneously prefer playing with same-sex peers • Gender-typed play styles, such as – Boys prefer rough and tumble, competition, and dominance – Girls are more cooperative, prosocial, and conversation-oriented – Girls are more enabling; boys are more constricting © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Parental Influence • Parental involvement in child’s play can lead to later improved peer relations when parents serve as: – – – – Playmate Social director Coach Mediator © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Helping Others • Prosocial behavior: one that benefits another • Altruism: prosocial behaviors not directly benefiting the self, but driven by feelings of responsibility toward others • 18 months: recognize others’ distress signals and will try to comfort them • By 3 years: are gradually starting to understand others’ needs and learning appropriate altruistic responses © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Skills Underlying Altruistic Behavior • Perspective-taking: accurate perception of another’s physical, social, or emotional viewpoint as distinct from one’s own – Empathy is one manifestation: the actual experience of another’s feelings – The state and trait of empathy promote helping © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Situational Influences • • • • Feelings of responsibility Feelings of competence Mood Costs of altruism © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. The Contributions of Heredity • Prosocial behavior is more similar in identical twins than fraternal ones • Genes influence aspects of temperament related to prosocial behavior – Some are aware of another’s need, but ▪ ▪ Feel so distressed that they cannot figure out how to help due to poor emotion regulation skills Their inhibition (shyness) prevents them from helping, despite knowing how © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Socialization of Altruism • Children are more prosocial and/or empathic when parents: – Model warmth and concern for others, and are cooperative, helpful, and responsive – Use reason while disciplining, stating how children’s actions affect others – Provide children opportunities to behave pro-socially in and outside the home © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. 5.4 Gender Roles & Gender Identity: Learning Objectives • What are our stereotypes about males and females? How well do they correspond to actual differences between boys and girls? • How do young children learn gender roles? • How are gender roles changing? What further changes might the future hold? © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Images of Men & Women: Facts & Fantasy • Social role: cultural guidelines as to how we should behave, especially with others – Gender roles are one of the first learned • Learning gender stereotypes – Our world is not gender neutral – At 18 months: girls and boys look longer at genderstereotyped pictures of toys – At 4 years: extensive knowledge of gender-stereotyped activities and some behaviors or traits © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Gender-Related Differences • How do boys and girls actually differ? – – – – – – – – Verbal ability Mathematics Spatial ability Memory Social influence Relational aggression Emotional sensitivity Effortful control © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Gender Typing • Parents are equally warm and encouraging to boys and girls • Parents model and differentially reinforce “appropriate” gender-typed behaviors • Results support social learning theory © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Parental Differences • Parental Differences – Fathers, more than mothers, treat sons and daughters differently ▪ ▪ Encourage gender-related play Punish their sons more but accept their daughter’s dependence – Mothers tend to respond based on each child’s need, and fathers respond based on gender stereotypes. © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Gender Identity • Gender identity: sense of self as male or female • Kohlberg’s three stages – Gender labeling: 2–3 years – Gender stability: preschool – Gender constancy: 4–7 years © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Gender Identity Gender Schema Theory • Gender-schema theory: addresses “how” children learn about gender and gender roles – Children decide if objects, activities, or behaviors are “male” or “female” and then decide whether they should learn more – After children understand gender, they focus on gender-typical activities, their choices shifts along gender-specific lines • By school age, children know that gender roles are flexible © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Biological Influences (1 of 2) • Evolutionary theory: men and women evolved different traits and behaviors adaptive to their unique investments (e.g., childrearing for women and resource provision for men) • Identical twins are even more similar than fraternal twins in preference for sex-typical toys and activities © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Biological Influences (2 of 2) • Sex hormones are key players in gender-role learning and help explain genetic disorders: – Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a genetic disorder in which the adrenal glands secrete large amounts of androgen ▪ ▪ Affects baby girls in that it can enlarge the clitoris to resemble a penis Androgen also affects prenatal development of brain regions critical for masculine and feminine gender-role behavior. © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Evolving Gender Roles • Gender roles are changing and have evolved over time • Studies of nontraditional families indicate that some components of gender stereotypes are more readily changed than others and more readily influenced by experience than others © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. 8Chapter 6 Off to School: Cognitive and Physical Development in Middle Childhood CHAPTER OVERVIEW AND CONNECTIONS TO OTHER CHAPTERS This chapter looks at cognitive and physical development in middle childhood. Beginning with the mastery of academic skills, the authors explore children’s growing cognitive ability. The emphasis then shifts to theories of intelligence and tools for evaluating intelligence scores. The impact of heredity, environment, ethnicity, race, and social class are also discussed. Other areas related to education, including assessment, special educational needs, effective schools and teachers, and cross-national comparisons of American schools, are explored as well. The authors show how specific aspects of cognitive development are essential for understanding the impact of education. They also focus on important factors that contribute to successful schools, effective teaching, and enhanced learning. This chapter should have a clear relevance for each student, drawing on their firsthand experiences with school. One very important theme of this chapter is its focus on diversity; specifically, the diversity of development and of educational experiences in the U.S. This chapter has been updated with new material on racial differences in the treatment of ADHD, children with intellectual disabilities, and cross-cultural differences in learning to read. You may want to refer to many of the concepts of Piaget’s cognitive development presented in Chapters 1 and 4 as the foundation for the types of thinking presented in this chapter. Also, information processing is discussed again in this chapter; students should remember it from Chapter 4. Cognitive development will be revisited again in Chapters 10 and 13, especially as it relates to education in adolescence and young adults. You may want to integrate knowledge of social development and peer relationships into the school setting by reviewing Chapters 4 and 7. CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Cognitive Development A. More Sophisticated Thinking: Piaget’s Version 1. In Piaget’s stage of concrete operations (age seven to 11): a) Children become less egocentric. b) Children rarely confuse appearances with reality. c) Children are able to reverse their thinking because they have acquired mental operations, which are actions that can be performed on objects or ideas, and that consistently yield a result. d) Children are able to solve perspective-taking, conservation, and class-inclusion problems correctly. e) Thinking is limited to the tangible and real, as children in this stage take an earthbound, concrete, practical-minded sort of problem-solving approach. f) Concrete-operational children resist reaching conclusions that are contrary to known facts, but rather reach conclusions based on their knowledge of the world. 2. In Piaget’s stage of formal operations (age 11 to adulthood): Chapter 6 a) II. Adolescents are able to apply psychological operations to abstract entities, to think hypothetically and reason abstractly. b) Using deductive reasoning, adolescents understand that conclusions are based on logic, not on experience. 3. Comments on Piaget’s View a) The Theory… (1) overestimates cognitive competence in adolescents. (2) is vague concerning processes of change. (3) does not account for variability in children’s performance. (4) undervalues the influences of the sociocultural environment. B. Information-Processing Strategies for Learning and Remembering 1. Information-processing psychologists believe the cognitive development proceeds by increases in the efficiency with which children process information. 2. Thought takes place in working memory, where a small number of thoughts and ideas can be stored briefly, before being transferred to long-term memory for permanent storage with unlimited capacity. 3. We use a number of memory strategies to learn new information: a) Organization involves grouping information so that related information is together. b) Elaboration involves embellishing information to make it more memorable. C. Metacognition 1. Effective use of strategies for learning and remembering begins with an analysis of the goals of any learning task and includes monitoring one’s performance. 2. Metamory refers to an intuitive understanding of memory. As they develop, children devise naïve theories of memory, which shows development of theory of mind. 3. Metacognitive knowledge is the growing understanding of memory accompanied with the increased understanding or awareness of cognitive processes. 4. Cognitive self-regulation requires the coordination of identifying goals, selecting strategies, and monitoring outcomes. It is a characteristic of successful students. Aptitudes for School A. Theories of Intelligence 1. Psychometricians are psychologists who specialize in measuring characteristics such as intelligence and personality. Some psychometricians believe there is a general factor for intelligence, whereas others believe that intelligence consists of distinct abilities. 2. Hierarchical view of intelligence a) John Carroll proposed a hierarchal theory with three levels, which is a compromise between the two views of intelligence—general vs. distinct abilities. b) Critics argue that it ignores cognitive research and theory and look beyond the psychometric approach to understanding intelligence. 3. Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences a) Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences draws on research in child development, studies of brain-damaged people, and studies of exceptionally talented people. b) Gardner initially identified seven distinct intelligences, but later identified two additional ones, for a total of nine different types of intelligences. c) Gardner looked at the unique developmental history of each of the nine distinct intelligences to arrive at their classification. d) Prompted by Gardner’s theory, researchers have begun to look at other nontraditional aspects of intelligence: (1) Emotional intelligence is the ability to use one’s own and others’ emotions to solve problems and live happily. Off to School (2) People who are emotionally intelligent tend to have more satisfying interpersonal relationships, have greater self-esteem, and be more effective in the workplace. e) The theory of multiple intelligences has important implications for education: (1) Gardner believes schools should foster all intelligences, not just the traditional linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligences. (2) Teachers should capitalize on the strongest intelligences. (3) Educators that use it claim that students have higher test scores and better discipline, and that their parents are more involved. 4. Robert Sternberg’s theory of successful intelligence a) This comprehensive theory defines intelligence as using one’s abilities skillfully to achieve one’s personal goals. b) People use three different kinds of abilities to achieve personal goals: analytic ability, creative ability, and practical ability. (1) Analytic ability involves analyzing problems and generating different solutions. (2) Creative ability involves dealing adaptively with novel situations and problems. (3) Practical ability involves knowing which solution or plan will actually work. B. Binet and the Development of Intelligence Testing 1. Alfred Binet and Theophile Simon developed a way to determine which children needed special instruction by first identified problems that typical age children could solve. 2. Mental age (MA) is a measure of children’s performance corresponding to the chronological age of those whose performance equals the child’s. 3. Binet and Simon used MA to distinguish “bright” from “dull” children. C. The Stanford-Binet 1. Using Binet’s work, Lewis Terman created the Stanford-Binet in 1916. 2. Terman introduced the concept of the intelligence quotient (IQ), which was simply the ratio of mental age to chronological age (CA), multiplied by 100. 3. IQ scores are now determined by comparing the child’s test performance to others of their same age who have taken the test. 4. The Stanford-Binet, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV, and the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children-II are currently the popular intelligence tests. D. Do Tests Work? 1. Intelligence tests are reliable, meaning that people usually get consistent scores on them. 2. IQ scores are powerful predictors of developmental outcomes. IQ scores predict school grades, achievement test scores, number of years of education, and occupational success. E. Heredity and Environmental Factors 1. Because identical twins have identical genes, their test scores are virtually identical, which is a correlation of 1. 2. Fraternal twins have about 50% of their genes in common, their test scores are a) less similar than scores for identical twins; b) similar to other siblings who have the same biological parents; and c) more similar than the scores of children and their adopted siblings. 3. Heredity also influences patterns of developmental change in IQ scores: a) Patterns of developmental change in IQ are more alike for identical twins than for fraternal twins. b) At every age, the correlation between children’s IQ and their biological parents’ IQ is greater than the correlation between children’s IQ and their adoptive parents’ IQ. c) As adopted children get older, their test scores increasingly resemble their biological parents’ scores. Chapter 6 4. Three areas of research show the importance of environment on intelligence: a) Children with high test scores tend to come from homes that are well organized and have plenty of appropriate play materials. b) The impact of the environment on intelligence is also implicated by research on historical changes in IQ scores. c) The importance of a stimulating environment for intelligence is demonstrated by intervention programs that prepare economically disadvantaged children for school. F. The Impact of Ethnicity and Socioeconomic Status 1. Ethnic groups differ in their performance on intelligence tests. Asian Americans tend to score the highest, followed by European Americans, Latino Americans, and African Americans. 2. Children from economically advantaged homes, more likely to be European or Asian American, tend to have higher test scores than children from economically disadvantaged homes. 3. Group differences in IQ test scores are reduced but not eliminated when children from comparable socioeconomic status are compared. G. The role of genetics in intelligence has been debated. The conclusion is that differences within ethnic groups are partly due to heredity, but differences between groups apparently reflect environmental influences. Three potential influences have been studied: test bias, test taking skills, and the impact of stereotypes. H. Cultural-fair intelligence tests, which include test items based on experiences common to many cultures, have been developed. I. Test scores can improve considerably when children feel at ease with the examiner and have an understanding of the strategies used to take a test. J. Some researchers contend that stereotype threat, the self-fulfilling prophecy in which knowledge of stereotypes leads to anxiety and reduced performance, may account for the poor performance of racial/ethnic minorities on standardized tests. K. Interpreting test scores is just as important as creating tests that reflect cultural influences. III. Special Children, Special Needs A. Gifted Children 1. Traditionally, gifted children have been those with high scores on IQ tests. Contrary to modern stereotypes, such as gifted children being emotionally troubled and unable to get along with their peers, gifted children tend to be more mature, have fewer emotional problems, and, as adults, report being satisfied with their careers, relationships, and life in general. 2. Gifted children are creative in their thinking, coming up with novel thoughts and actions. Divergent thinking occurs when thinking in novel and unusual directions, which is associated with creativity. 3. Both intelligence and creativity must be cultivated and can be fostered by experiences. B. Children with Intellectual Disability 1. Intellectual disability refers to substantially limitations in intellectual ability (IQ score of 70 or lower) and problems adapting to an environment that emerges before the age of 18. 2. Four factors place individuals at risk for intellectual disability: a) Biomedical factors, including chromosomal disorders, malnutrition, traumatic brain injury b) Social factors, such as poverty and impaired parent-child interactions c) Behavioral factors, such as child neglect or domestic violence d) Educational factors, including impaired parenting and inadequate special education services C. Children with Learning Disabilities Off to School 1. Children with a learning disability have (1) normal intelligence; (2) have difficulty mastering one or more academic subjects; and (3) do not suffer from other conditions that could explain poor performance, such as sensory impairment or inadequate instruction. 2. The most common learning disability is developmental dyslexia, which often can be traced to inadequate understanding and use of language sounds (i.e. phonological awareness). Children with reading disability typically benefit from explicit, extensive instruction on the connections between letters and their sounds. 3. Disabilities in reading comprehension stem from limitations in spoken vocabulary and problems linking words together to create meaning. Intensive instruction in vocabulary and oral language skills helps children with this type of disability. 4. Mathematical disability reflects poor number sense and problems in the basic cognitive processes that are used in doing arithmetic, such as working memory and processing. Effective interventions are not yet available. D. Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 1. Roughly 3 to 7% of all school-age children are diagnosed with ADHD. Boys outnumber girls by a 4:1 ratio. 2. Three symptoms are at the heart of ADHD: a) Hyperactivity. Children with ADHD are unusually energetic, fidgety, and unable to keep still. b) Inattention. Children with ADHD do not pay attention in class and seem unable to concentrate on schoolwork. c) Impulsivity. Children with ADHD often act before thinking. 3. Children with ADHD often have problems with academic performance, conduct, and getting along with peers. 4. ADHS is not caused by TV, food allergies, sugar, or poor home life. 5. ADHD is a chronic condition that is not outgrown in adolescence or young adulthood. 6. Researchers have worked hard to find effective treatments. a) Stimulants have a calming influence for many children with ADHD and allow them to focus their attention. b) Psychosocial treatments improve children’s cognitive and social skills. 7. Race and income play a role in children receiving proper diagnosis and treatment. a) African American and Hispanic American children are far less likely than European American children to be diagnosed and treated for ADHD. b) Children from low-income families are less likely to be diagnosed and treated. c) Racial bias also contributes: (1) Professionals tend to attribute the symptoms of ADHD in African American or Hispanic American children to poor parenting, life stresses, or other sources that cannot be treated. (2) In European American children, the symptoms of ADHD are often attributed to a biological problem than can be treated medically. IV. Academic Skills A. Reading 1. Word recognition and comprehension are two important processes involved in reading: a) Word recognition is the process of identifying a unique pattern of letters. b) Comprehension is the process of extracting meaning from a sequence of words. 2. The foundations of reading include letter recognition and phonological awareness. 3. Children who know more about letters and word forms learn to read more easily than their peers who know less. 4. A second essential skill is phonological awareness, the ability to hear the distinctive sounds of letters. a) Phonological awareness is strongly related to success in learning to read. Chapter 6 b) Children who can readily distinguish language sounds learn to read more readily than children who do not. B. Recognizing Words 1. The first step in actual reading is identifying individual words. 2. Words are recognized through direct retrieval from long-term memory. 3. The general strategy is to retrieve words first, sound out the word, or ask a more skilled reader for help. 4. By sounding out novel words, children store information about words in long-term memory than can be used for direct retrieval. C. Comprehension 1. Once individual words are recognized, reading begins to have a lot in common with understanding speech. 2. Several factors contribute to improved comprehension: a) Children become more skilled at recognizing words, allowing more working memory capacity to be devoted to comprehension. b) Working memory capacity increases. c) Children acquire more general knowledge of their physical, social, and psychological worlds. d) With experience, children use more appropriate reading strategies. e) With experience, children better monitor their comprehension. D. Writing 1. Writing skills develop gradually during childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood. 2. With age, children have more to tell as they gain more knowledge about the world and incorporate this knowledge into their writing. 3. Organization is a difficult aspect of writing. a) Young writers often use a knowledge-telling strategy, which involves writing down information on the topic as they retrieve it from memory. b) Knowledge-transforming strategy involves deciding what information to include and how best to organize it for the point they wish to convey to their reader. 4. Language mechanics of writing is difficult to master. 5. Effective revising requires being able to detect problems and knowing how to correct them, skills that improve with age and experience. E. Math Skills 1. By kindergarten, children have mastered counting, and they use this skill as the starting point for learning to add. 2. When children begin to receive formal instruction in arithmetic, they are able to add and subtract mentally. F. Comparing U.S. Students with Students in Other Countries 1. Students in the U.S. have substantially lower scores than students in leading nations. 2. The very best U.S. students only perform at the level of average students in Asian countries like Singapore and Korea. 3. The cultural differences in math achievement hold for both math operations and math problem solving. a) Asian students spend more time both in and out of school on academic tasks. b) Asian parents set higher academic standards for their children. c) Asian teachers and parents view academic excellence as paramount. 4. Americans can learn several lessons from Japanese and Taiwanese education systems: a) Give teachers more free time to prepare lessons and correct students’ work. b) Improve teachers’ training by providing mentoring with more experienced teachers. c) Organize instruction around sound principles of learning. d) Set higher standards for children. Off to School V. Effective Schools, Effective Teachers A. School-Based Influences on Student Achievement 1. There are a number of characteristics of schools where students typically succeed: a) Academic excellence is the primary goal of the school and of every student in it. b) The school climate is a safe and nurturing. c) Parents are involved. d) Progress of students, teachers, and programs are monitored. B. Teacher-Based Influences on Student Achievement 1. Students tend to learn the most when teachers: a) manage the classroom effectively; b) believe they are responsible for their students’ learning and that their students will learn when taught well; c) emphasize mastery of topics; d) teach actively; e) pay careful attention to pacing; f) value tutoring; and g) teach children techniques for monitoring and managing their own learning. VI. Physical Development A. Growth 1. Physical growth during the elementary school years continues at the steady pace established during the preschool years. 2. Most children gain about eight pounds and two to three inches per year. 3. Boys and girls are about the same size for most of the elementary school years, but girls are much more likely than boys to enter puberty toward the end of this period. a) Girls grow rapidly during puberty and become much bigger than boys their age. b) At ages 11 and 12, the average girl is about a half-inch taller than the average boy. 4. Ethnic differences are also evident in children’s growth. 5. School-age children need to eat more to support their growth and provide energy for their busy lives. 6. School-age children should eat breakfast, which provides one-fourth the days’ calories. B. Development of Motor Skills 1. Elementary school children’s greater size and strength contributes to improved motor skills. 2. Fine motor skills also improve as children move through the elementary school years. Children gain much greater control over their fingers and hands, making them much more nimble and improving their handwriting. 3. In both gross and fine motor skills, gender differences exist. a) Girls tend to excel in fine motor skills; their handwriting tends to be better than that of boys. b) Girls also excel on gross motor skills that require flexibility and balance. c) Boys tend to have the advantage on gross motor skills. 4. As children approach and enter puberty, girls’ bodies have proportionately more fat and less muscle than boys’ bodies. C. Physical Fitness 1. Being physically active promotes growth of muscles and bone, promotes cardiovascular health, and can help to establish a lifelong pattern of exercise. 2. When children are tested with a full battery of fitness tests, fewer than half meet standards for fitness on all tasks. 3. Many factors contribute to low levels of fitness. a) Physical education classes are infrequent. b) There are low levels of activity during physical education classes. Chapter 6 c) Children choose sedentary leisure-time activities. To promote physical fitness, experts believe that physical education should be offered more frequently and include activities that children can continue throughout adolescence and adulthood, either alone or with another person. D. Participating in Sports 1. Children’s greater motor skill means they are able to participate in many team sports. 2. Sports participation also benefits self-esteem, helps children learn initiative, provides opportunity to learn important social skills, and uses developing cognitive skills. 3. There are also potential hazards to participating in sports. Several studies have linked youth participation in sports to delinquent and antisocial behavior. 4. LEARNING OBJECTIVES Cognitive Development • What are the distinguishing characteristics of thought during Piaget’s concrete-operational and formal-operational stages? • How do children use strategies and monitoring to improve learning and remembering? Aptitudes for School • What is the nature of intelligence? • Why were intelligence tests first developed? What are their features? • How well do intelligence tests work? • How do heredity and environment influence intelligence? • How and why do test scores vary for different racial and ethnic groups? Special Children, Special Needs • What are the characteristics of gifted children? • What are different forms of disability? • What are the distinguishing features of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder? Academic Skills • What are the components of skilled reading? • As children develop, how does their writing improve? • How do arithmetic skills change during the elementary-school years? How do U. S. students compare to students from other countries? • What are the hallmarks of effective schools and effective teachers? Physical Development • How much do school-age children grow? • How do motor skills improve during the elementary school years? • Are American children physically fit? • What are the consequences of participating in sports? CRITICAL THINKING DISCUSSION QUESTIONS Knowledge • • What is the definition of giftedness? What is the difference between concrete operational thinking and formal operational thinking? Off to School Comprehension • Describe the indicators of ADHD in boys versus girls. Application • • • How could you use information-processing theory to develop a program of study skills strategies for fourth- to sixth-graders? How would you use Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences to develop an education system? Design a research study to determine how heredity impacts intelligence. What participants would you use and how would this design provide evidence for or against the impact of heredity on intelligence? Analysis • • • • • • Compare and contrast Piaget and information-processing accounts of cognition for school-age children. How are tests of divergent thinking a measure of creativity? How do schools produce conformity? Compare and contrast the treatments for ADHD. Discuss the pros and cons of sports participation on children’s physical, social, and cognitive development and provide recommendations for parents and teachers. What do the characteristics of effective teachers and effective schools have in common? Synthesis • • • • What sort of educational environment would maximize standard educational performance as well as foster social development and collaboration? What aspects of cognitive development would you need to know in order to design a literacy program for not yet reading fifth-graders? How might intervention programs, such as Head Start and the Carolina Abecedarian Project, affect how race and ethnicity impact children’s IQ test scores? How might the development of formal operational thinking impact the development of mathematical understanding? Evaluation • • • What criteria would you use to evaluate the validity of intelligence tests? What observations of cross-cultural education systems would you need in order to make meaningful comparisons of each system’s effectiveness? Which theory about intelligence seems more plausible, Sternberg’s theory or Gardner’s theory? INSTRUCTIONAL GOALS AND TEACHING STRATEGIES Breadth vs. Depth of Coverage. This chapter can be covered thoroughly in two classes, which would allow you to devote one class to cognitive changes and a second class to education, especially the differing view of intelligence. You will want a decidedly applied focus as you examine factors related to school performance. You may want to distinguish school performance from success in other arenas. Your students will hold varied (and often strong) opinions about the role of school in predicting life success. The lecture expander, Children’s Implicit Theories of Intelligence: Implications for Learning, is an excellent way to tie together the topics of intelligence and learning in school. Chapter 6 Social Policy Implications. The impact of poverty on educational opportunity and achievement is indisputable. To adequately address this topic, you will want to examine the conditions of schools in economically deprived areas and consider the relative importance of these conditions. The lecture expander on Risk and Resilience in Schools provides a model for how to conceptualize the relationship between characteristics of the child, conditions of school and family, and cultural variables. An additional area of interest, which has been examined with new vigor recently, is the question of racial and social class differences in IQ and its relevance for school success. Focus on Theory. This chapter revisits the differences between Piaget and information-processing perspectives on cognition. You may want to reintroduce Vygotsky, as his concept of the “zone of proximal development” is now being used in many education settings. Clinical or Applied Perspectives. The textbook provides good coverage of learning differences, looking at gifted and intellectually disabled children, learning disabilities, and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. You can expand on any, or all, of these by looking at methods of identification and intervention strategies. You can also look at some of the controversies in this area, such as behavioral vs. pharmacological treatment for ADHD, gender differences of rates of ADHD, and educational accommodations for learning disabilities in college students. LECTURE EXPANDERS Risk and Resilience: Children in School Your students will certainly be curious about the effects of negative life experiences, such as those created by conditions of poverty, parental divorce, and child abuse. Many will naively assume that negative life events will inevitably result in negative outcomes for children. However, research has shown this to be untrue. Children can survive and thrive despite great deprivation. You can use the lecture expander to introduce the concept of resilience, which provides an important model for examining the process by which individuals come to function well despite the presence of negative, stressful life events. A recent Society for Research in Child Development Social Policy Report examines several models of resilience and applies the concept to schools, offering several policy and research recommendations that incorporate resilience (Zimmerman and Arunkumar, 1994). According to this article, “resiliency refers to those factors and processes that interrupt the trajectory from risk to problem behaviors or psychopathology, and thereby result in adaptive outcomes even in the presence of adversity” (pg. 4). Resiliency is a way to understand the anomalous combinations of success and failure under seemingly similar circumstances. Resiliency is not a monolithic set of protective factors, nor is it a fixed characteristic of individuals. Rather, it represents some combination of environmental and individual factors. Although there is diversity in the way researchers have conceptualized the relationship of risk and resiliency, most agree that a sufficient model would include individual factors, the nature of the context, risk factors, and compensatory, protective, and counteracting factors. Thus, models of risk and resilience represent some combination of environmental and individual factors within a social context, much like the biopsychosocial model presented by Kail and Cavanaugh. It is important to understand that biological, psychological, and social factors contribute to resilience as well as create conditions of risk. To adequately understand individual adaptive or maladaptive responses, we can examine the confluence of risk and resilience. From the age of five on, school exerts a profound influence on children. The school environment has the potential to either increase risk or moderate the effects of risk factors outside of school. Schools that are overcrowded or are not stimulating may fail to provide adequate compensation Off to School for a dangerous urban environment. Recently, research has looked at how school-wide programs might provide such compensation. One approach has been to alter the motivational climate in the school and establish the expectation of success by every student, placing a high value on community service, instituting peer-education programs, or involving students in decision-making. These sorts of changes establish self-efficacy, can create a sense of belonging, and can enhance motivation. Thus, conditions of risk can be altered to create resiliency to stresses outside of school. While researchers are still elaborating the exact mechanisms by which changes such as these are effected, it is important to recognize the complexity between risk and outcome. Zimmerman, M.A. and Arunkumar, R. (1994) Resiliency Research: Implications for Schools and Policy, Social Policy Report, Society for Research in Child Development. Children’s Implicit Theories of Intelligence: Implications for Learning Chapter 6 presents several different views of intelligence, which include the psychometric (related to IQ) theory, Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences, and Sternberg’s triarchic theory. The authors discuss both biological and environmental factors that influence the development of intelligence. Some of the environmental factors include parental involvement, stimulating environment, and parental expectations. One important factor that is not presented in the chapter that may have significant implications for how children learn is how children view their own intelligence. Dweck and Bempechat (1983) analyzed children’s views of intelligence and found that they tended to view it as either an entity theorist or incremental theorist. An entity view of intelligence sees it as a stable ability or trait not affected by practice or effort, whereas an incremental view of intelligence views it as a skill that changes and can be improved with practice. Findings from a number of studies carried out by Dweck and her colleagues suggest that children’s implicit theories of intelligence influence certain aspects of their achievements, including what goals they pursue and how they pursue them. Where might children’s different theories of intelligence come from? Dweck and Bempechat speculate that teachers might be one important source since teachers are likely to hold their own implicit views about intelligence. It is reasonable to expect that teachers’ theories of intelligence influence their teaching practices, and, in fact, two distinct teaching strategies follow from the two implicit theories. Teachers holding an entity theory of intelligence often engage in teaching practices that have just the opposite consequences from what they intend. Since they see intelligence as a stable ability, they tend to classify children as being smart or less smart. Teachers also want all of their students to do well, so they may give positive feedback to children who they consider less smart even when it is unwarranted, to bolster their confidence. This practice may have negative consequences for these students since they do not learn how to accurately assess their own work or how to develop strategies for overcoming failures. Interestingly, children labeled as smart also may be negatively affected with the entity approach; they may become overly dependent on the need to be rewarded for their successes and therefore avoid situations where positive feedback is not assured. Teachers who see intelligence from a more incremental view are more likely to provide tasks that would challenge all students, expecting all of the students to work hard, therefore teaching them to persist even in the face of obstacles. Students holding either view of intelligence may succeed with such a teacher, as they will be provided with appropriate challenges. Is an entity view or an incremental view more adaptive? It is interesting to speculate on this in light of the concept of niche-picking. While it might seem that an incremental view is most facilitative, since it sees all children as having the capacity to learn, the type of environment a child must function in will determine the adaptiveness of his/her theory of intelligence. Many school tasks are geared to an entity approach, and a child operating with an incremental view may be at a distinct disadvantage. In other situations, however, children using an entity theory may be handicapped. They may have more difficulty Chapter 6 when they are called upon to function in situations that demand them to operate independently or if those situations do not guarantee success. Do parents also have implicit theories of intelligence and treat their children differently depending on what theory they hold? Dweck’s work can be used to show students that aptitude for school and certainly performance in school are far more complex processes than can be explained by the psychometric approach to intelligence. Dweck, C., and Bempechat, J. (1983) Children’s Theories of Intelligence: Consequences for Learning. S. Paris, G. Olson, and H. Stevenson (eds.), Learning and Motivation in the Classroom, Erlbaum. IN THE CLASSROOM Demonstrations 1. Bring a child between ages eight and ten to class or prepare a videotape of the child solving some traditional Piagetian tasks for concrete operational thinking. 2. Ask a psychologist who does testing for special placement in the schools to discuss the use of intelligence tests in schools. If the psychologist has been working in this area for more than ten years, he/she has probably witnessed some changes in educational philosophy with regard to evaluation and placement. 3. Invite a classroom teacher or a special needs teacher (e.g., gifted, learning disabled) to discuss various options for classroom organization and providing for special needs (e.g., within the class, pull-outs). Small Group Activities/Role Plays/Simulations 1. Working in small groups, use information-processing theory to outline study strategies that would improve comprehension and retention. How could you use these strategies to design effective assignments for 10- or 15-year-olds? 2. Try to design the optimal school. Use the text to identify features of a school that are related to high achievement, as well as social and emotional development. What would the teachers be like? Use the text to identify the key elements of effective teachers. (See Handout 6-1.) 3. Working in pairs, debate the merits and drawbacks of Public Law 94-141, which mandates that children with disabilities be educated in the least restrictive environment. 4. Use role-playing to act out student–child interactions with “good” vs. “bad” teachers. Use the textbook to outline the characteristics of a good teacher. Have one student in the group portray the teacher, and have one student portray a child in a fourth-grade class. Use the following scenarios to structure the interaction: a) a student who repeatedly fails to complete the assignment; b) a very quiet student who never volunteers to make classroom contributions; and c) a seemingly bright student who never sits still and interrupts constantly. Instruct your students to share the roles and to portray all scenarios with both the good and bad teacher. Use the results to discuss the characteristics of good and bad teachers. 5. Working in groups, have students develop a curriculum that would encourage formal operational thinking in concrete operational thinkers. Have students develop an assignment or project in several areas. (See Handout 6-2.) Off to School OUTSIDE THE CLASSROOM Short Writing Assignments 1. Write a one-page description of your favorite teacher. What were the elements of this teacher’s style that made him/her special? This assignment can be used as a brief free-write in class, or it can be assigned before class for use during class discussion. 2. Develop three educational activities that could enhance creativity in sixth-graders. You can do this in class as a class discussion. If you assign this ahead of time, you might ask students to prepare their activities so that the class can try them out. Have students identify the elements of creativity that are a part of their activities. 3. Use a five-minute free-write for students to make a list of characteristics of classmates from elementary school that they admired or disliked. Compare this to the characteristics that teachers are likely to admire or not. Use this as the basis for a discussion of diversity vs. conformity in the classroom. Longer Writing Assignments 1. Ask students to answer the following question: What changes in educational strategy would you recommend as children move from concrete to abstract thinking? Try to use both Piagetian and information-processing theory. 2. Conduct a cross-national comparison of education. Students should choose one country and research its public education and compare it to the U.S. Include such information as ages for publicly mandated education, percent of the population served, curriculum, average class size, education and certification of teachers, cost per pupil, average educational attainment, and dropout rates. What does this comparison tell you in terms of the information in the text about American schools? What does this tell you about the prevailing stereotypes of American schools? 3. Have students develop an educational plan for a child with a specific disability. They should create a hypothetical child using the information in the textbook. Then research how such disabilities are evaluated and treated in educational settings. You might instruct students to conduct a telephone interview with a school counselor about how IEPs (individual education plans) are developed. Your students’ plans should also include information about the home environment and adjustments parents might have to make. Projects/Collaborative Activities 1. See short writing activity #2. This can be assigned as a collaborative, out-of-class project. Each group of students should be prepared to demonstrate their activities. Have the entire class evaluate each activity in terms of creativity and age appropriateness. How hard would it be for teachers to enhance their curriculum with creativity-building activities? 2. Arrange to have students observe in a classroom of third- to seventh-graders. Ideally, some students in your class can observe in public schools, some in private schools, and some in alternative schools. Look at classroom dynamics, curriculum classroom organization, types of activities, and teacher–student interactions. Try to assign the observations ahead of time, so that you can use these results in class when you cover Chapter 6. Chapter 6 3. Observe several children interacting with computer technology. This might be in a school setting or informally. Analyze their activities in terms of learning. What previously unknown or underutilized skills are enhanced by computer interaction? Would you expect children of the “computer generation” to be different; in what ways? SUGGESTED WEBSITES • The National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition (NCELA) collects, analyzes, and disseminates information related to effective education of linguistically and culturally diverse learners: http://www.ncela.us. • To find out more about dyslexia, go to the website of the Baltic Dyslexia Research Lab: http://www.dyslexia-lab.dk/. • The WebMD website provides details about the symptoms associated with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and provides tools and resources: http://www.webmd.com/addadhd/guide/adhd-symptoms. • The National Agriculture Library website (www.nal.usda.gov) includes a food and nutrition information center. There are several links on nutrition, childhood obesity, and growing up healthy. • The USDA/ARS Children's Nutrition Research Center (http://www.bcm.edu/cnrc/) contains information about nutrition and children, including obesity. • Visit the child- and teacher-friendly Sesame Street website: http://www.sesameworkshop.org, where students can learn about health and wellness, respect and understanding, literacy and numeracy, and emotional wellbeing. INTERNET EXERCISES 1. Go to the site of the North Central Regional Education Labs page and select Technology in Education: http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/. Using the ideas presented on this website, have students develop an educational activity that incorporates the use of technology in the classroom. If you assign this ahead of time, you might ask students to prepare their activities so that the class can try them out. 2. Read about Robert Sternberg’s interview with Skeptic Magazine: http://www.psych.utoronto.ca/users/reingold/courses/intelligence/cache/03.3.fm-sternberginterview.html. Have students read the interview with Robert Sternberg and write a summary. Ask them to include the following information in their summary, or these questions could be used as in class discussion questions: • How does Sternberg define intelligence? • What are the three facets of intelligence according to the triarchic theory? • What does Sternberg think about the information presented in The Bell Curve? • According to Sternberg, is intelligence a heritable trait? • How is the heritability of intelligence related to group differences in intelligence? Off to School • • • • What is Sternberg’s position on race differences in IQ scores? According to Sternberg, what is the predictive value of IQ scores? What is practical intelligence? What are the criticisms of Sternberg’s work? 3. Go to the website of the National Association for Gifted Children: http://www.nagc.org/. Have students read the parent information on the website. Use the following questions for class discussion: • How is giftedness defined? • How is giftedness measured? • What are the areas of giftedness, and what are the characteristics of each area? • Why should gifted education be supported? 4. Go to the IQTest.com website: http://iqtest.com. Once on the website, have students take the free, private IQ test. Then, have them answer the following questions: • What is an IQ? • What is an IQ score? • What is standard deviation? How is it used to understand IQ testing? • What is intelligence? SPOTLIGHT ON RESEARCH Making Tests Less Threatening The “Spotlight on Research” feature from this chapter focuses on stereotype threat and ways to reduce it. Continue your discussion of the study presented by expanding on these questions. 1. Who were the investigators, and what was the aim of the study? Adam Alter and his colleagues wanted to investigate ways to reduce stereotype threat, which occurs when people fear that their performance will confirm a stereotype. Alter and colleagues believed that stereotype threat would be reduced by convincing people that the task they were performing was unrelated to the stereotype. 2. How did the investigators measure the topic of interest? Participants completed ten problems from a standardized math test. Half of the participants were told that the problems measured their math ability while the other half were told that solving challenging math problems would help them do well in school. Half of the participants were also asked to report their race before solving the problems, a manipulation designed to put the students at greater risk for stereotype threat. The other half were asked to provide this information after solving the problems when it could not affect their performance. 3. Who were the participants in the study? The study included forty-nine African American students in grades 4 through 6. Chapter 6 4. What was the design of the study? This study was experimental. The independent variables included how the math problems were framed and when the students reported their race. The dependent variable was the number of math problems solved correctly. 5. Were there ethical concerns with the study? No. Parents provided consent for their children to participate. To counter any lingering effects of stereotype threat, all students were told that they did well on the test. 6. What were the results? Students solved the fewest problems when they provided their race before solving the problems and when the problems were portrayed as a measure of ability. When stereotype threat could not operate, students solved more problems. 7. What did the investigators conclude? Students performed better when a threatening task was described as a challenge, even when they were reminded that they belonged to a marginalized group. Framing threatening tasks as a challenge could be a useful stereotype threatmanagement intervention. 8. What converging evidence would strengthen these conclusions? Research that determined other kinds of reframings that may reduce or eliminate stereotype threat would be useful as well as research with other groups who experience stereotype threat. SEE FOR YOURSELF: APPLYING WHAT YOU’VE LEARNED The best way for students to understand the differences between good and bad teaching is to visit some actual school classrooms. Have students visit a minimum of three classrooms in at least two different schools. (You can usually arrange this by speaking with the school’s principal.) Take along the principles of good teaching listed in the text. Have students keep a log of what they observe. Students can begin by watching how the teachers and children interact. They should note their interactions and describe how teachers interact with their students, and how students interact with each other. Second, students should take notice of how much the teacher relies on each of the principles listed in the text. See if the teacher is willing to share his/her teaching philosophies and practices. Students may realize from this assignment that most teachers use some but not all of these principles. Ask students to identify which principles are used and which are not. Ask students why they think these principles were not used. Have students identify the challenges teachers face in today’s classroom in consistently following all the principles. Once students visit the schools, they can write a two- or three-page reflection paper of what they observed. Have them incorporate their answers to the questions listed above in their papers. This should be an eye-opening experience for students if they critically and objectively reflect upon their classroom visits. VIDEO RECOMMENDATIONS • Closing the Achievement Gap. 2009, YouTube, 4 minutes. • Stereotype Threat: A Conversation with Claude Steele, 2013, YouTube, 8 minutes. • Middle Childhood: Physical Growth Development. 2008, Learning Seed, 22 minutes. • Middle Childhood: Social Emotional Development. 2008, Learning Seed, 24 minutes. • Middle Childhood: Cognitive Language Development. 2008, Learning Seed, 25 minutes. • Kids & Sports: From Infant to Athlete. 2008, Learning Seed. Off to School • Observing Children and Adolescents. 2004, Cengage Learning/Wadsworth. • Intelligence. 2000, RMI Media, 30 minutes. • Coping with Attention Deficit Disorder: Taming the Turmoil. 1994, Films Media Group, 24 minutes. (Dr. John Schneeberger, an expert on the condition, provides a thorough explanation of the disorder, including the multi-modal treatment approach which combines medical, psychological, educational, and parental intervention, as well as the appropriate uses of medication. A social worker helps children with ADD to build their social skills and confidence, and works with their parents to help them with the challenges that ADD places on the entire family.) • Attention Deficit Disorder: Helping Students Cope. 2000, Learning Seed, 22 minutes. (This video explains three different forms that ADD can take and speaks with students and families living with the condition. By emphasizing both the challenges and the strengths exhibited by students with the condition, the presentation provides a well-rounded perspective of ADD in young people.) • Behavior Problems in Children. 2000, Nimco. • Why Can’t Michael Pay Attention? 1998, Learning Seed, 21 minutes. • Lost Child? Living with an Intellectual Disability. 2012, Films Media Group, 91 minutes. (Over the course of this documentary filmed by her brother, viewers are given an opportunity to learn more about Alyssa’s rich interior life as well as her struggles and triumphs as she deals with going to work, being in a relationship, and other day-to-day activities.) • What Makes a Genius?. 2010, Films for the Humanities, 51 minutes. (This program follows innovative research that may help determine what makes a person a genius—if such a label even makes sense. Dr. Manuel Casanova of the University of Louisville has detected differences in brain structure that may account for extreme intelligence.) • Why Do These Kids Love School. 1990, Pyramid Media, 60 minutes. (This film begins with an intimate look at an 80-year-old independent school, then visits eight public schools around the country (pre-school through high school) which have introduced bold and innovative programs. It highlights the methods and positive results of alternative approaches in which students, teachers, parents and administrators join in creating a vibrant and supportive educational environment.) • Prodigies: Great Expectations. 1990, Films Media Group, 52 minutes. (Examines gifted children and the social consequences of being exceptionally intelligent.) SUGGESTED READINGS Challener, Daniel. Stories of Resilience in Childhood: The narratives of Maya Angelou, Maxine Hong Kingston, Richard Rodriquez, John Edgar Wideman, and Tobias Wolf. Routledge, 1997. Henshon, S.E. (2010). Giftedness Across the Lifespan: An Interview with Rena Subtnik. Gifted Child Today, 33(1), 27-31. Mooney, Jonathon and Cole, David. Learning Outside the Lines: Two Ivy League Students with learning disabilities and ADHD give you the tools. Fireside, 2000. Mooney, Jonathon. The Short Bus: A journey beyond normal. Holt Paperback, 2007. Neihart, M., Reis, S., Robinson, M., and Moon, S. Social and Emotional Development of Gifted Children: What Do We Know? Prufrock Press, Inc., 2002. Chapter 6 Price, Hugh B. Achievement Matters: Getting your child the best education possible. Kensington Publishing Corp., 2002. Rodgers, K.A. (2008). Racial Identity, Centrality and Giftedness: An Expectancy-Value Application of Motivation in Gifted African American Students. Roeper Review, 30(2), 111-120. Rogers, K. Re-forming Gifted Education: How Parents and Teachers Can Match the Program to the Child. Great Potential Press, Inc., 2002. KEY TERMS Below is a list of key terms in the order in which they appear in Chapter 6. • • • • • • • • • • • • • Mental operations Deductive reasoning Working memory Long-term memory Organization Elaboration Metamemory Metacognitive knowledge Cognitive self-regulation Psychometricians Emotional intelligence Analytic ability Creative ability • • • • • • • • • • • • • Practical ability Mental age Intelligence quotient Culture-fair intelligence tests Stereotype threat Divergent thinking Intellectual disability Learning disability Word recognition Comprehension Phonological awareness Knowledge-telling strategy Knowledge-transforming strategy Name __________________________________________ Date _____________________ HANDOUT 6-1: THE OPTIMAL SCHOOL Develop the optimal school. Use the questions below to help you decide how to structure the school. 1. What type of school is it (elementary, junior high, or high school), and what is the total enrollment? 2. What is the condition of the buildings? Describe the physical characteristics of the school. What is the overall climate of the school? 3. What is the primary goal of the school for faculty, staff, and students? 4. To what degree is parental involvement encouraged? How does parental involvement manifest itself? 5. How is the progress of the students, faculty, programs, etc. monitored? 6. What is the teacher-to-student ratio in the classes? How does the teacher manage the class? 7. What is the teaching philosophy in the classroom? 8. What other aspects of the school, faculty, students, parents, etc. are important to your optimal school? Name __________________________________________ Date _____________________ HANDOUT 6-2: FORMAL OPERATIONAL THINKING Formal operational thinking involves abstract reasoning, logical reasoning, and hypothetical-deductive reasoning. Develop class assignments in each of the following areas that would encourage formal operational thinking. Specify the type of reasoning each assignment would encourage. 1. Science Describe assignment or project: What type of reasoning is used? 2. Math Describe assignment or project: What type of reasoning is used? 3. English Describe assignment or project: What type of reasoning is used? 4. Social Studies Describe assignment or project: What type of reasoning is used? 5. Art/Music Describe assignment or project: What type of reasoning is used? 6. Foreign Language Describe assignment or project: What type of reasoning is used? 8Chapter 6 Off to School: Cognitive and Physical Development in Middle Childhood CHAPTER OVERVIEW AND CONNECTIONS TO OTHER CHAPTERS This chapter looks at cognitive and physical development in middle childhood. Beginning with the mastery of academic skills, the authors explore children’s growing cognitive ability. The emphasis then shifts to theories of intelligence and tools for evaluating intelligence scores. The impact of heredity, environment, ethnicity, race, and social class are also discussed. Other areas related to education, including assessment, special educational needs, effective schools and teachers, and cross-national comparisons of American schools, are explored as well. The authors show how specific aspects of cognitive development are essential for understanding the impact of education. They also focus on important factors that contribute to successful schools, effective teaching, and enhanced learning. This chapter should have a clear relevance for each student, drawing on their firsthand experiences with school. One very important theme of this chapter is its focus on diversity; specifically, the diversity of development and of educational experiences in the U.S. This chapter has been updated with new material on racial differences in the treatment of ADHD, children with intellectual disabilities, and cross-cultural differences in learning to read. You may want to refer to many of the concepts of Piaget’s cognitive development presented in Chapters 1 and 4 as the foundation for the types of thinking presented in this chapter. Also, information processing is discussed again in this chapter; students should remember it from Chapter 4. Cognitive development will be revisited again in Chapters 10 and 13, especially as it relates to education in adolescence and young adults. You may want to integrate knowledge of social development and peer relationships into the school setting by reviewing Chapters 4 and 7. CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Cognitive Development A. More Sophisticated Thinking: Piaget’s Version 1. In Piaget’s stage of concrete operations (age seven to 11): a) Children become less egocentric. b) Children rarely confuse appearances with reality. c) Children are able to reverse their thinking because they have acquired mental operations, which are actions that can be performed on objects or ideas, and that consistently yield a result. d) Children are able to solve perspective-taking, conservation, and class-inclusion problems correctly. e) Thinking is limited to the tangible and real, as children in this stage take an earthbound, concrete, practical-minded sort of problem-solving approach. f) Concrete-operational children resist reaching conclusions that are contrary to known facts, but rather reach conclusions based on their knowledge of the world. 2. In Piaget’s stage of formal operations (age 11 to adulthood): Chapter 6 a) II. Adolescents are able to apply psychological operations to abstract entities, to think hypothetically and reason abstractly. b) Using deductive reasoning, adolescents understand that conclusions are based on logic, not on experience. 3. Comments on Piaget’s View a) The Theory… (1) overestimates cognitive competence in adolescents. (2) is vague concerning processes of change. (3) does not account for variability in children’s performance. (4) undervalues the influences of the sociocultural environment. B. Information-Processing Strategies for Learning and Remembering 1. Information-processing psychologists believe the cognitive development proceeds by increases in the efficiency with which children process information. 2. Thought takes place in working memory, where a small number of thoughts and ideas can be stored briefly, before being transferred to long-term memory for permanent storage with unlimited capacity. 3. We use a number of memory strategies to learn new information: a) Organization involves grouping information so that related information is together. b) Elaboration involves embellishing information to make it more memorable. C. Metacognition 1. Effective use of strategies for learning and remembering begins with an analysis of the goals of any learning task and includes monitoring one’s performance. 2. Metamory refers to an intuitive understanding of memory. As they develop, children devise naïve theories of memory, which shows development of theory of mind. 3. Metacognitive knowledge is the growing understanding of memory accompanied with the increased understanding or awareness of cognitive processes. 4. Cognitive self-regulation requires the coordination of identifying goals, selecting strategies, and monitoring outcomes. It is a characteristic of successful students. Aptitudes for School A. Theories of Intelligence 1. Psychometricians are psychologists who specialize in measuring characteristics such as intelligence and personality. Some psychometricians believe there is a general factor for intelligence, whereas others believe that intelligence consists of distinct abilities. 2. Hierarchical view of intelligence a) John Carroll proposed a hierarchal theory with three levels, which is a compromise between the two views of intelligence—general vs. distinct abilities. b) Critics argue that it ignores cognitive research and theory and look beyond the psychometric approach to understanding intelligence. 3. Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences a) Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences draws on research in child development, studies of brain-damaged people, and studies of exceptionally talented people. b) Gardner initially identified seven distinct intelligences, but later identified two additional ones, for a total of nine different types of intelligences. c) Gardner looked at the unique developmental history of each of the nine distinct intelligences to arrive at their classification. d) Prompted by Gardner’s theory, researchers have begun to look at other nontraditional aspects of intelligence: (1) Emotional intelligence is the ability to use one’s own and others’ emotions to solve problems and live happily. Off to School (2) People who are emotionally intelligent tend to have more satisfying interpersonal relationships, have greater self-esteem, and be more effective in the workplace. e) The theory of multiple intelligences has important implications for education: (1) Gardner believes schools should foster all intelligences, not just the traditional linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligences. (2) Teachers should capitalize on the strongest intelligences. (3) Educators that use it claim that students have higher test scores and better discipline, and that their parents are more involved. 4. Robert Sternberg’s theory of successful intelligence a) This comprehensive theory defines intelligence as using one’s abilities skillfully to achieve one’s personal goals. b) People use three different kinds of abilities to achieve personal goals: analytic ability, creative ability, and practical ability. (1) Analytic ability involves analyzing problems and generating different solutions. (2) Creative ability involves dealing adaptively with novel situations and problems. (3) Practical ability involves knowing which solution or plan will actually work. B. Binet and the Development of Intelligence Testing 1. Alfred Binet and Theophile Simon developed a way to determine which children needed special instruction by first identified problems that typical age children could solve. 2. Mental age (MA) is a measure of children’s performance corresponding to the chronological age of those whose performance equals the child’s. 3. Binet and Simon used MA to distinguish “bright” from “dull” children. C. The Stanford-Binet 1. Using Binet’s work, Lewis Terman created the Stanford-Binet in 1916. 2. Terman introduced the concept of the intelligence quotient (IQ), which was simply the ratio of mental age to chronological age (CA), multiplied by 100. 3. IQ scores are now determined by comparing the child’s test performance to others of their same age who have taken the test. 4. The Stanford-Binet, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV, and the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children-II are currently the popular intelligence tests. D. Do Tests Work? 1. Intelligence tests are reliable, meaning that people usually get consistent scores on them. 2. IQ scores are powerful predictors of developmental outcomes. IQ scores predict school grades, achievement test scores, number of years of education, and occupational success. E. Heredity and Environmental Factors 1. Because identical twins have identical genes, their test scores are virtually identical, which is a correlation of 1. 2. Fraternal twins have about 50% of their genes in common, their test scores are a) less similar than scores for identical twins; b) similar to other siblings who have the same biological parents; and c) more similar than the scores of children and their adopted siblings. 3. Heredity also influences patterns of developmental change in IQ scores: a) Patterns of developmental change in IQ are more alike for identical twins than for fraternal twins. b) At every age, the correlation between children’s IQ and their biological parents’ IQ is greater than the correlation between children’s IQ and their adoptive parents’ IQ. c) As adopted children get older, their test scores increasingly resemble their biological parents’ scores. Chapter 6 4. Three areas of research show the importance of environment on intelligence: a) Children with high test scores tend to come from homes that are well organized and have plenty of appropriate play materials. b) The impact of the environment on intelligence is also implicated by research on historical changes in IQ scores. c) The importance of a stimulating environment for intelligence is demonstrated by intervention programs that prepare economically disadvantaged children for school. F. The Impact of Ethnicity and Socioeconomic Status 1. Ethnic groups differ in their performance on intelligence tests. Asian Americans tend to score the highest, followed by European Americans, Latino Americans, and African Americans. 2. Children from economically advantaged homes, more likely to be European or Asian American, tend to have higher test scores than children from economically disadvantaged homes. 3. Group differences in IQ test scores are reduced but not eliminated when children from comparable socioeconomic status are compared. G. The role of genetics in intelligence has been debated. The conclusion is that differences within ethnic groups are partly due to heredity, but differences between groups apparently reflect environmental influences. Three potential influences have been studied: test bias, test taking skills, and the impact of stereotypes. H. Cultural-fair intelligence tests, which include test items based on experiences common to many cultures, have been developed. I. Test scores can improve considerably when children feel at ease with the examiner and have an understanding of the strategies used to take a test. J. Some researchers contend that stereotype threat, the self-fulfilling prophecy in which knowledge of stereotypes leads to anxiety and reduced performance, may account for the poor performance of racial/ethnic minorities on standardized tests. K. Interpreting test scores is just as important as creating tests that reflect cultural influences. III. Special Children, Special Needs A. Gifted Children 1. Traditionally, gifted children have been those with high scores on IQ tests. Contrary to modern stereotypes, such as gifted children being emotionally troubled and unable to get along with their peers, gifted children tend to be more mature, have fewer emotional problems, and, as adults, report being satisfied with their careers, relationships, and life in general. 2. Gifted children are creative in their thinking, coming up with novel thoughts and actions. Divergent thinking occurs when thinking in novel and unusual directions, which is associated with creativity. 3. Both intelligence and creativity must be cultivated and can be fostered by experiences. B. Children with Intellectual Disability 1. Intellectual disability refers to substantially limitations in intellectual ability (IQ score of 70 or lower) and problems adapting to an environment that emerges before the age of 18. 2. Four factors place individuals at risk for intellectual disability: a) Biomedical factors, including chromosomal disorders, malnutrition, traumatic brain injury b) Social factors, such as poverty and impaired parent-child interactions c) Behavioral factors, such as child neglect or domestic violence d) Educational factors, including impaired parenting and inadequate special education services C. Children with Learning Disabilities Off to School 1. Children with a learning disability have (1) normal intelligence; (2) have difficulty mastering one or more academic subjects; and (3) do not suffer from other conditions that could explain poor performance, such as sensory impairment or inadequate instruction. 2. The most common learning disability is developmental dyslexia, which often can be traced to inadequate understanding and use of language sounds (i.e. phonological awareness). Children with reading disability typically benefit from explicit, extensive instruction on the connections between letters and their sounds. 3. Disabilities in reading comprehension stem from limitations in spoken vocabulary and problems linking words together to create meaning. Intensive instruction in vocabulary and oral language skills helps children with this type of disability. 4. Mathematical disability reflects poor number sense and problems in the basic cognitive processes that are used in doing arithmetic, such as working memory and processing. Effective interventions are not yet available. D. Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 1. Roughly 3 to 7% of all school-age children are diagnosed with ADHD. Boys outnumber girls by a 4:1 ratio. 2. Three symptoms are at the heart of ADHD: a) Hyperactivity. Children with ADHD are unusually energetic, fidgety, and unable to keep still. b) Inattention. Children with ADHD do not pay attention in class and seem unable to concentrate on schoolwork. c) Impulsivity. Children with ADHD often act before thinking. 3. Children with ADHD often have problems with academic performance, conduct, and getting along with peers. 4. ADHS is not caused by TV, food allergies, sugar, or poor home life. 5. ADHD is a chronic condition that is not outgrown in adolescence or young adulthood. 6. Researchers have worked hard to find effective treatments. a) Stimulants have a calming influence for many children with ADHD and allow them to focus their attention. b) Psychosocial treatments improve children’s cognitive and social skills. 7. Race and income play a role in children receiving proper diagnosis and treatment. a) African American and Hispanic American children are far less likely than European American children to be diagnosed and treated for ADHD. b) Children from low-income families are less likely to be diagnosed and treated. c) Racial bias also contributes: (1) Professionals tend to attribute the symptoms of ADHD in African American or Hispanic American children to poor parenting, life stresses, or other sources that cannot be treated. (2) In European American children, the symptoms of ADHD are often attributed to a biological problem than can be treated medically. IV. Academic Skills A. Reading 1. Word recognition and comprehension are two important processes involved in reading: a) Word recognition is the process of identifying a unique pattern of letters. b) Comprehension is the process of extracting meaning from a sequence of words. 2. The foundations of reading include letter recognition and phonological awareness. 3. Children who know more about letters and word forms learn to read more easily than their peers who know less. 4. A second essential skill is phonological awareness, the ability to hear the distinctive sounds of letters. a) Phonological awareness is strongly related to success in learning to read. Chapter 6 b) Children who can readily distinguish language sounds learn to read more readily than children who do not. B. Recognizing Words 1. The first step in actual reading is identifying individual words. 2. Words are recognized through direct retrieval from long-term memory. 3. The general strategy is to retrieve words first, sound out the word, or ask a more skilled reader for help. 4. By sounding out novel words, children store information about words in long-term memory than can be used for direct retrieval. C. Comprehension 1. Once individual words are recognized, reading begins to have a lot in common with understanding speech. 2. Several factors contribute to improved comprehension: a) Children become more skilled at recognizing words, allowing more working memory capacity to be devoted to comprehension. b) Working memory capacity increases. c) Children acquire more general knowledge of their physical, social, and psychological worlds. d) With experience, children use more appropriate reading strategies. e) With experience, children better monitor their comprehension. D. Writing 1. Writing skills develop gradually during childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood. 2. With age, children have more to tell as they gain more knowledge about the world and incorporate this knowledge into their writing. 3. Organization is a difficult aspect of writing. a) Young writers often use a knowledge-telling strategy, which involves writing down information on the topic as they retrieve it from memory. b) Knowledge-transforming strategy involves deciding what information to include and how best to organize it for the point they wish to convey to their reader. 4. Language mechanics of writing is difficult to master. 5. Effective revising requires being able to detect problems and knowing how to correct them, skills that improve with age and experience. E. Math Skills 1. By kindergarten, children have mastered counting, and they use this skill as the starting point for learning to add. 2. When children begin to receive formal instruction in arithmetic, they are able to add and subtract mentally. F. Comparing U.S. Students with Students in Other Countries 1. Students in the U.S. have substantially lower scores than students in leading nations. 2. The very best U.S. students only perform at the level of average students in Asian countries like Singapore and Korea. 3. The cultural differences in math achievement hold for both math operations and math problem solving. a) Asian students spend more time both in and out of school on academic tasks. b) Asian parents set higher academic standards for their children. c) Asian teachers and parents view academic excellence as paramount. 4. Americans can learn several lessons from Japanese and Taiwanese education systems: a) Give teachers more free time to prepare lessons and correct students’ work. b) Improve teachers’ training by providing mentoring with more experienced teachers. c) Organize instruction around sound principles of learning. d) Set higher standards for children. Off to School V. Effective Schools, Effective Teachers A. School-Based Influences on Student Achievement 1. There are a number of characteristics of schools where students typically succeed: a) Academic excellence is the primary goal of the school and of every student in it. b) The school climate is a safe and nurturing. c) Parents are involved. d) Progress of students, teachers, and programs are monitored. B. Teacher-Based Influences on Student Achievement 1. Students tend to learn the most when teachers: a) manage the classroom effectively; b) believe they are responsible for their students’ learning and that their students will learn when taught well; c) emphasize mastery of topics; d) teach actively; e) pay careful attention to pacing; f) value tutoring; and g) teach children techniques for monitoring and managing their own learning. VI. Physical Development A. Growth 1. Physical growth during the elementary school years continues at the steady pace established during the preschool years. 2. Most children gain about eight pounds and two to three inches per year. 3. Boys and girls are about the same size for most of the elementary school years, but girls are much more likely than boys to enter puberty toward the end of this period. a) Girls grow rapidly during puberty and become much bigger than boys their age. b) At ages 11 and 12, the average girl is about a half-inch taller than the average boy. 4. Ethnic differences are also evident in children’s growth. 5. School-age children need to eat more to support their growth and provide energy for their busy lives. 6. School-age children should eat breakfast, which provides one-fourth the days’ calories. B. Development of Motor Skills 1. Elementary school children’s greater size and strength contributes to improved motor skills. 2. Fine motor skills also improve as children move through the elementary school years. Children gain much greater control over their fingers and hands, making them much more nimble and improving their handwriting. 3. In both gross and fine motor skills, gender differences exist. a) Girls tend to excel in fine motor skills; their handwriting tends to be better than that of boys. b) Girls also excel on gross motor skills that require flexibility and balance. c) Boys tend to have the advantage on gross motor skills. 4. As children approach and enter puberty, girls’ bodies have proportionately more fat and less muscle than boys’ bodies. C. Physical Fitness 1. Being physically active promotes growth of muscles and bone, promotes cardiovascular health, and can help to establish a lifelong pattern of exercise. 2. When children are tested with a full battery of fitness tests, fewer than half meet standards for fitness on all tasks. 3. Many factors contribute to low levels of fitness. a) Physical education classes are infrequent. b) There are low levels of activity during physical education classes. Chapter 6 c) Children choose sedentary leisure-time activities. To promote physical fitness, experts believe that physical education should be offered more frequently and include activities that children can continue throughout adolescence and adulthood, either alone or with another person. D. Participating in Sports 1. Children’s greater motor skill means they are able to participate in many team sports. 2. Sports participation also benefits self-esteem, helps children learn initiative, provides opportunity to learn important social skills, and uses developing cognitive skills. 3. There are also potential hazards to participating in sports. Several studies have linked youth participation in sports to delinquent and antisocial behavior. 4. LEARNING OBJECTIVES Cognitive Development • What are the distinguishing characteristics of thought during Piaget’s concrete-operational and formal-operational stages? • How do children use strategies and monitoring to improve learning and remembering? Aptitudes for School • What is the nature of intelligence? • Why were intelligence tests first developed? What are their features? • How well do intelligence tests work? • How do heredity and environment influence intelligence? • How and why do test scores vary for different racial and ethnic groups? Special Children, Special Needs • What are the characteristics of gifted children? • What are different forms of disability? • What are the distinguishing features of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder? Academic Skills • What are the components of skilled reading? • As children develop, how does their writing improve? • How do arithmetic skills change during the elementary-school years? How do U. S. students compare to students from other countries? • What are the hallmarks of effective schools and effective teachers? Physical Development • How much do school-age children grow? • How do motor skills improve during the elementary school years? • Are American children physically fit? • What are the consequences of participating in sports? CRITICAL THINKING DISCUSSION QUESTIONS Knowledge • • What is the definition of giftedness? What is the difference between concrete operational thinking and formal operational thinking? Off to School Comprehension • Describe the indicators of ADHD in boys versus girls. Application • • • How could you use information-processing theory to develop a program of study skills strategies for fourth- to sixth-graders? How would you use Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences to develop an education system? Design a research study to determine how heredity impacts intelligence. What participants would you use and how would this design provide evidence for or against the impact of heredity on intelligence? Analysis • • • • • • Compare and contrast Piaget and information-processing accounts of cognition for school-age children. How are tests of divergent thinking a measure of creativity? How do schools produce conformity? Compare and contrast the treatments for ADHD. Discuss the pros and cons of sports participation on children’s physical, social, and cognitive development and provide recommendations for parents and teachers. What do the characteristics of effective teachers and effective schools have in common? Synthesis • • • • What sort of educational environment would maximize standard educational performance as well as foster social development and collaboration? What aspects of cognitive development would you need to know in order to design a literacy program for not yet reading fifth-graders? How might intervention programs, such as Head Start and the Carolina Abecedarian Project, affect how race and ethnicity impact children’s IQ test scores? How might the development of formal operational thinking impact the development of mathematical understanding? Evaluation • • • What criteria would you use to evaluate the validity of intelligence tests? What observations of cross-cultural education systems would you need in order to make meaningful comparisons of each system’s effectiveness? Which theor...
Purchase answer to see full attachment