9
Science Photo Library/SuperStock
Role of Media and Technology in
the Socialization of Children
Learning Objectives
By the end of the chapter, you will be able to:
• Discuss the role that media and technology play in the lives of children.
• Describe the impact that printed media has on the socialization outcomes of
children.
• Understand the role of audio media and its impact on children’s socialization.
• Discuss how screened media has an impact on children’s ideas.
• Recognize the impact of technology on children’s emotional and social
development.
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Pre-Test
CHAPTER 9
Introduction
T
hink back to your childhood. What roles did the media and technology play in your
life? Did you spend much time watching television, or were you busy playing in the
yard with friends? Now think about the current technologies that you use daily, and
imagine what your life would have been like if you were growing up in today’s world.
Would you still play outside with friends, or would you prefer to stay inside, instant messaging with them and spending time on social networking sites?
Media and technology are rapidly changing, becoming more and more advanced almost
by the day. They have the ability to impact children’s lives in astounding ways, particularly because children spend a majority of their days accessing media. Print media, audio
media, and screen media help cultivate children’s values and have the ability to convince
them that the messages and images they read, hear, and see are socially acceptable and are
the “right” ways of living. The presence of the Internet, which combines all three forms of
media into one easily accessed portal, has also changed the way children are socialized.
Children can form more microsystems by meeting new people online and can strengthen
the connections they already have due to social media and other interactive platforms.
In this chapter, we will discuss Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model in terms of children’s
socialization through media and technology.
Pre-Test
1. The Federal Trade Commission oversees the policies related to the media
industry, which includes the ability to approve, limit, or ultimately restrict any
type of content.
True
False
2. The way male and female characters are portrayed in books has little effect on a
child’s aspirations.
True
False
3. Young people use music to help regulate and express their feelings.
True
False
4. Approximately 30% of 4-month-olds in the United States watch some form of
television on a regular basis.
True
False
5. Children don’t typically begin using computers until third grade.
True
False
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Section 9.1 Role of Media and Technology in the Lives of Children
CHAPTER 9
Answers
1. False
The answer can be found in Section 9.1.
2. False
The answer can be found in Section 9.2.
3. True
The answer can be found in Section 9.3.
4. False
The answer can be found in Section 9.4.
5. False
The answer can be found in Section 9.5.
9.1 Role of Media and Technology in the Lives of Children
M
edia (the plural of medium) is a type of communication that fosters a specific
effect or action. Further, mass media is a type of communication that ultimately
impacts a large number of individuals with the express intent of delivering a
message quickly through an impersonal medium. Media and the mass media often use
the latest technology, as defined as the branch of knowledge that deals with the creation
and use of technical means and their interrelation with life, society, and the environment.
The types of media available today are constantly evolving. We will explore how media,
mass media, and technology intersect within the microsystems, mesosystems, and exosystems of children. In particular, their influences will be examined in terms of their impact
on children’s socialization.
Microsystem and Macrosystem Influences
At first, it may be confusing to understand how media can be part of a child’s microsystem
since it is not human and is not similar to a parent, peer, or teacher. However, because so
many children use media or have
access to a media outlet every
day and it has the ability to affect
them in various ways, it becomes
part of their microsystem.
About one third of U.S. preschoolers and two thirds of school-aged
children and adolescents have a
television in their bedroom; these
children spend anywhere from
40 to 90 minutes per day watching more television than their
counterparts who do not have
a television in their room (Rideout & Hamel, 2006). Further, if a
child’s parent spends a lot of time
watching TV, so does the child
(Rideout & Hamel, 2006; Roberts,
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PM Images/Getty Images
About one third of children in the United States have
televisions in their rooms.
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Section 9.1 Role of Media and Technology in the Lives of Children
CHAPTER 9
Foehr, & Rideout, 2005). Extensive television viewing can be associated with family and
peer difficulties, as in the case of children using TV as a means of avoiding interaction
with their parents and peers. This can occur when highly stressed parents and children
use television as an escape (Anderson, Collins, Schmitt, & Jacobitz, 1996).
One of the most obvious ways that parents impact the media’s influence on their children
is by regulating and monitoring television viewing habits. Some parents may use V-chip
locking tools on their television, blocking children from viewing shows based on their
television ratings category. However, it is important to note that parent involvement differs from household to household, so shows that are blocked in one house are not blocked
in another. It has been found that parents are relatively uninvolved with regard to their
children’s viewing habits (Comstock & Scharrer, 2007; Roberts & Foehr, 2004; Warren,
2005). Additionally, even when parents are involved, their level of involvement is often
sporadic. Parents often disagree in terms of what shows they allow their children to watch
and how much time is allocated to watching television (Comstock & Scharrer, 2007; Roberts & Foehr, 2004; Warren, 2005). For example, within a family, a father may allow an
8-year-old to watch PG-13 movies, while the mother forbids it. Additionally, a mother
may allow that same child to watch as much TV as he or she desires while the father limits
the child’s TV viewing to 1 hour per day.
Did You Know?
Children who reside in families with parents who have limited education tend to have fewer limits
set on television viewing than children who reside in families with parents who have more education. In addition, parents with limited education are also more likely to eat family meals with their
children in front of the television than are parents with more education (Hesketh, Ball, Crawford,
Campbell, & Salmon, 2007).
Parents, as gatekeepers of their children’s viewing habits, are an important microsystem
when it comes to children and media. The mesosystem of the parents with, for example, a
church group, can have an even bigger impact on media viewing habits of a child. Thus,
members of the mesosystem, such as church groups, parents, teachers, and neighbors,
not only should be informed about the types of TV programs and films that children are
watching but also should work together to set rules for and monitor what programs and
movies their children are watching (Sentürk, 2011). Additionally, parents and guardians
should strive to accompany their children on every possible viewing occasion, which can
serve as a way to help their children understand and interpret TV programs and movies
that they have watched (Sentürk, 2011).
Exosystem and Macrosystem Influences
Outside forces, which can make up the exosystem, can play a role in the amount of time
children are exposed to media. For example, if both parents work outside of the home
and their work schedules become busy to the point where they come home after dinner
every night, this can influence how much media their children are exposed to. The children may come home after school and watch TV, rather than doing their homework the
way they would if one of their parents were home. Instead of sitting around the dining
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Section 9.1 Role of Media and Technology in the Lives of Children
CHAPTER 9
room table for dinner, discussing their day with their parents, the children may instead
eat dinner sitting on the couch, watching another TV show. Finally, when their parents
get home, the children may work on their homework, perhaps watch more TV with their
parents, and go to bed. This amount of media time can affect children’s socialization,
depending upon the types of shows they can access. If they are watching educational
programming, it could help them to learn new concepts, but if they are watching television purely for entertainment, it may be solidifying gender stereotypes or keeping them
from socializing with others.
Not only can television serve as a babysitter when parents are out of the house, but it also
serves the same purpose when they are home but preoccupied with other things. It has
been found that parents use television as a “babysitter” when they need time to get things
done on their own without their children present (Zimmerman, Christakis, & Meltzoff,
2007). Even real (human) babysitters use television and movies as easy ways to keep children occupied when their parents are gone.
In the United States, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) oversees the policies related to the media industry including the ability to approve, limit, or ultimately
restrict any type of content. In addition, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) is charged
with protecting consumers by making sure that advertising and marketing practices are
not harmful or misleading. These members of the exosystem help regulate society’s values
on media. These values would be part of Bronfenbrenner’s macrosystem. In the United
States, one of the most influential aspects of the macrosystem concerns the laws that dictate
what is and is not allowed within the broad media context. With regard to children, the
FCC’s and the FTC’s influences can be seen in the Children’s Television Act of 1990. This
law stipulates that commercials within children’s television programming must be limited
to 10.5 minutes per hour on weekdays and 12 minutes per hour on weekends. In 1996, the
FCC added new measures to the act that mandated all commercial stations must broadcast
a minimum of 3 hours of children’s educational programming per week.
The Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) offers a rating system that attempts to
control and monitor the movies that children can view without parental permission. For
any movie with a rating above PG (parental guidance), children under the age of 13 must
be accompanied by an adult (see Table 9.1). Similarly, rating systems have been imposed
for both television shows and video games. While video games are easier to control since
children cannot purchase or rent games with age restrictions, television is not so easy.
Television shows can be watched by anyone unless a parent or guardian has used V-chip
technology to block certain shows based upon their ratings.
Table 9.1: Motion Picture Association ratings
Rating
Meaning
G
General audiences. All ages admitted.
PG
Parental guidance suggested. Some material may not be suitable for children.
PG-13
Parents strongly cautioned. Some material may be inappropriate for children under 13.
R
Restricted. Children under 17 require accompanying parent or adult guardian.
NC-17
No one 17 and under admitted.
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Section 9.2 Children and Printed Media
CHAPTER 9
Chronosystem Influences
As a result of technological advances, media has undergone dramatic changes throughout
the past 100 years, which has affected the chronosystem. Today, the average American 8to 18-year-old spends more time actively participating with media than any other activity
besides sleeping and reportedly uses media more than 6 hours per day (Roberts & Foehr,
2008). This was not the case 100 years ago. And with the advent of the Internet and the
World Wide Web, the way we look at media has changed. Books and magazines can now
be read online. Oftentimes, articles offered online can be commented on by readers, making the reading experience more interactive than it was in the past. Both television and
radio can also be viewed online. What once was a family activity has become an individual one as children listen to the music on a particular radio station or on websites such
as Pandora. Through the advent of satellite television, children have access to hundreds
of channels’ worth of television programming.
The introduction of the Internet has also changed the amount of information and number of resources available to anyone with access. Children now have the ability to play
games, watch movies, listen to music, complete research for homework, or interact with
their classmates or others around the world in chat rooms and social media sites, among
others. The implications for children’s socialization online lie along a continuum. In some
respects, children socialize more with their peers because they can interact with them
in a digital environment via instant messaging, social media (such as Facebook or Twitter), or virtual communities like Club Penguin. They have the ability to change and grow
their microsystems by connecting with new friends worldwide. In this way, they have the
opportunity to be exposed to other customs and cultures that they would not have previously, which can affect their outlooks on life. On the other hand, children who are plugged
into the Internet watching movies or playing individualized games may not interact with
others for hours on end, which can be detrimental to their socialization.
9.2 Children and Printed Media
C
hildren’s exposure to print media (including books, magazines, and newspapers)
is influenced by the socioeconomic status of their family in addition to the educational level of their parents (Roberts & Foehr, 2004). There is a relationship between
education, income, and the value placed on the purchase of books and other printed reading materials (Roberts & Foehr, 2004). That is, the more educated the parents are, the
greater the amount of income available, which ultimately leads to a greater emphasis on
purchasing printed media that their children are exposed to. This is particularly relevant
given the impact that printed media has with regard to Bronfenbrenner’s (1979, 1986,
1989, 1993, 1995, 2005) concept of the macrosystem, where the values, beliefs, policies,
cultures, and customs are passed on to children. Some argue that printed media is the primary way in which information about education, religion, and the government is passed
on from one generation to the next (Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, & Signorielli, 2002).
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CHAPTER 9
Section 9.2 Children and Printed Media
Books
Books are one of the oldest forms
of media available today and
have served many functions
throughout the centuries. They
can serve as entertainment vessels, providing portals to new
worlds; they can provide knowledge on new topics; and they
can show us what values are
important in society at any given
time. For instance, a study was
conducted of 68 illustrated chilComstock/Thinkstock dren’s books that won the Caldecott Medal or Caldecott Honor
Elders pass on values, beliefs, policies, cultures, and customs
between 1990 and 2009. It was
to children through printed media.
found that a larger proportion
of female characters in the books
were depicted as working in the home whereas a larger proportion of male characters
were depicted as working outside the home (Crabb & Marciano, 2011). These children’s
books both accurately and inaccurately reflect the division of labor from 1990 and 2009. It
is true that women were more apt to do housework, and men worked outside the home.
However, the books did not accurately portray the increasing number of women who
began working outside of the home and the declining rate of men working outside of the
home during that time.
The way women and men are depicted in certain storybooks can affect children’s values and future ambitions for their careers. If a young girl is read only books that depict
women working inside of the home and her mother also works inside the home, she may
not aspire to go to college and garner employment that requires a college degree. However, if this same child is read books depicting women working outside of the home, she
may then feel that working outside of the home is acceptable, especially if her mother
reads her the books.
Magazines and Newspapers
Books are not the only form of printed media that can influence children. The content
of the magazines and newspapers that children are exposed to in their own reading and
from those in their microsystems can impact how they see the world and inevitably live
their lives. For example, if parents choose to read articles about health foods, exercising,
and living overall healthy lifestyles, this can influence children in positive ways. Their
parents will likely implement what they have read and pass this knowledge on to their
children who will grow up to lead healthier lives. These same children will also learn
through their parents what types of magazines publish articles on healthy living and may
choose to read these same magazines as adults. Additionally, daily newspaper reading
can have the same effect. If parents read the newspaper every day, they can show their
children the importance of learning about current events and staying informed about the
world around them.
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CHAPTER 9
Section 9.3 Children and Audio Media
The prevalence of advertising in print media also impacts children’s socialization. Advertising can show parents the types of toys to buy their children, and when children see
these ads, they want the most popular toys of the season. We live in a consumer-oriented
culture, and though advertising pays for the costs of print media, it may be showing children that the more possessions they have, the better their lives can be.
9.3 Children and Audio Media
A
udio media is defined as any media channel that uses audio files, such as music,
audio books, or podcasts. In a survey, over 80% of 8- to 18-year-olds reported having their own radio and their own CD or tape player (92% claimed to own some
kind of music medium) (Roberts & Foehr, 2008). Most young people’s actual use of music
is an effort to control and communicate their moods and ultimately enhance their emotional states (Strasburger, Wilson, & Jordan, 2008). Children as young as 8 months old can
tell the difference between “happy” and “sad” music (Roberts, Christenson, & Gentile,
2003), which subsequently reaffirms the assertion that music has the ability to communicate emotion and perhaps influence mood.
It has been suggested that interest in popular music increases as
children age (Christenson & Roberts, 1998; Roberts & Foehr, 2004).
In fact, by early adolescence both
boys and girls report listening to
music anywhere from 2 to 5 hours
a day. However, there are gender
as well as cultural differences in
terms of the types of music that
children listen to, particularly as
they get older. For example, as
boys age they generally prefer
rock music, whereas girls generally prefer softer, romantic music
(Roberts & Foehr, 2004).
Noel Hendrickson/Thinkstock
Ninety-two percent of 8- to 18-year-olds reported owning
some kind of music medium that they listen to anywhere from
2 to 5 hours a day.
While it is said that printed
media can pass values to readers,
audio media can do the same to
listeners. Music lyrics have the ability to greatly influence behaviors. Listening to songs
with prosocial lyrics can increase prosocial thoughts, increase interpersonal empathy, and
foster helping behavior (Greitemeyer, 2008). Additionally, listening to songs with romantic lyrics made female listeners more likely to give their phone numbers to a young man
they had conversed with for only a few minutes (Gueguen, Jacob, & Lamy, 2010).
Other behaviors may not be as tame. For example, some popular music has been found
to be misogynistic. It is rare for women to be described as educated, professional, trustworthy, or independent (Weitzer & Kubrin, 2009). In these circumstances, music may be
socializing children and teenagers to believe that women are not as highly valued as men.
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Section 9.4 Children and Screen Media
CHAPTER 9
It has also been found that songs with violent lyrics can cause more hostile and aggressive
thoughts in listeners (Anderson, Carnagey, & Eubanks, 2003), and that listening to songs
with degrading sexual lyrics is correlated to advances in a range of sexual activities in
young adults (Martino, Collins, Elliott, Strachman, Kanouse, & Berry, 2006).
9.4 Children and Screen Media
S
creen media is defined as television or movies. During the last 50 years, the role of
media in the lives of children has undergone “revolutionary change” (Comstock &
Scharrer, 2006). Gone are the days when the family gathered around one television at
night to watch a program that everyone could agree on and enjoy together. Today, most
households have two or more televisions (Comstock & Scharrer, 2006). With the amount
of time children spend in front of a television watching shows or movies, and the influence that this media can have as a child’s microsystem, it is important to examine the
impact that television and movies have on children.
North American children first become television watchers in early infancy (Zimmerman,
Christakis, & Metlzoff, 2007). About 40% of 3 month olds in the United States regularly
watch TV, videos, or DVDs, and that number only rises as the children get older. By the
time children are 2 years old, nearly 90% of them view television from an hour to an hour
and a half each day. Between the ages of 2 and 6 years old, the average North American
preschooler watches anywhere from one and a half hours to two and a half hours a day. In
middle childhood, television viewing increases to an average of three and a half hours per
day (Zimmerman, Christakis, & Meltzoff, 2007). These figures reveal that during a typical
week, an average school-aged child devotes about 24 hours a week to watching television.
Several studies found that the more preschool and school-aged children watched primetime television shows and cartoons, the less time they spent reading and interacting with
others (Ennemoser & Schneider, 2007; Wright et al., 2001).
Children have become the largest proportion of movie viewers. This is particularly salient
given Bronfenbrenner’s concept of the macrosystem. Here, movies (and their content)
relay society’s impact on a child via their values, beliefs, policies, cultures, and customs.
In fact, Sentürk (2011) argued, “When we look at the children’s movies that were released
after the first ten years, particularly from 1920s onwards, it is seen that the interest of the
cinema in children was not solely restricted to their visualization but also the determination of the principles and forms of children’s socialization” (p. 1128). Simply put, movies
for children have been teaching children socialization skills since their introduction.
Ethnic and Gender Stereotyping
Many of the television shows and movies that children watch may have ethnic and gender
stereotypes that adults must be aware of. While educational programming for children is
sensitive to the issues of equality and diversity, commercial entertainment television can
convey ethnic and gender stereotypes. When minorities do appear, they are more likely
than Caucasians to be depicted in secondary or lower status roles such as domestic workers, unskilled laborers, or even law breakers (Dixon & Azocar, 2006). Thus, a Hispanic
child who typically sees someone who looks like him depicted in a domestic worker role
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Section 9.4 Children and Screen Media
CHAPTER 9
on television or film may begin to believe that the only jobs available to him are janitors
or gardeners. Further, a Caucasian child who consistently sees other Caucasians being
depicted in roles such as doctors and lawyers may have an inflated sense of how easy it
is to enter either of these professions. Though this may not be descriptive of the macrosystem in which these children live, television helps to create this perception, because the
children view those images and messages every day on their favorite shows. They are
unaware of what the realities are in the job markets.
Case Study 9.1: Disney
A good example of how movies socialize children comes from the motion pictures released by the
Walt Disney Company. Disney films can be just as effective as schools, churches, and the family for
teaching specific roles, values, and ideals (Giroux, 1995). Some examples include being kind to one
another, befriending animals, striving to do your best work, and finding the beauty in life. These characteristics are espoused by many Disney movies and characters. However, Disney films have come
under close scrutiny in terms of the messages they send to children and their subsequent impact on
children’s socialization.
Disney characters are commonly implicated in social psychological literature as perpetuating the
stereotype known as “what is beautiful is good” (Bazzini, Curtin, Joslin, Regan, & Martz, 2010). For
example, classic fairy tale scenarios depict a heroic prince and virtuous princess as good-looking but
the wicked witch and evil giant as ugly. Children are quick to learn these stereotypes (Myers, 2002).
It has also been found that across animated Disney movies, more attractive characters demonstrate
higher intelligence, lower aggressiveness, and greater moral values, and are more likely to achieve
positive life outcomes at the end of the films (Bazzini et al., 2010).
Reflection Questions
1. What was the first Disney movie you remember seeing? What did you think about the characters?
2. In what ways were you socialized to certain beliefs based upon your first Disney movie?
Screen media has also been linked to gender stereotyping attitudes that can affect children. Women appear less often than men, especially as main characters, though they are
now more often portrayed as having a career than they were 20 years ago. However,
when women do appear, they are often depicted as young, attractive, caring, emotional,
victimized, and in romantic and family contexts (Signorielli, 2001). The physical portrayals of women (as young, thin, and attractive) perpetuate stereotypes about what women
should look like and aspire to be, causing body-image dissatisfaction and eating disorders
in girls (Calvert, Kotler, Zehnder, & Shockey, 2003; Striegel-Moore & Bulik, 2007). Men are
often depicted as dominant and powerful (Signorielli, 2001). They are also portrayed as
rational, ambitious, smart, stable, and sometimes violent (Witt, 2000). All of these depictions can teach young boys that they must be dominant over women; they must be strong,
smart, and never show weakness; and that violence can be a solution in solving problems.
This can affect boys’ self-images, particularly if they are not as strong or skilled as the
male characters they see on television.
However, nonstereotypical images in screen media can also reduce a majority of biases. For
example, positive depictions of women and ethnic minorities lead to more favorable views
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Section 9.4 Children and Screen Media
CHAPTER 9
and a greater willingness to develop ethnically diverse friendships (Calvert et al., 2003)
If television shows begin to portray characters in less stereotypical ways, it will have a more
positive effect on children’s socialization in how they view others and even themselves.
Did You Know?
The correlation between media violence and aggression is almost as high as the correlation between
smoking and lung cancer and higher than the correlation between other widely accepted health factors and outcomes such as calcium intake and bone mass (Anderson & Bushman, 2002).
Academic Learning
It is important to examine the role of television as it relates to academic learning. Screen
media has a huge potential for building and strengthening academic skills. Shows such as
Sesame Street have been specifically created to foster children’s learning. More recently, the Sprout
network launched in 2005, becoming the first
24-hour preschool destination available on TV,
online, and on demand. Sprout is viewed in over
50 million homes, and the network’s program
lineup consists of more than 20 gold-standard,
curriculum-based children’s shows, which air at
various times throughout the day.
As with many educational programs, Sesame
Street’s curriculum fosters children’s natural inclination to ask questions and encourages investigation and experimentation to make new discoveries. For Sesame Street’s 42nd season it introduced
a new curriculum, STEM. The STEM curriculum,
which is short for Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math, will help children to think critically as well as encourage them to become more
Sloop Images/SuperStock
“hands on” about their learning (Sesame Street
Workshop, 2011). Today, Sesame Street is viewed in
Sesame Street is the most widely viewed
more than 140 countries and is the most widely
children’s program in the world. This show
viewed children’s program in the world. Many
uses puppets such as Oscar the Grouch to
studies have examined the impact of Sesame Street
teach children general knowledge, socialon young children’s learning and found that time
emotional understanding, and social skills.
devoted to watching children’s educational programs is associated with gains in early literacy
and math skills and even academic progress in elementary school (Ennemoser & Schneider, 2007; Linebarger, Kosanic, Greenwood, & Doku, 2004; Wright et al., 2001). One study
reported an association between preschoolers’ viewing Sesame Street and getting higher
grades, reading more books, and placing more value on achievement (Anderson, Houston,
Schmitt, Linebarger, & Wright, 2001).
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Section 9.5 Children and Technology
CHAPTER 9
9.5 Children and Technology
C
omputers, video games, smartphones, and the Internet—unlike screen, printed,
or audio media—offer an interactive media through a broad range of learning,
entertainment, and communication tools (Greenfield & Yan, 2007). When looking
at children and technology, it is vital to examine the use of computers since this is one of
the most popular new media that children interact with each and every day. The amount
of time spent with different types of media is growing (Kaiser Family Foundation, 2010).
While television continues to dominate young people’s media diets, it is followed closely
by computer use at an hour and a half each day (not counting schoolwork), and then
playing video games, which accounts for an hour and 15 minutes per day. Moreover, even
children ages 0 to 6 years old spend as much time with television, computers, and video
games as they do playing outside (Kaiser Family Foundation, 2010).
Computers
Computers can serve as a great benefit for many children, as they can provide rich educational benefits. As early as age 3, children enjoy computer activities (games, playing with
the mouse, typing simple words). Even in preschool classrooms, small children tend to
gather around one another in the computer area and will often collaborate more in computer activities than they will in other endeavors found throughout their classroom (Svensson, 2000). Using the computer
to communicate with friends is a
popular activity among children.
The Internet gives children the
ability to use instant messaging;
this online interaction can promote and support friendships.
About 85% of children and adolescents who live in North America reside in a home with one or
more computers, two thirds of
which have a high-speed Internet connection (U.S. Census
Bureau, 2007). Virtually all pubEvan Sklar/Getty Images
lic schools in the United States
have adopted computers into Children as young as 3 years old can enjoy computer activities.
their instructional programs, and
administrators, teachers, and students can access the Internet at school. With many parents also reporting that they purchased a computer for their children to enrich their child’s education, we can see how the
children’s mesosystem influences the child’s use of computers (Rideout & Hammel, 2006).
As computers become more and more prevalent in the lives of children, it is important
to examine what they are doing when they are on a computer. Of particular importance,
nongame computer use is associated with literacy progress in childhood and adolescence
(Calvert, Rideout, Woolard, Barr, & Strouse, 2005). As soon as young children are able to
read and write, they can begin to use the computer for word processing. Doing so allows
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Section 9.5 Children and Technology
CHAPTER 9
them to write freely, play with different font sizes, and experiment with different letters
and words without erasing or crossing out what they do not like.
As children get older, they can use the computer to work on homework and check their
spelling and grammar structure. In fact, because children can worry less about making
mistakes on their homework, their work tends to be longer and of higher quality (Clements & Sarama, 2003). Older children begin to use the computers more for schoolwork
and for researching school projects and papers. It has been shown that the more often a
child uses a home computer to access the Internet for information (either for school or
for personal interest) the better his or her reading achievement and school grades will be
(Jackson et al., 2006).
Think About It
Why do you think that children who use the computer more to access information score higher on
reading achievement? What level of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model would this fall under?
Despite the learning advantages, computers also raise questions and concern about the
“digital divide” between gender and socioeconomic status groups. Children who live in
poverty and whose academic performance is below average are less likely to have home
computers and Internet access (Jackson et al., 2006). In a Canadian study of 1,200 15- and
16-year-olds, boys more often than girls engaged in writing computer programs, analyzing data, and using spreadsheets and graphic programs. Further, many more boys than
girls rated their computer skills as excellent (Looker & Thiessen, 2003). It is important to
ensure that girls as well as children from low-socioeconomic homes have many opportunities to benefit from the cognitively enriching aspects of computer technology. This
means that schools not only need to equip every classroom with computers that have
more technology, but they also must provide teachers with the intensive guidance and
encouragement necessary to educate everyone both equitably and efficiently with computers (Jackson et al., 2006; Looker & Thiessen, 2003).
It is important to note that online communication can pose a danger to children as well.
In an unmonitored chat room, children are likely to encounter degrading racial and ethnic
slurs and sexually obscene or harassing remarks (Subrahmanyam, Smachel, & Greenfield,
2006; Tynes, Reynolds, & Greenfield, 2004). Further, a survey of children (10 to 17 year
olds) from the United States found that 14% had close online relationships or romances.
Many of these children reported high levels of conflict with parents, peer victimization,
and depression. They also were more likely to be asked by an online friend for face-toface meetings and had met those people without telling their parents (Wolak, Mitchell, &
Finkelhor, 2003).
Another issue that has arisen is the idea of cyberbullying. Cyberbullying occurs when
a child, preteen, or teen is tormented, threatened, harassed, humiliated, embarrassed, or
otherwise targeted by another child, preteen, or teen using the Internet, interactive and
digital technologies, or mobile phones (Stop Cyberbullying, 2012). There are two types of
cyberbullying: direct attacks, which are messages sent to a child directly, and cyberbullying by proxy, which is defined by using others to help cyberbully the victim, either with
or without the accomplice’s knowledge.
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Section 9.5 Children and Technology
CHAPTER 9
One of the ways that children use cyberbullying by proxy is the “Warning” or “Notify
Wars.” To do this, children click on the warning or notify buttons on their IM screen,
email, or chat screens, and alert the ISP or service provider that the victim has done something that violates its rules. If the victim receives enough warnings or notifications, he or
she can lose his or her account. The service providers are aware of this abuse and often
check to see if the warnings were justified. But all the cyberbully has to do is make the
victim angry enough to say something rude or hateful back. Then, BINGO! the cyberbully
warns the provider, making it look like the victim started it. In this case, the ISP or service
provider is the innocent accomplice of the cyberbully (cyberbullying.org, 2012).
For some children, the Internet is a place to connect and build friendships, while for others
it can be used to relieve feelings of isolation and rejection. Children who lack protective
networks such as family and friends may be overly trusting and can find deceptions and
harassment in the Internet. When looking at this from Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model
(1979, 1986, 1989, 1993, 1995, 2005), a child who is lacking in his or her microsystem could
potentially have problems worsen because of Internet relationships.
Video Games
When video games were in their infancy and subsequently beginning to gain in popularity, Greenfield (1984) commented, “Video games are the first medium to combine visual
dynamism with an active participatory role for the child” (p. 101). However, recent studies
have suggested a cause for concern based upon the interactive nature of the video games
children are playing. Today’s video games are ripe with aggression, sexual imagery, and
gender-role stereotyping (Anderson, Gentile, & Buckley, 2006; Anderson et al., 2010). In
fact, because of their content, computer and video games are now subjected to ratings that
are similar to movies and television. Ratings range from EC (early childhood), where content is appropriate for children who are 3 years old and older, to AO (adult only), where
content is suitable only for players 18 years old and older.
In terms of the negative influences of video games on children, exposure to violent video
games makes children more aggressive and less caring (Anderson et al., 2010). These
findings are consistent and do not differ according to age, gender, or the child’s cultural
upbringing. In addition, there is a link between the use of video games and attention span
(Schmidt & Vandewater, 2008). There is a small positive relationship between a child’s use
of electronic media and attention problems in school.
Although negative consequences of video gaming have been identified, positive aspects
of video gaming have also been reported. Video games can enhance visual spatial skills
including tracking, mental rotation, and target localization (Schmidt & Vandewater, 2008).
In addition, gaming may also improve problem solving skills (Hofferth, 2010). This is particularly true if the video games are educational and reinforce skills such as math, spelling, or reading. The National Institute on Media and the Family (2001) summarized both
the positive influences and negative influences of video games on children. The positive
aspects of video games include their ability to introduce technology to young children,
their ability to provide a forum for the practice of various problem-solving skills involving
logic, their ability to provide practice with regard to the use of fine motor and spatial skills,
and of particular importance with regard to Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model, their
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Section 9.5 Children and Technology
CHAPTER 9
ability to provide an opportunity for adults and children to play together. The negative
influence of video games included their potential to influence children adversely because
their plots focus on aggression, competition, and stereotyping; their tendency to confuse
reality with fantasy; and their lack of opportunities for independent thought or creativity.
Smartphones and Portable Game Players
Almost all children (93%) between the ages of 6 and 9 years old in the United States live
in a home with a cell phone; moreover, 50% of 6- to 9-year-olds have their own portable
game player, 30% have their own cell phone, and 20% have their own digital music player
(Shuler, 2009). ”[D]evices such as mobile phones, iPod devices, and handheld video game
consoles have features that can help children develop important skills they’ll need to succeed in the 21st century” (Shuler, 2009, p. 27). There are over 3,400 education apps (applications) for smartphones available for download at the iTunes store. A large number of
these apps target children between the ages of 2 and 5 (Hoffman, 2012).
Children also use their smartphones for communication with
friends and family. Texting is
quickly becoming more popular than using computers and
instant messaging. In fact, it is
so popular that a “slang language” has developed to not
only enable quick communication with friends but to ensure
privacy. This new language has
become an important part of the
culture: “gg” (gotta go), “mwah”
(kiss), “lol” (laugh out loud),
Allen Donikowski/Getty Images
“brb” (be right back), “ttfn” (ta-ta
for now), “dnk” (do not know),
The majority of children today either have their own
and “pos” (parents over shoulsmartphone or have access to one.
der). As the amount of texting
and instant messaging between
friends increases, so does the child’s perception of intimacy in those relationships and his
or her feelings of well-being (Valkenburg & Peter, 2007).
According to one study, the following are five key concerns for using mobile technology
for learning:
1. The devices themselves create problems.
2. Some teachers and educators are unwilling to use the devices in their classrooms.
3. There are no theories or models of exactly how to use them appropriately in
classrooms.
4. Many different types of smartphones and applications exist, which makes it difficult to use a “standard” device.
5. There remain limits to what they can physically do (Shuler, 2009).
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Conclusion
CHAPTER 9
As with computers and the Internet, a social concern with mobile technology is bullying. With more and more children owning cell phones, the rate of text bullying is on the
increase. It is more prevalent with older children. A text bully, like a cyberbully, will send
hurtful or embarrassing messages using a cell phone. Text bullying can be more damaging
than traditional bullying for some of the following reasons:
• Bullies have access to their phones 24 hours a day and can send texts
whenever they want.
• The victim may not recognize the number from which the text is coming,
thus bullies can be anonymous.
• Victims may worsen the bullying by quickly sending back responses
(www.bullyingstatistics.org).
It is important to consider what smartphones or their applications can do for children’s
socialization. There are many benefits to using a smartphone, primarily serving to
strengthen connections with microsystems. Smartphones allow users to stay in touch with
friends and family with the click of a button, via applications like Skype or FaceTime, and
email and social media are easily accessible as well. Children can form new microsystems
by interacting with others around the world by playing games on their phones, or by
meeting others in the same geographical location just by using the same application. And,
let’s not forget, they also serve as a phone! Though there are many benefits to using smartphones, one disadvantage is the distraction that they can cause in face-to-face interactions.
Parents and others may find that they are spending time with children and young adults
who do not look up from their phones because they are busy interacting with others.
Conclusion
I
n the 21st century, children are being exposed to new media and technologies at unprecedented rates. Children have the ability to benefit from technological advances in ways
that children in the past could only dream of. They can make new friends or strengthen
connections with loved ones around the world, and they are able to access more information through the Internet than was ever available before. This expands their network
of microsystems and allows them access to new cultures and macrosystems. A plethora
of educational programming and interactive media exists that can feed their curiosities
and expand their minds. Additionally, if children are surrounded by positive, prosocial
messages from television, music lyrics, and magazines, they are likely to become wellrounded, educated, prosocial adults.
However, with these benefits come some costs as well. Parents should exert their influence over children’s exosystems and mesosystems by not allowing outside forces to exacerbate media overuse and monitoring children’s television viewing habits as well as their
habits in Internet usage, as it has been repeatedly found in the research that the media can
be highly influential in children’s socialization. It has the capability to reinforce ethnic and
gender stereotypes and promote aggressive behavior and hostile thoughts, among others.
Teaching children how to properly use technology and comprehend media messages is
the best way to ensure more positive growth, development, and socialization.
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Post-Test
CHAPTER 9
Post-Test
1. The interactive reading experience common in today’s world is part of a child’s
______ system.
a. micro
b. meso
c. chrono
d. exo
2. The value placed on the acquisition of print media is related to _____________.
(More than one answer can be correct.)
a. time
b. education
c. television
d. income
3.
Audio media can _________. (More than one answer can be correct.)
a. influence behavior
b. impact values
c. socialize young people
d. regulate emotion
4.
Shows like Sesame Street fall under the category of _________ media.
a. screen
b. audio
c. print
d. technology
5. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, about 85% of children and adolescents who
live in North America reside in a home with at least one _______.
a. television
b. computer
c. radio
d. child
Answers
1. c. chrono
The answer can be found in Section 9.1.
2. b. education, d. income
The answer can be found in Section 9.2.
3. a. influence behavior, b. impact values, c. socialize young people, d. regulate emotion
The answer can be found in Section 9.3.
4. a. screen
The answer can be found in Section 9.4.
5. b. computer
The answer can be found in Section 9.5.
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Key Ideas
CHAPTER 9
Key Ideas
• One of the ways that parents impact the media’s influence on their children is by
regulating and monitoring viewing habits.
• Extensive television viewing can be associated with family and peer difficulties.
• Parents and guardians should not only be informed about the types of TV programs and films that their children are watching but should set rules for and
monitor what programs and movies their children are watching.
• As a result of technological advances, the media has undergone dramatic
changes throughout the past 100 years.
• Children’s exposure to print media (including books, magazines, and newspapers) is influenced by the socioeconomic status of their family in addition to the
educational level of their parents.
• For most young people, their use of music is an effort to control and communicate their moods and ultimately enhances their emotional states.
• During a typical week, an average school-aged child from the United States
devotes about 24 hours a week to television.
• Many of the television shows that children watch have ethnic and gender
stereotypes.
• Television viewing has been linked to gender-stereotyped attitudes and beliefs
in children, including beliefs about the role of men and women in the workplace,
body image dissatisfaction, and girls’ eating disorders.
• Thousands of studies have concluded that television violence increases the likelihood of hostile thoughts and emotions as well as verbally and physically aggressive behaviors.
• Aggressive children have a tendency to watch more television than their counterparts, and boys devote more time to violent media than girls do.
• Time devoted to watching children’s educational programs is associated with
gains in early literacy and math skills and even academic progress in elementary
school.
• The Sprout network launched in 2005 and became the first 24-hour preschool
destination available on TV, online, and on demand.
• Movies for children have been teaching children socialization skills since their
introduction.
• Computers, video games, smart phones, and the Internet are different from
printed media, audio media, and screen media because they enable the user to
participate actively.
• According to the U.S. Census Bureau (2007), about 85% of children and adolescents who live in North America reside in a home with one or more computers,
two thirds of which have a high-speed Internet connection.
• As soon as young children are able to read and write, they can begin using the
computer for word processing.
• Today’s video games are ripe with aggression, sexual imagery, and gender-role
stereotyping.
• Video games can also enhance visual spatial skills, including tracking, mental
rotation, and target localization, and may improve problem-solving skills.
• The Internet is a place to connect and build friendships, and for some it can be
used to relieve feelings of isolation and rejection.
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Key Terms
CHAPTER 9
Critical Thinking Questions
1. Thinking back to your own childhood, how much did your parents or guardians
control what you watched on TV? How did this affect what you learned through
these programs?
2. Using Bronfenbrenner’s concept of the macrosystem, how have your values,
beliefs, policies, cultures, and customs influenced the types of media you use
or watch?
3. To what extent do you think the advent of devices such as the Kindle, the Nook,
and the iPad will impact the role of print media in the future?
4. Given the idea that even infants can tell the difference between happy and sad
music, provide an example of when you witnessed a small child act happy when
a fast song was played.
5. Think back to some of the television shows or movies that you would watch as
a young child. How much violence or aggression were in them? Do you think
that after watching these shows you became more violent or aggressive? Why
or why not?
6. Even though research indicates that television shows such as Sesame Street
improve literacy and math skills, what do you think of television networks such
as Sprout—geared for preschoolers—being on for 24 hours a day? How much
television do you think a preschooler should be allowed to watch each day?
7. What do you think about the research that shows a definite connection
between exposure to violent video games and children being more aggressive
and less caring?
8. Can you think of an example of cyberbullying by proxy? What did this look like?
Key Terms
audio media Media such as music, audio
books, and podcasts.
cyberbullying When a child, preteen, or
teen is tormented, threatened, harassed,
humiliated, embarrassed, or otherwise
targeted by another child, preteen, or teen
using the Internet, interactive and digital
technologies, or mobile phones.
cyberbullying by proxy Using others to
help cyberbully the victim, either with or
without the accomplice’s knowledge.
direct attacks Messages sent to a child
directly.
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Federal Communications Commission
(FCC) An organization that oversees the
policies related to the media industry,
which includes the ability to approve, limit,
or ultimately restrict any type of content.
Federal Trade Commission (FTC) An
organization charged with protecting consumers by making sure that advertising
and marketing practices are not harmful or
misleading.
mass media A type of communication
that ultimately impacts a large number
of individuals with the express intent of
delivering a message quickly through an
impersonal medium.
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Web Resources
media A type of communication that fosters a specific effect or action.
print media Media such as books, magazines, and newspapers.
CHAPTER 9
technology The branch of knowledge that
deals with the creation and use of technical means and their interrelation with life,
society, and the environment.
screen media Media such as television or
movies.
Web Resources
This is a website devoted to children, with a special section regarding the topic of media
and its impact on children:
http://www.childrennow.org/index.php/learn/medias_impact/
This is the Center for Media and Child Health’s website, which provides a wealth of
information related to children and media exposure:
http://www.cmch.tv/
This is the American Center for Children and Media’s website, which provides
information related to children and various media:
http://www.centerforchildrenandmedia.org/
This is a video of a pediatrician discussing the impact of media on young children:
http://www.wimp.com/mediachildren/
This is a link to an article on PBS discussing the ways in which technology has impacted
children’s play:
http://www.pbs.org/mediashift/2011/09/has-technology-changed-the-way-childrenplay250.html
This is a link to a website that provides various articles, activities, and videos that let
children interact with technology.
http://www.sciencekids.co.nz/technology.html
This is a link to the National Association for the Education of Young Children’s technology
and young children interest forum:
http://www.techandyoungchildren.org/
This link to the Sesame Workshop website, which provides information about Sesame
Street and what this program can offer children:
http://www.sesameworkshop.org/
This is a link to the Federal Trade Commission’s website, which offers information to
protect consumers:
http://www.ftc.gov/
This link is to the Motion Picture Association of America website, which discusses how
to read the rating for motion pictures and what they mean for parents:
http://mpaa.org/ratings
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10
Blend Images/SuperStock
Role of Families and Schools in
the Socialization of Children
Learning Objectives
By the end of the chapter, you will be able to:
• Compare and contrast different motivations for parenthood and describe the
influences on parenting beliefs.
• Compare and contrast different parenting styles and their influence on children’s
socialization.
• Explain how nonparental care environments play a role in the socialization
of children.
• Describe the role of schools and teachers in promoting the socialization of
children.
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Pre-Test
CHAPTER 10
Introduction
P
arenthood is a core value in American culture, so for many the desire to become
parents is very strong. Given the high financial costs of parenthood, which, according to one study, can reach $226,920 (Lino, 2011), why is there such a strong drive to
become parents? Understanding parents’ motivation for parenthood is important because
it sets the stage for understanding the beliefs and value system of the family system that
guides the parents as they socialize their children. In this chapter, this is something we
will explore.
Another key topic related to socialization goals is parenting style. Parents play an instrumental role in the socialization process because they are the child’s first teacher. How
does the theme of parenting relate to the various levels in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological
model? We will explore what exactly is parenting style and how it relates to socialization
goals for children.
As we have discussed throughout this textbook, parents are not the only influences on children’s socialization. Because they come from working families, some children are exposed
to child care, including center-based and family care environments, starting as young as
6 weeks of age. Additionally, as children transition to elementary school, teachers play
a critical role in shaping children’s cognitive, emotional, and social development. How
do schools relate to the various levels in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model? Schools are
important socialization agents because school-aged children spend more time in school
settings with teachers than with their parents, and some children even experience afterschool enrichment programs, thereby spending more time with other socialization agents.
Thus, school settings will be discussed as they relate to the socialization process.
Pre-Test
1. The pronatalist bias is related to the fatalistic motivation for parenthood.
True
False
2. Baumrind’s classification scheme of parenting styles is based on four dimensions.
True
False
3. Children who are exposed to child care centers for more hours and at an earlier
age are more likely to demonstrate behavioral problems in kindergarten.
True
False
4. Charter schools offer more freedom than traditional public schools.
True
False
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Section 10.1 Role of Family Systems in Socialization Process
CHAPTER 10
Answers
1. False
The answer can be found in Section 10.1.
2. False
The answer can be found in Section 10.2.
3. True
The answer can be found in Section 10.3.
4. True
The answer can be found in Section 10.4.
10.1 Role of Family Systems in Socialization Process
F
amily systems today include a diverse array of configurations including singleparent female-headed households, single-parent male-headed households, twoparent married couples, two-parent cohabitating couples, divorced or separated
couples, and gay and lesbian couples. Some gay and lesbian parents had children within
the context of a heterosexual relationship (Tasker, 2005). These diverse family microsystems in Bronfenbrenner’s (1979, 1989, 2005) ecological model provide a foundation for the
socialization of children. Guided by their beliefs and values, parents have specific motivations for parenthood and try to promote specific developmental goals for their children.
We begin by discussing the variety of contexts for parenting and demographic trends in
child rearing in the United States.
Diverse Family Systems
Demographic research from studies such as the American Community Survey suggests
that divorce rates have increased (Kreider & Ellis, 2011); see weblinks for link report that
describes trends on divorce and
remarriage in the United States.
Therefore, there are a high number of children who will experience transitions as their parents go
through a divorce. In some cases,
the breakups are amicable and parties agree on shared custody, but in
other cases, children may feel stuck
in the middle as their parents argue
and debate about where the children
will live and other issues. Divorce
has a direct impact on the child’s
microsystem in Bronfenbrenner’s
Jupiterimages/Thinkstock
(1986) ecological model because it
often involves a reduction in the
amount of time spent with the cus- Some children become depressed when they perceive that
todial parent in addition to the loss divorcing parents are not emotionally available to help
of a household member. Rodgers them with their problems.
and Rose (2002) suggested that children’s perception is important in adjusting to divorce; if the child thinks the parent is not
physically or emotionally available due to strains placed by the additional demands on
caring for the children at home alone, the child may end up feeling more stressed about
the divorce because of perceived lack of support from the parent.
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Section 10.1 Role of Family Systems in Socialization Process
CHAPTER 10
Changes in the family microsystem also occur in the event of remarriage. When a parent
remarries, the child may not only gain a parental figure but siblings as well. This reorganization of the family structure requires renegotiation of household rules and traditions as
the practices of two households get merged into one. Claxton-Oldfield, Garber, & Gillcrist
(2006) found that children differ in their perception of stepfathers. Some children mentioned the positives of having a stepfather, such as bringing extra love and support and
being a friend, while others mentioned negative characteristics such as conflict, being too
bossy, or trying to take the place of the biological parent. The research findings on divorce
and remarriage demonstrate the importance of parents talking with their children about
divorce and remarriage to understand how children are reacting to the transitions and
also discussing how to get along with new family members.
Single parenthood has increased in the United States—in particular, single motherhood.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau (2010), 55% of single mothers are divorced, separated, or widowed, and 45% never have been married. Some single-parent families face
challenges such as housing affordability, unemployment or low income, and lack of health
insurance. However, research also has demonstrated resiliency in single-parent families
related to social support received from kin and friendship networks (Brody & Flor, 1998).
Emotional support and instrumental support such as practical help with parenting tasks
provided by friends and extended family members appears to be associated with positive parenting behaviors (Jarrett, 2000). This means that parents have backup should they
be lacking in tangible resources or if they need encouragement in dealing with parenting stress. In contrast, lack of social support such as living in an isolated neighborhood
with few resources is associated with higher risk for child maltreatment (Wandersman
& Nation, 1998). In these situations parents have limited sources to go to for help should
their own resources be insufficient.
These studies on social support also demonstrate the impact of the mesosystem in Bronfenbrenner’s (1978, 1989, 2005) ecological model. Recall that the mesosystem involves the
linkage of individual microsystems, in this case, different households that interact and
share resources to support one another with parenting tasks. Not only may these sources
share resources, but they also exchange ideas about parenting practices and beliefs. Parenting beliefs are influential in the socialization process.
Motivation to Parenting
Much research has been conducted on the pros and cons of parenthood, including the
impact of having children on a couple’s relationship. One key area of research has explored
parenting beliefs such as parents’ motivation for parenthood. Rabin and Greene (1968)
were pioneering researchers in the area of motivations for parenthood. They assessed the
major reasons for becoming a parent and classified the motivations into four major categories: fatalistic, altruistic, narcissistic, and instrumental.
Fatalistic Motivation
According to the fatalistic motivation for parenthood, procreation is the primary reason
for our existence. Consider Rafael and Elena. They are very religious and believe that
contraception is not acceptable because it interferes with God’s will. Further, they believe
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Section 10.1 Role of Family Systems in Socialization Process
CHAPTER 10
it is their duty to ensure continuation of the family name. These hypothetical parents
illustrate the fatalistic motivation for parenthood. This motivation reflects strong cultural
values for becoming parents and implicit value in many religious affiliations to procreate.
Religion and culture are examples of macrosystem influences on becoming parents. Rafael
and Elena are driven by the desire to fulfill the expectations of their church and culture to
become parents as part of their duty.
Altruistic Motivation
The second category, altruistic motivation for parenthood, reflects an unselfish desire to
express affection and concern for children. Consider Joshua. He graduated with a degree
in early childhood education and knows fully about the impacts of having a child on relationship satisfaction and what to expect throughout different stages of the lifespan. He
knows that parenting will present many challenges, yet he is looking forward to embracing whatever comes along because he truly wants to provide for another human being
and express his love. Joshua’s attitudes illustrate the altruistic motivation for parenthood.
This motivation reflects the impact of culture as well, which is a macrosystem influence.
Narcissistic Motivation
In sharp contrast to altruism is the narcissistic motivation for parenthood, which reflects
the notion that having children will reflect on the goodness of the person. Consider Jiao.
She has been married for 2 years and recently had a baby. Jiao has a strong desire to
receive compliments about how adorable the baby is; she becomes visibly agitated when
a peer does not speak about the baby. She believes that becoming a parent is a sign of
maturity and that when the child receives compliments, it will be a positive reflection on
her parenting ability and goodness as a person. She is influenced by pressure from society
to conform to certain obligations, which illustrates a macrosystem influence.
Instrumental Motivation
David Sacks/Thinkstock
Some parents feel strong pressure from their own families
to have children to carry on the family name and household
traditions.
boj80120_10_c10_203-226.indd 5
The instrumental motivation
for parenthood is driven by specific goals that parents have for
their children. These goals could
include helping the children reach
educational levels like college,
saving their own relationships,
re-creating their own childhoods
in a more favorable light, appeasing their own relatives, or carrying on the family name. Consider
Landon and Caroline. Both are
college graduates with successful careers who have overcome
many obstacles to reach that
point in their lives. Caroline was
abused as a child and placed in
the foster care system for 3 years.
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Section 10.1 Role of Family Systems in Socialization Process
CHAPTER 10
Landon’s parents were very poor, and his father died when he was 12, but his mother made
great sacrifices so that he could get a college education. Both Landon and Caroline want to
give a child the kind of life they dreamed of by going on nice vacations, attending the best
schools, living in a nice neighborhood surrounded by friends, while giving themselves a
second chance at life. The instrumental motivation also illustrates macrolevel influences
such as cultural beliefs and socioeconomic status. Further, it illustrates the impact of the
mesosystem, such as expectations from family members and close friends. Economic considerations demonstrate the impact of the chronosystem.
Cultural Influences
Individuals have different reasons for becoming parents. All of these motivations reflect
the impact of cultural and religious beliefs, values, and societal expectations through the
macrosystem. Parents have specific ideas about what constitutes appropriate expectations
for their child’s behavior and desires for their achievement. Parents also differ in the types
of strategies they use to teach children. Working-class parents are more likely to use directives to instruct children, whereas middle-income parents are more likely to try to use
reasoning skills with children (Lareau, 2002). Parenting style is one aspect of a parent’s
belief system. It is important because it shapes the types of socialization experiences that
parents provide.
Changes in parenting configurations reflect the role of the chronosystem in Bronfenbrenner’s (1979, 1989, 2005) ecological model. For example, in the United States we have
historically leaned toward a pronatalist bias, which is a strong preference toward procreation and having children. According to this perspective, parenthood is a normal part
of the transition to adulthood and a sign of maturity (Hoffman & Levant, 1985). However, the social stigma of childlessness and single-parent families may be diminishing as a
result of changes in population trends (Hagewen & Morgan, 2005).
Think About It
Think about motivations for parenthood that you have observed among your own friends and/or
families. How do these behaviors reflect the different layers in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model?
Motivations for parenthood are not the only beliefs that shape parents’ behaviors. Other
research on parents’ belief systems have focused on the cultural models including the
notion of collectivism and individualism. As we have discussed previously, cultural values reflect the role of the macrosystem in Bronfenbrenner’s (1979, 1989, 2005) ecological
model. Another way of looking at parents’ beliefs and value systems is to explore the
degree of interdependence or independence that is fostered in the cultural group.
A widely used framework to classify parents’ beliefs and value systems that reflect
the macrosystem is the comparison researchers have made between collectivism and
individualism (Tamis-LeMonda et al., 2008). According to this framework, cultural
groups that endorse collectivism focus on interdependence among group members
and building relationships, whereas cultural groups that endorse individualism focus
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CHAPTER 10
Section 10.1 Role of Family Systems in Socialization Process
on building independence and
self-sufficiency. However, some
researchers have criticized this
distinction and argued that
although the macro-level cultural value may reflect a preference for collectivist or individualist perspective, developmental
goals can be similar in different
cultural contexts and illustrate
the principles of both perspectives (Keller, 2003). In other
words, both relationship-oriented and individual-oriented
goals may be found in the same
cultural context.
Paul Burns/Getty Images
Cooking meals together is an example of collectivist (working
together to provide for needs) and individualist (learning how
to take care of self) perspectives.
Voices: Western and Non-Western Perspectives on Socialization of Children
Ming, 28, chemist: My parents are originally from mainland China, but I was born in the United States.
Our culture is very competitive, but ever since I was a young girl, my parents also taught me the
importance of helping out not only family members in need but reaching out to others in the community. They also emphasized the importance of schoolwork, and every night our parents helped us
with homework and stressed the value of education. My own children are now 3 and 10, and I try to
instill the same values in them. For example, my son is really good at chess, and I want him to teach his
friends to play the game. Also I want my children to have respect for their elders. Therefore, we visit
their grandparents every Sunday, and they hear stories about their childhood in China. Although I want
my children to be self-sufficient, they need to understand the importance of caring for the elderly.
Meghan, 30, lawyer: My father was born in the United States after my grandparents emigrated from
Poland. It was difficult for my father growing up because my grandparents could not speak English
very well and had a limited income. My grandparents wanted my father to receive a solid education
because they were unable to get a college degree themselves. Both my grandparents started working
at a young age to support the family. Therefore, they taught my father to take on responsibilities at
the home starting at an early age. My father, in turn, passed on these values to me. My own daughter
is 8, and I am trying to teach her to be independent. However, I don’t think it’s appropriate for children to take on too much responsibility too soon. I want her to focus on her schoolwork and hobbies.
However, I want her to learn how to be helpful to other people. I am a single parent and want her to
be independent one day so she doesn’t have to rely on anyone for financial support, but I teach her
the value of leaning on others for social support.
Reflection Questions
Compare and contrast Ming’s and Meghan’s cultural beliefs. Explain how their attitudes reflect collectivism or individualism.
1. What themes did you notice that relate to motivations for parenthood?
2. How do their beliefs reflect the influence of the different layers of Bronfenbrenner’s
ecological model?
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Section 10.2 Parenting Styles and Socialization of Children
CHAPTER 10
Other factors outside of the parent’s control may impact child socialization as well. Corporate decisions, military obligations, and government policies on families also impact
the child through the exosystem in Bronfenbrenner’s (1979, 1989, 2005) ecological model.
For example, a two-parent family may become a single-parent family as a result of military deployment. A parent with a deployed spouse or partner may need to rely on other
nonparental caregiving sources. The policies of a parent’s employer also influence socialization through the time off provided to the parent upon the birth or adoption of a child
and the availability of child care. If the employer does not offer on-site child care, the parent may need to seek other nonparental resources available in the community.
10.2 Parenting Styles and Socialization of Children
P
arents’ behaviors and socialization practices are guided by the parenting style, or
philosophy about child rearing including discipline strategies, that they endorse.
The classification scheme of parenting styles is based on two dimensions: demandingness and responsiveness (Baumrind, 1971, 1978, 1989). Demandingness refers to the
parents’ expectations about degree of control and supervision, maturity, and their willingness to interact with their child about these standards of conduct. Responsiveness
refers to the degree of warmth exhibited by the parents and how readily they react to the
needs of the child while still respecting the child’s individuality and building the child’s
self-worth.
Parents who are high in demandingness are likely to monitor their children closely, such
as asking for the names and numbers of parents who will be chaperoning an event rather
than taking the child’s word for it that adults will be present. Parents who are high in
responsiveness are likely to show physical affection for a child, such as hugging the child,
and are likely to act quickly when the child is in need rather than expecting the child to
take care of the issue by him- or herself. Based on these two dimensions, Baumrind (1971,
1978, 1989) outlined three parenting styles: authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive
(see Figure 10.1).
Parenting Styles
The authoritarian parenting style is characterized by a high degree of demandingness
and a low degree of responsiveness. These parents are likely to have high expectations
for obedience, demand that the child follow through on the parents’ requests, exhibit a
high degree of control over the child, and rely on punishment as a discipline strategy.
For example, consider Thomas, a recent divorcee. He divorced his wife of 15 years and
has partial custody of his two children, ages 10 and 12. Thomas places high expectations
on them for doing well in school and demands that they keep out of trouble. He enrolled
them in a special after-school tutoring program to keep them occupied while he is finishing up work. Thomas’ ex-wife always complained that he was not affectionate enough
to her or their daughters. Thomas feels it is more important to spend his time with the
girls helping them with their schoolwork rather than making small talk. When the girls
act out and disobey him, he punishes them by removing their privileges followed by a
stern lecture.
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CHAPTER 10
Section 10.2 Parenting Styles and Socialization of Children
Figure 10.1: Parenting styles
High
Low
Low
Authoritarian
Authoritative
High
Response (warmth)
Demand (control)
Permissive
Uninvolved
Parents’ socialization practices for their children are directed by the parenting style they choose to adopt.
In contrast, the authoritative parenting style is characterized by high degrees of
demandingness and responsiveness. These parents are likely to show a large amount of
affection and warmth for the child, respect the child’s individual freedom and independence, clearly communicate expectations while giving the child some degree of choice,
and have high standards for mature behavior from the child. Consider Ramon, father of
2 children ages 14 and 18. Ramon is part of a dual career household, and he thinks it is
important to stay involved in the children’s academic and social activities. Although he
works full time, Ramon always makes time to attend his children’s recitals and sporting
events. Ramon is not afraid to show affection for his children, and he and his son have
father-son talks on a routine basis. He thinks it is critical for the children to have input
when it comes to decisions that impact the family, like where to go on vacation and how
to distribute chores in the house. When his sons disobey, his discipline is focused on
understanding the consequences of their actions, not simply saying, “Follow my rules
or else.”
Finally, the permissive parenting style is characterized by a low degree of demandingness and a high degree of responsiveness. Although these parents are likely to be very
affectionate and accepting of the child, they are less likely to place high demands on the
child for acting mature, highly unlikely to follow through on requests, and likely to give
in when the child is disobedient and be lenient in disciplinary practices. Consider Stacey, a
working mother who has 3 children ages 5, 8, and 11. Stacey frequently travels for work, so
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Section 10.2 Parenting Styles and Socialization of Children
CHAPTER 10
she relies heavily on her husband and in-laws for support. Stacey often hugs the children
and brings them gifts when she returns from a business trip. However, because she feels
guilty about being away from home so much, she rarely disciplines the children when they
disobey. She would rather spend her time with them having fun than completing school
projects and homework. If the children’s father says no, they always turn to Stacey for a
second opinion, hoping she will give in to their wishes, which she normally does.
Maccoby and Martin (1983)
later added a fourth classification called uninvolved parenting style, sometimes labeled as
disengaged or neglectful. These
parents are characterized by low
degrees of demandingness and
responsiveness. They do not
place high demands or expectations on the child and are not
involved in the child’s activities
such as school and other hobbies.
Disciplinary strategies are virtually nonexistent because uninDigital Vision/Thinkstock
volved parents are typically very
lenient to the point of exerting no
Children with disengaged parents are likely to be left alone,
authority over the child. Consider
watch what they want on television, and eat what they like
without parental monitoring.
Selena, mother of one daughter,
age 16. Selena was abused by
her own parents and lived with foster parents for 10 years while growing up. As a teenager, Selena got into trouble with the law because of shoplifting and drugs. Ever since her
daughter was young, Selena thought it was important for her daughter to learn how to
take care of herself. Selena didn’t have time to deal with parent-teacher conferences, afterschool activities, and homework. She doesn’t have the energy to deal with a teenager’s boy
troubles and listening to gossip about her friends. Recently her daughter was arrested for
shoplifting and called her mother for help. However, Selena didn’t answer the phone and
eventually her daughter got help from an aunt. When Selena found out about her daughter’s problem, her reaction was “Oh well; it’s her life.”
Microsystem Influences
Parents in the same household are likely to differ in their parenting styles, especially when
it comes to how parents describe themselves. Mothers and fathers in the same family
demonstrated differences in their degree of demandingness and responsiveness (Winsler,
Madigan, & Aquilino, 2005). Thus children living in the same household may not necessarily be exposed to a single parenting style—in other words, their mother and father may
have separate microsystem influences on them.
When parents divorce, these microsystem influences change. As we discussed earlier (see
Section 10.1), divorce and remarriage involves the reorganization of family microsystems.
Parents and stepparents may differ in their child-rearing practices and parenting styles.
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Section 10.3 Nonparental Child Care
CHAPTER 10
One parent may be more permissive, and that may result in conflicts if the other parent tries to exert authority. Children may protest and say, “I don’t have to listen to you;
you’re not my real parent.” Also, parenting styles may change after divorce. A parent
who was once strict may become more lenient because he or she feels guilty about the
divorce. Or the parent may become more permissive or even disengaged because he or
she is struggling to cope with the new demands of being a single parent. Further, children
in stepfamilies may experience more physical abuse or maltreatment than children from
single-parent and biological two-parent families (Turner, Finkelhor, & Ormrod, 2007). It
is important for blended families to have conversations about discipline practices and
discuss how the responsibilities of each family member will change as the household is
reorganized through remarriage.
Macrosystem Influences
In addition to differences in individuals’ parenting styles within the same households,
parents are influenced by their past and shaped by cultural beliefs and values about parenting. For example, parents from diverse cultural and religious backgrounds have different viewpoints on raising children. Parenting styles are not viewed uniformly across
cultural groups. What might be considered authoritarian in one culture may be illustrative of authoritative parenting in another culture (Abar, Carter, & Winsler, 2009). In other
words, what one parent views as strict, another may view as perfectly appropriate based
on cultural or religious beliefs. On the flip side, what one culture views as permissive may
be deemed by another as reflecting age-appropriate expectations for the child’s behavior.
For example, one culture may believe that it is not possible to overindulge children under
age 3 because of their developing reasoning and self-regulation skills, whereas another
would expect that being too lenient may spoil the children. These differences reflect the
role of the macrosystem on parenting styles. Parents are influenced by the styles of their
parents in that they may want to continue the parenting practices that they view as desirable or deviate from parenting styles that they view as undesirable.
When searching for child care, parents are likely to seek caregivers who endorse philosophies that are similar to their own viewpoints. Parents may select caregivers who share
similar beliefs about discipline and moral development. Macrosystem influences may dictate whether nonparental caregivers conform to expectations for parents’ behaviors. Some
cultural or religious expectations may reflect that parents should stay home to raise the
child until he or she reaches a certain age. Some parents may wish to stay home, but their
financial situation requires the use of nonparental care. In the next section, we consider
the role of nonparental child care in the socialization of children.
10.3 Nonparental Child Care
A
s discussed in Chapter 2, parents may choose from a variety of child care arrangements, including care by relatives, private nannies, center-based programs, and
family-based programs. Depending on the type of child care environment the
parent chooses, the child may be exposed to a small or large group of peers. Child care
environments also differ in quality, and much research has been conducted on how the
quantity and quality of child care relates to children’s developmental outcomes including
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Section 10.3 Nonparental Child Care
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academic and social skills. What are the major types of nonrelative care, and how do these
settings differ? What are some of the features of child care environments?
Types of Arrangements
One option for parents is private nanny care. In this arrangement parents select a nanny
with the assistance of an agency or through referrals from other parents or even online
search engines. Nannies may either reside in the home with the family or provide home
care when needed without living in the same residence. Agencies can help parents with
background checks and verifying the nanny’s credentials, including education and any
certifications.
Some of the major advantages of nannies include personalized at-home care, no need to
transport the child to a home or child care facility, and one-on-one attention or a good
ratio of adult to children in the event of multiple children. Some of the major disadvantages include the cost, likelihood of turnover (or the nanny quitting,) what to do for a
backup plan should the nanny become ill and is unable to care for the child unexpectedly,
and concerns about monitoring the nanny’s behavior. Some parents install nanny cameras
around their homes to check on what the nanny does during the day, which has brought
up debate on privacy issues and parenting practices.
Because some parents also have concerns about the opportunity for peer interactions,
they may opt for center-based care to expose their child to a larger group of peers of the
same or similar age grouping. If parents have children of different ages, they may select
a center-based program because age-appropriate classes would be available that are tailored to the specific needs of each
child. For example, the same center may have separate programs
for infants, toddlers, preschoolers, and sometimes even kindergarteners. Thus, center-based
programs offer flexibility to parents who wish to provide care
for children at different ages and
developmental levels.
Center-based programs include
for-profit child care centers that
are accredited by such organizations as the National AssociaYellow Dog Productions/Getty Images
tion for the Education of Young
Children (NAEYC) or licensed
by state agencies as well as pro- Child care centers provide group activities like circle time to
grams facilitated by faith-based promote interaction.
organizations that may be nonprofit. Some center-based programs may be offered by employers and be located on the
same site where the parent works, such as programs facilitated by universities or government agencies.
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Section 10.3 Nonparental Child Care
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Some states such as Georgia, Florida, New York, and Oklahoma have universal prekindergarten programs. The central idea behind universal prekindergarten is that all children should have the opportunity to receive early childhood education regardless of
income or the parent’s ability to pay for child care in order to adequately prepare children
for kindergarten (Zigler, Gilliam, & Jones, 2006). Georgia’s universal preschool program
is funded by the state lottery. It is important to note that universal programs are voluntary; enrollment is not required by the state, meaning that the child’s parents can choose
whether they want their child to participate (Gormley & Gayer, 2005). The goal of these
programs is to help children learn basic academic and social skills that are indicators of
school readiness, especially children who may be at risk due to poverty or other factors.
The notion of providing early childhood education to populations that may be at risk for
developmental delays is a guiding principle behind Head Start, a center-based preschool
program created in 1965 under President Johnson’s administration as part of the War on
Poverty. Research findings have been mixed on the long-term benefits of children’s participation in Head Start (Barnett & Hustedt, 2005). Some researchers suggest that children’s
gains in achievement eventually disappear over time (Haskins, 2004). Others argue that
the long-term benefits of children’s participation in Head Start to the children themselves
and society outweigh the costs (Ludwig & Miller, 2007). As Head Start has come up for
renewal, the debate about it has continued. Head Start provides a center-based context to
children whose parents otherwise might not be able to afford child care.
Child care experiences vary greatly, and these early experiences are likely to have positive
and negative impacts that relate to children’s achievement and behavior in kindergarten.
Quality of care is not the only factor that impacts children’s outcomes. The composition
of classrooms also relates to children’s outcomes; effects on individual children may combine at the classroom level because each child has a unique history that contributes to the
classroom environment. Children exposed to child care centers for more hours and at an
earlier age are more likely to demonstrate behavioral problems in kindergarten, such as
fighting and arguing with peers, but children who spend more hours in child care are also
more likely to have higher achievement scores in kindergarten (Dmitrieva, Steinberg, &
Belsky, 2007). This demonstrates the role of the microsystem, mesosystem, and exosystem
in Bronfenbrenner’s (1979, 1989, 2005) ecological model. The microsystem contribution is
reflected by each child’s individual history of nonparental child care, such as the duration and quality. The mesosystem contribution is reflected by the kindergarten classroom
environment and the combined histories of all of the peers in the class. The exosystem is
reflected by policies that influence the availability and quality of child care. Some parents
may have employers with on-site child care, whereas others may not offer any kind of
child care, so parents must seek it in other places. Also, some parents may need to enroll
their child in programs to meet welfare-to-work requirements. The quality of care available may be dictated by financial resources. Parents may have no choice but to enroll their
child in a less-than-ideal program if they must go back to work.
Given some of the disadvantages of center-based care or the difficulty of finding a highquality child care center close to the parents’ home or place of employment, another option
is family-based programs. Family-based care providers are an option for parents seeking
a home environment with smaller group size. Family-based care providers offer services
in their own homes and differ from kin care in that they typically provide care for children who are not related to them. Just as center-based programs may be accredited by a
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Section 10.3 Nonparental Child Care
CHAPTER 10
national organization or licensed
by the state, family-based care
providers may have similar quality indicators. The National Association for Family Child Care
(NAFCC; see Web Resources) is
a national organization created
to support quality child care
offered by family-care providers
through the institution of practice standards and provision of
training to facilitate professional
development. Providers can go
through the accreditation proGallo Images/Getty Images
cess to establish that they meet
certain standards that are indiFamily-based care providers typically offer activities for small
cators of high-quality care. The
groups of eight or fewer children in a home setting.
review process involves observation of the provider in action to
ensure that standards are implemented appropriately in the care setting. Quality of child
care has been the subject of much debate in terms of how it relates to outcomes for children
(see Table 10.1).
Exosystem Influences on Nonparental Child Care
The impact of parental employment on child-rearing practices illustrates the role of the
exosystem (Bronfenbrenner, 1986). Some parents may wish to stay home with their children but are unable to do so because of financial reasons, so they must seek child care.
Although some employers provide child care on-site, others do not, so parents rely on
other resources in the community. Changes in social policies such as welfare reform and
increases in the number of federal child care vouchers distributed have resulted in a rise
in the number of parents in need of child care, which places strain on the supply of child
care available (Blau, 2001). Given the increase in number of children from low-income
communities who are enrolled in child care programs such as family child care homes and
centers, more research is needed on the quality of these programs and how it relates to
outcomes for children. See Case Study 10.1 for findings from a research study that examined the quality of child care received by mothers who participated in welfare-to-work
opportunities under the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) program.
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CHAPTER 10
Section 10.3 Nonparental Child Care
Table 10.1: Advantages and disadvantages of nonparental child care
Advantages
Nannies
Center-based
Family-based
Individual (one-on-one)
or small-group care
Accreditation bodies
such as NAEYC provide
established indicators of
high quality
Accreditation bodies
such as NAFCC provide
established indicators
of high quality
Likely to have programs for
children of diverse ages or
mixed ages
Location likely to be
closer to home or
work
Larger class sizes more
likely
Likely to have no more
than 8 children
Likely to encourage
parents open-door
visitation policy
Smaller adult-to-child
ratios depending on
quality
In-home care; no need
to drive to provider
location
Likely to accept vouchers
Some states offer free
universal Pre-K programs
Likely to be open yearround
Disadvantages
High cost
No established
indicators of quality
More difficult to
monitor provider
behavior
boj80120_10_c10_203-226.indd 15
Cost varies widely by
geographic region; infant
and toddler programs
more expensive than Pre-K
programs
No backup if provider
becomes ill
Availability may vary based
on geographic region; may
be difficult to locate care
near home or work
Turnover; child needs to
adjust to new caregiver
Larger teacher-to-student
ratios
May be difficult to
locate; may require use
of agency and involve
fees
May have high staff
turnover
Wide variety in
training and/
or educational
background of
providers; likely to
have less education
and training compared
to center-based
programs
May or may not accept
vouchers
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Section 10.4 Schools and Teachers
CHAPTER 10
Case Study 10.1: Quality of Child Care in Low-Income Communities
Loeb, Fuller, Kagan, & Carrol (2004) studied the quality of child care in a sample of families from
California and Florida. The mothers had participated in state welfare-to-work programs and received
child care services when they went back to work. Data about child care was collected through personal interviews with mothers and observations of two types of providers: child care centers and
family care provider homes. Mothers were asked about their age, education, income, work background, and experiences with welfare systems. The researchers also asked them questions about the
kinds of activities they did with the child at home, such as book reading, and type of child care used.
Child care quality was evaluated by observing the physical space of the child care homes and facilities and the providers in action as they provided care to the children. Observations were made for
158 child care centers and 136 family care providers based in homes, including care by relatives. They
looked at features such as the space in the facility, physical materials like toys available for children,
how the activities were set up in the classroom or home, and the types of exchanges that took place
between teachers and children. They also collected information from providers about adult-child
ratios, education, and training. In addition to evaluating child care quality, assessments were done to
evaluate children’s cognitive and social skills.
Results revealed that teachers in child care centers were more likely to have higher levels of education
compared to family care providers (Loeb et al., 2004). However, the group sizes and ratios of children
to adults were higher in child care centers. Regarding child outcomes, children in center-based programs scored higher on cognitive assessments than children in family care provider homes. However,
the relation between child care arrangement and children’s social development showed that children
enrolled in family care provider homes demonstrated more problem behaviors than children cared
for in centers or by relatives. Additionally, children enrolled in family care provider homes were more
likely to be aggressive than children watched by their relatives (Loeb et al., 2004).
Reflection Questions
1. What are your perspectives on the positive features of an ideal child care program?
2. How do the research findings relate to influence of the mesosystem in Bronfenbrenner’s
ecological model?
10.4 Schools and Teachers
T
he No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB; 2002) was a key education reform authorized
by President George W. Bush. The goal was to provide parents with more choices
when it comes to their child’s education and to promote greater accountabi...
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