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Leadership Enhancing the Lessons of Experience Ninth Edition Richard L. Hughes Robert C. Ginnett Gordon J. Curphy LEADERSHIP: ENHANCING THE LESSONS OF EXPERIENCE, NINTH EDITION Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2015, 2012, and 2009. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States. This book is printed on acid-free paper. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LCR/LCR 23 22 21 20 19 ISBN 978-1-259-96326-1 (bound edition) MHID 1-259-96326-8 (bound edition) ISBN 978-1-260-16765-8 (loose-leaf edition) MHID 1-260-16765-8 (loose-leaf edition) Portfolio Manager: Laura Hurst Spell Marketing Manager: Debbie Clare Content Project Managers: Rick Hecker and Rachel Townsend Buyer: Susan K. Culbertson Design: Matt Backhaus Content Licensing Specialist: Melisa Seegmiller Cover Image: ©Giovanni Rinaldi/Getty Images Compositor: MPS Limited All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Hughes, Richard L., 1946– author. | Ginnett, Robert C., author. | Curphy, Gordon J., author. Leadership: enhancing the lessons of experience / Richard L. Hughes, Robert C. Ginnett, Gordon J. Curphy. Ninth Edition. | New York: McGraw-Hill Education, [2018] LCCN 2017048123| ISBN 9781259963261 (acid-free paper) | ISBN 1259963268 (acid-free paper) LCSH: Leadership. LCC HM1261 .H84 2018 | DDC 303.3/4—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017048123 The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites. mheducation.com/highered About the Authors Rich Hughes has served on the faculties of both the Center for Creative Leadership (CCL) and the U.S. Air Force Academy. CCL is an international organization devoted to behavioral science research and leadership education. He worked there with senior executives from all sectors in the areas of strategic leadership and organizational culture change. At the Air Force Academy he served for a decade as head of its Department of Behavioral Sciences and Leadership. He later served at the Academy as its Transformation Chair. In that capacity he worked with senior leaders across the Academy to help guide organizational transformation of the Academy in ways to ensure it is meeting its mission of producing leaders of character. He is a clinical psychologist and a graduate of the U.S. Air Force Academy. He has an MA from the University of Texas and a PhD from the University of Wyoming. Robert Ginnett is an independent consultant specializing in the leadership of highperformance teams and organizations. He has worked with hundreds of for-profit organizations as well as NASA, the Defense and Central Intelligence Agencies, the National Security Agency, and the United States Army, Navy, and Air Force. Prior to working independently, Robert was a senior fellow at the Center for Creative Leadership and a tenured professor at the U.S. Air Force Academy, where he also served as the director of leadership and counseling. Additionally, he served in numerous line and staff positions in the military, including leadership of an 875-man combat force and covert operations teams in the Vietnam War. He spent over 10 years working as a researcher for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, focusing his early work in aviation crew resource management, and later at the Kennedy Space Center in the post-Challenger period. Robert is an organizational psychologist whose education includes a master of business administration degree, a master of arts, a master of philosophy, and a PhD from Yale University. He now enjoys doing pro bono work with local fire and police departments and teaching leadership courses at the Gettysburg National Military Park. Gordy Curphy is a managing partner at Curphy Leadership Solutions and has been running his own consulting business since 2002. As a leadership consultant Gordy has worked with numerous Fortune 500 firms to deliver more than 2,500 executive assessments, 150 executive coaching programs, 200 team engagements, and 150 leadership training programs. He has also played a critical role in helping organizations formulate winning strategies, drive major change initiatives, and improve business results. Gordy has published numerous books and articles and presented extensively on such topics as business, community, school, military, and team leadership; the role of personality and intelligence in leadership; building high-performing teams; leading virtual teams; teams at the top; managerial incompetence; iii iv About the Authors followership; on-boarding; succession planning; and employee engagement. Prior to starting his own firm Gordy spent a year as the vice president of institutional leadership at the Blandin Foundation, eight years as a vice president and general manager at Personnel Decisions International, and six years as a professor at the U.S. Air Force Academy. He has a BS from the U.S. Air Force Academy and a PhD in industrial and organizational psychology from the University of Minnesota. Foreword The first edition of this popular, widely used textbook was published in 1993, and the authors have continually upgraded it with each new edition including this one. In a sense, no new foreword is needed; many principles of leadership are timeless. For example, references to Shakespeare and Machiavelli need no updating. However, the authors have refreshed examples and anecdotes, and they have kept up with the contemporary research and writing of leadership experts. Unfortunately, many of the reasons why leaders fail have also proved timeless. Flawed strategies, indecisiveness, arrogance, the naked pursuit of power, inept followers, the inability to build teams, and societal changes have resulted in corrupt governments, lost wars, failed businesses, repressive regimes around the globe, and sexual discrimination and/or harassment. These occurrences remind us that leadership can be used for selfless or selfish reasons, and it is up to those in charge to decide why they choose to lead. Such examples keep this book fresh and relevant; but the earlier foreword, reprinted here, still captures the tone, spirit, and achievements of these authors’ work. Often the only difference between chaos and a smoothly functioning operation is leadership; this book is about that difference. The authors are psychologists; therefore, the book has a distinctly psychological tone. You, as a reader, are going to be asked to think about leadership the way psychologists do. There is much here about psychological tests and surveys, about studies done in psychological laboratories, and about psychological analyses of good (and poor) leadership. You will often run across common psychological concepts in these pages, such as personality, values, attitudes, perceptions, and self-esteem, plus some not-so-common “jargon-y” phrases like double-loop learning, expectancy theory, and perceived inequity. This is not the same kind of book that would be written by coaches, sales managers, economists, political scientists, or generals. Be not dismayed. Because these authors are also teachers with a good eye and ear for what students find interesting, they write clearly and cleanly, and they have also included a host of entertaining, stimulating snapshots of leadership: quotes, anecdotal Highlights, and personal glimpses from a wide range of intriguing people, each offered as an illustration of some scholarly point. Also, because the authors are, or have been at one time or another, together or singly, not only psychologists and teachers but also children, students, Boy Scouts, parents, professors (at the U.S. Air Force Academy), Air Force officers, pilots, church members, athletes, administrators, insatiable readers, and convivial raconteurs, their stories and examples are drawn from a wide range of personal sources, and their anecdotes ring true. As psychologists and scholars, they have reviewed here a wide range of psychological studies, other scientific inquiries, personal reflections of leaders, and philosophic writings on the topic of leadership. In distilling this material, they have drawn many practical conclusions useful for current and potential leaders. There v vi Foreword are suggestions here for goal setting, for running meetings, for negotiating, for managing conflict within groups, and for handling your own personal stress, to mention just a few. All leaders, no matter what their age and station, can find some useful tips here, ranging over subjects such as body language, keeping a journal, and how to relax under tension. In several ways the authors have tried to help you, the reader, feel what it would be like “to be in charge.” For example, they have posed quandaries such as the following: You are in a leadership position with a budget provided by an outside funding source. You believe strongly in, say, Topic A, and have taken a strong, visible public stance on that topic. The head of your funding source takes you aside and says, “We disagree with your stance on Topic A. Please tone down your public statements, or we will have to take another look at your budget for next year.” What would you do? Quit? Speak up and lose your budget? Tone down your public statements and feel dishonest? There’s no easy answer, and it’s not an unusual situation for a leader to be in. Sooner or later, all leaders have to confront just how much outside interference they will tolerate in order to be able to carry out programs they believe in. The authors emphasize the value of experience in leadership development, a conclusion I thoroughly agree with. Virtually every leader who makes it to the top of whatever pyramid he or she happens to be climbing does so by building on earlier experiences. The successful leaders are those who learn from these earlier experiences, by reflecting on and analyzing them to help solve larger future challenges. In this vein, let me make a suggestion. Actually, let me assign you some homework. (I know, I know, this is a peculiar approach in a book foreword; but stay with me—I have a point.) Your Assignment: To gain some useful leadership experience, persuade eight people to do some notable activity together for at least two hours that they would not otherwise do without your intervention. Your only restriction is that you cannot tell them why you are doing this. It can be any eight people: friends, family, teammates, club members, neighbors, students, working colleagues. It can be any activity, except that it should be something more substantial than watching television, eating, going to a movie, or just sitting around talking. It could be a roller-skating party, an organized debate, a songfest, a long hike, a visit to a museum, or volunteer work such as picking up litter or visiting a nursing home. If you will take it upon yourself to make something happen in the world that would not have otherwise happened without you, you will be engaging in an act of leadership with all of its attendant barriers, burdens, and pleasures, and you will quickly learn the relevance of many of the topics that the authors discuss in this book. If you try the eight-person-two-hour experience first and read this book later, you will have a much better understanding of how complicated an act of leadership can be. You will learn about the difficulties of developing a vision (“Now that we are together, what are we going to do?”), of motivating others, of setting agendas and timetables, of securing resources, of the need for followthrough. You may even learn about “loneliness at the top.” However, if you are Foreword vii successful, you will also experience the thrill that comes from successful leadership. One person can make a difference by enriching the lives of others, if only for a few hours. And for all of the frustrations and complexities of leadership, the tingling satisfaction that comes from success can become almost addictive. The capacity for making things happen can become its own motivation. With an early success, even if it is only with eight people for two hours, you may well be on your way to a leadership future. The authors believe that leadership development involves reflecting on one’s own experiences. Reading this book in the context of your own leadership experience can aid in that process. Their book is comprehensive, scholarly, stimulating, entertaining, and relevant for anyone who wishes to better understand the dynamics of leadership, and to improve her or his own personal performance. David P. Campbell Psychologist/Author Preface Perhaps by the time they are fortunate enough to have completed eight editions of a textbook, it is a bit natural for authors to believe something like, “Well, now we’ve got it just about right . . . there couldn’t be too many changes for the next edition” (that is, this one). Of course, there are changes because this is a new edition. Some of the changes are rather general and pervasive in nature while others represent targeted changes in specific chapters of an otherwise successful text. The more general and pervasive changes are those things one would expect to find in the new edition of any textbook: the inclusion of recent research findings across all chapters as well as extensive rework in the vast majority of chapters of the very popular Highlights. The latter work involved the addition of numerous new Highlights as well as the elimination of those that had become dated and/or less central to the material in their respective chapters. Examples of the new Highlights include bullying bosses, gender stereotyping, and possible evolutionary roots to the pull toward greater organizational transparency. There are also many new Profiles in Leadership covering leaders as diverse as Sheikh Zayed, founder of the United Arab Emirates; Stan Lee, who was the creative genius behind Marvel Comics; and Lin-Manuel Miranda, whose musical Hamilton became a Broadway phenomenon. The most significant structural change to the book involved changes to the 8th edition’s Chapter 9 (“Motivation, Satisfaction and Performance”). In order to better address the extensive academic literature in those broad areas we divided the material into two chapters. In this 9th edition, Chapter 9 is now titled “Motivation, Performance and Effectiveness;” it includes the five motivational theories from before along with a detailed description of the performance management cycle (planning, monitoring, and evaluating performance) as well as common ways to measure team and organizational effectiveness. Chapter 10 is a new chapter entitled “Satisfaction, Engagement, and Potential.” It includes substantially enhanced content on engagement as well as a detailed discussion on potential, including readiness and succession planning. And while all the chapters were revised in several ways, two other chapters saw relatively greater change. Chapter 6 has substantially more content on the subject of emotional intelligence as well as more extensive treatment of strength based leadership and neuroleadership. Chapter 12 includes expanded treatment of organizational culture types. And as noted above, all chapters include updates on relevant research and changes in Highlights and Profiles in Leadership. As always, we are indebted to the superb editorial staff at McGraw-Hill Education including Laura Hurst Spell, associate portfolio manager; Rick Hecker, content project manager; and Tracy Jensen, freelance development editor. They all have been wise, supportive, helpful, and pleasant partners in this process, and it has been our good fortune to know and work with such a professional team. We are viii Preface ix grateful for the scholarly and insightful perspectives of the following scholars who provided helpful feedback on particular portions of the text: Patricia Ann Castelli Lawrence Technological University Gerald J Herbison The American College Gary Corona Florida State College at Jacksonville Rajnandini Pillai California State University San Marcos Nathaniel Vargas Gallegos Chadron State College Benjamin Redekop Christopher Newport University Once again we dedicate this book to the leaders of the past from whom we have learned, the leaders of today whose behaviors and actions shape our ever-changing world, and the leaders of tomorrow whom we hope will benefit from the lessons in this book as they face the challenges of change and globalization in an increasingly interconnected world. Richard L. Hughes Robert C. Ginnett Gordon J. Curphy Brief Contents PART ONE: Chapter 10: Leadership Is a Process, Not a Position 1  atisfaction, Engagement, S and Potential 390 Chapter 11:  roups, Teams, and Their G Leadership 423 Chapter 1: What Do We Mean by Leadership? 2 Chapter 2: Leader Development Chapter 3:  kills for Developing S Yourself as a Leader 82 40 PART TWO: Focus on the Leader 109 Chapter 4: Power and Influence Chapter 7: Leadership Behavior 176 245 Chapter 8: Skills for Building Personal Credibility and Influencing Others 284 PART THREE: Focus on the Followers Chapter 9: x PART FOUR: Focus on the Situation 321  otivation, Performance, M and Effectiveness 335 505 Chapter 13: The Situation Chapter 14: Contingency Theories of Leadership 546 Chapter 15:  eadership and L Change 580 Chapter 16:  he Dark Side of T Leadership 636 110 Chapter 5: Values, Ethics, and Character 143 Chapter 6: Leadership Attributes Chapter 12: Skills for Developing Others 470 507 Chapter 17: Skills for Optimizing Leadership as Situations Change 694 Contents Preface viii Reflection and Leadership Development Single- and Double-Loop Learning PART ONE Leadership Is a Process, Not a Position Chapter 1 What Do We Mean by Leadership? Introduction 2 What Is Leadership? 1 2 3 Leadership Myths 12 Myth: Good Leadership Is All Common Sense 12 Myth: Leaders Are Born, Not Made 13 Myth: The Only School You Learn Leadership from Is the School of Hard Knocks 14 The Interactional Framework for Analyzing Leadership 15 The Leader 16 The Followers 17 The Situation 22 Illustrating the Interactional Framework: Women in Leadership Roles 24 There Is No Simple Recipe for Effective Leadership 30 Summary 32 Chapter 2 Leader Development 40 Introduction 40 The Action–Observation–Reflection Model The Key Role of Perception in the Spiral of Experience 45 Perception and Observation 45 Perception and Reflection 47 Perception and Action 48 Making the Most of Your Leadership Experiences: Learning to Learn from Experience 54 Leader Development in College 57 Leader Development in Organizational Settings Action Learning 64 Development Planning 65 Coaching 67 Mentoring 69 Building Your Own Leadership Self-Image Summary 74 Leadership Is Both a Science and an Art 6 Leadership Is Both Rational and Emotional 7 Leadership and Management 9 59 72 Chapter 3 Skills for Developing Yourself as a Leader 82 Introduction 82 Your First 90 Days as a Leader 83 Before You Start: Do Your Homework 83 The First Day: You Get Only One Chance to Make a First Impression 84 The First Two Weeks: Lay the Foundation 85 The First Two Months: Strategy, Structure, and Staffing 87 The Third Month: Communicate and Drive Change Learning from Experience 88 89 Creating Opportunities to Get Feedback Taking a 10 Percent Stretch 89 Learning from Others 90 Keeping a Journal 90 Having a Developmental Plan 92 Building Technical Competence 42 49 53 89 92 Determining How the Job Contributes to the Overall Mission 93 Becoming an Expert in the Job 94 Seeking Opportunities to Broaden Experiences 94 Building Effective Relationships with Superiors 95 Understanding the Superior’s World 96 Adapting to the Superior’s Style 96 xi xii Contents Building Effective Relationships with Peers 97 Recognizing Common Interests and Goals 98 Understanding Peers’ Tasks, Problems, and Rewards 98 Practicing a Theory Y Attitude 99 Development Planning 99 Conducting a GAPS Analysis 100 Identifying and Prioritizing Development Needs: Gaps of GAPS 102 Bridging the Gaps: Building a Development Plan 103 Reflecting on Learning: Modifying Development Plans 105 Transferring Learning to New Environments 105 Authentic Leadership 158 Servant Leadership 159 The Roles of Ethics and Values in Organizational Leadership 162 Leading by Example: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly 163 Creating and Sustaining an Ethical Climate 165 Summary 168 Chapter 6 Leadership Attributes 176 Introduction 176 Personality Traits and Leadership 177 PART TWO What Is Personality? 177 The Five Factor or OCEAN Model of Personality Implications of the Five Factor or OCEAN Model 186 Focus on the Leader 109 Chapter 4 Power and Influence 110 181 Personality Types and Leadership 190 The Differences between Traits and Types 190 Psychological Preferences as a Personality Typology 190 Implications of Preferences and Types 193 Introduction 110 Some Important Distinctions 110 Power and Leadership 114 Sources of Leader Power 114 A Taxonomy of Social Power 117 Expert Power 118 Referent Power 118 Legitimate Power 119 Reward Power 120 Coercive Power 121 Concluding Thoughts about French and Raven’s Power Taxonomy 124 Leader Motives 126 Influence Tactics 129 Types of Influence Tactics 129 Influence Tactics and Power 130 A Concluding Thought about Influence Tactics Character-Based Approaches to Leadership 157 134 Summary 136 Chapter 5 Values, Ethics, and Character 143 Introduction 143 Leadership and “Doing the Right Things” 143 Values 145 Moral Reasoning and Character-Based Leadership 148 Intelligence and Leadership 199 What Is Intelligence? 199 The Triarchic Theory of Intelligence 200 Implications of the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence 205 Intelligence and Stress: Cognitive Resources Theory 210 Emotional Intelligence and Leadership 213 What Is Emotional Intelligence? 213 Can Emotional Intelligence Be Measured and Developed? 216 Implications of Emotional Intelligence 218 Summary 222 Chapter 7 Leadership Behavior 245 Introduction 245 Studies of Leadership Behavior Why Study Leadership Behavior? The Early Studies 248 The Leadership Grid 251 Competency Models 255 The Leadership Pipeline 259 Community Leadership 264 246 246 Contents xiii Assessing Leadership Behaviors: Multirater Feedback Instruments 266 Summary 274 Keep Things in Perspective The A-B-C Model 309 Problem Solving 284 The Two Components of Credibility Building Expertise 285 Building Trust 286 Expertise × Trust 288 Communication Improving Creativity 285 315 Seeing Things in New Ways 315 Using Power Constructively 315 Forming Diverse Problem-Solving Groups 292 294 Demonstrate Nonverbally That You Are Listening 295 Actively Interpret the Sender’s Message 295 Attend to the Sender’s Nonverbal Behavior 296 Avoid Becoming Defensive 297 Assertiveness 314 316 290 Know What Your Purpose Is 292 Choose an Appropriate Context and Medium Send Clear Signals 293 Actively Ensure That Others Understand the Message 294 Listening 310 Identifying Problems or Opportunities for Improvement 311 Analyzing the Causes 312 Developing Alternative Solutions 312 Selecting and Implementing the Best Solution Assessing the Impact of the Solution 314 Chapter 8 Skills for Building Personal Credibility and Influencing Others 284 Building Credibility 309 297 Use “I” Statements 300 Speak Up for What You Need 301 Learn to Say No 301 Monitor Your Inner Dialogue 301 Be Persistent 301 Conducting Meetings 302 Determine Whether It Is Necessary 302 List the Objectives 303 Stick to the Agenda 303 Provide Pertinent Materials in Advance 303 Make It Convenient 303 Encourage Participation 303 Keep a Record 304 Effective Stress Management 304 Monitor Your Own and Your Followers’ Stress Levels 307 Identify What Is Causing the Stress 307 Practice a Healthy Lifestyle 308 Learn How to Relax 308 Develop Supportive Relationships 308 PART THREE Focus on the Followers 321 The Potter and Rosenbach Followership Model 324 The Curphy and Roellig Followership Model 327 Chapter 9 Motivation, Performance, and Effectiveness 335 Introduction 335 Defining Motivation, Satisfaction, Engagement, Performance, and Effectiveness 336 Understanding and Influencing Follower Motivation 343 Motives: How Do Needs Affect Motivation? 345 Achievement Orientation: How Does Personality Affect Motivation? 348 Goal Setting: How Do Clear Performance Targets Affect Motivation? 353 The Operant Approach: How Do Rewards and Punishment Affect Motivation? 355 Empowerment: How Does Decision-Making Latitude Affect Motivation? 361 Understanding and Managing Follower Performance and Team and Organizational Effectiveness 365 The Performance Management Cycle: Planning 369 The Performance Management Cycle: Monitoring 370 The Performance Management Cycle: Evaluating 371 Summary 375 xiv Contents On the Horizon 462 Summary 463 Chapter 10 Satisfaction, Engagement, and Potential 390 Chapter 12 Skills for Developing Others Introduction 390 Understanding and Influencing Follower Satisfaction 391 Global, Facet, and Life Satisfaction 395 Two Theories of Job Satisfaction 399 Organizational Justice: Does Fairness Matter? 399 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory: Does Meaningful Work Make People Happy? 401 Understanding and Improving Employee Engagement 404 Understanding Follower Potential 407 Summary 414 Group Size 427 Developmental Stages of Groups Group Roles 430 Group Norms 433 Group Cohesion 435 424 429 Effective Team Characteristics and Team Building 438 Team Leadership Model 445 Outputs 446 Process 447 Inputs 449 Leadership Prescriptions of the Model 449 Creation 449 Dream 450 Design 451 Development 451 Diagnosis and Leverage Points 452 Concluding Thoughts about the Team Leadership Model 456 458 Goals Should Be Specific and Observable 471 Goals Should Be Attainable but Challenging 471 Goals Require Commitment 472 Goals Require Feedback 473 Providing Constructive Feedback Team Building for Work Teams Teams 438 Virtual Teams Introduction 470 Setting Goals 470 473 Make It Helpful 475 Be Specific 476 Be Descriptive 476 Be Timely 477 Be Flexible 477 Give Positive as Well as Negative Feedback Avoid Blame or Embarrassment 478 Chapter 11 Groups, Teams, and Their Leadership 423 Introduction 423 Individuals versus Groups versus Teams The Nature of Groups 426 470 478 478 Team-Building Interventions 478 What Does a Team-Building Workshop Involve? Examples of Interventions 481 480 Building High-Performing Teams: The Rocket Model 482 Context: What Is the Situation? 482 Mission: What Are We Trying to Accomplish? 484 Talent: Who Is on the Bus? 484 Norms: What Are the Rules? 485 Buy-In: Is Everyone Committed and Engaged? 486 Power: Do We Have Enough Resources? 486 Morale: Can’t We All Just Get Along? 487 Results: Are We Winning? 488 Implications of the Rocket Model 488 Delegating 490 Why Delegating Is Important 491 Delegation Frees Time for Other Activities 491 Delegation Develops Followers 491 Delegation Strengthens the Organization 491 Common Reasons for Avoiding Delegation 492 Delegation Takes Too Much Time 492 Delegation Is Risky 492 The Job Will Not Be Done as Well 492 The Task Is a Desirable One 492 Others Are Already Too Busy 493 Contents xv Principles of Effective Delegation 493 Decide What to Delegate 493 Decide Whom to Delegate To 493 Make the Assignment Clear and Specific 493 Assign an Objective, Not a Procedure 494 Allow Autonomy, but Monitor Performance 494 Give Credit, Not Blame 494 Coaching 495 Forging a Partnership 496 Inspiring Commitment: Conducting a GAPS Analysis 497 Growing Skills: Creating Development and Coaching Plans 498 Promoting Persistence: Helping Followers Stick to Their Plans 498 Transferring Skills: Creating a Learning Environment 500 Concluding Comments 500 Chapter 13 The Situation 505 507 516 From the Industrial Age to the Information Age The Formal Organization 517 The Informal Organization: Organizational Culture 520 A Theory of Organizational Culture 524 An Afterthought on Organizational Issues for Students and Young Leaders 527 516 549 Levels of Participation 550 Decision Quality and Acceptance 550 The Decision Tree 552 Concluding Thoughts about the Normative Decision Model 554 The Situational Leadership® Model 556 Leader Behaviors 556 Follower Readiness 557 Prescriptions of the Model 558 Concluding Thoughts about the Situational Leadership Model 559 The Contingency Model 560 567 Summary 573 Chapter 15 Leadership and Change 580 Introduction 580 The Rational Approach to Organizational Change 583 527 Are Things Changing More Than They Used To? Leading across Societal Cultures 532 What Is Societal Culture? 535 The GLOBE Study 535 Implications for Leadership Practitioners Summary 539 The Normative Decision Model 547 549 Leader Behaviors 567 The Followers 568 The Situation 570 Prescriptions of the Theory 571 Concluding Thoughts about the Path–Goal Theory 572 How Tasks Vary, and What That Means for Leadership 512 Problems and Challenges 514 The Environment Concluding Thoughts about the LMX Model The Path–Goal Theory Introduction 507 The Task 512 The Organization Introduction 546 Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) Theory 546 The Least Preferred Co-worker Scale 561 Situational Favorability 562 Prescriptions of the Model 564 Concluding Thoughts about the Contingency Model 566 PART FOUR Focus on the Situation Chapter 14 Contingency Theories of Leadership 528 539 Dissatisfaction 584 Model 584 Process 588 Resistance 591 Concluding Thoughts about the Rational Approach to Organizational Change 594 xvi Contents The Emotional Approach to Organizational Change: Charismatic and Transformational Leadership 597 Charismatic Leadership: A Historical Review 597 What Are the Common Characteristics of Charismatic and Transformational Leadership? 603 Leader Characteristics 604 Vision 605 Rhetorical Skills 605 Image and Trust Building 606 Personalized Leadership 607 Follower Characteristics 608 Identification with the Leader and the Vision 608 Heightened Emotional Levels 608 Willing Subordination to the Leader 609 Feelings of Empowerment 609 Situational Characteristics 611 Crises 611 Social Networks 612 Other Situational Characteristics 612 Concluding Thoughts about the Characteristics of Charismatic and Transformational Leadership 613 Bass’s Theory of Transformational and Transactional Leadership 615 Research Results of Transformational and Transactional Leadership 616 Summary Summary 681 Chapter 17 Skills for Optimizing Leadership as Situations Change 694 Introduction 694 Creating a Compelling Vision 694 Ideas: The Future Picture 695 Expectations: Values and Performance Standards 696 Emotional Energy: The Power and the Passion 697 Edge: Stories, Analogies, and Metaphors 697 Managing Conflict 698 What Is Conflict? 699 Is Conflict Always Bad? 699 Conflict Resolution Strategies 700 Negotiation 704 Prepare for the Negotiation 704 Separate the People from the Problem 704 Focus on Interests, Not Positions 704 619 Chapter 16 The Dark Side of Leadership Poor Followership: Fire Me, Please 669 Dark-Side Personality Traits: Personality as a Method of Birth Control 672 Leadership Motivation: Get Promoted or Be Effective? 677 Leadership b.s.: Myths That Perpetuate Managerial Incompetence 679 636 Introduction 636 Destructive Leadership 639 Managerial Incompetence 644 Managerial Derailment 649 The Ten Root Causes of Managerial Incompetence and Derailment 657 Stuff Happens: Situational and Follower Factors in Managerial Derailment 659 The Lack of Organizational Fit: Stranger in a Strange Land 661 More Clues for the Clueless: Lack of Situational and Self-Awareness 664 Lack of Intelligence and Expertise: Real Men of Genius 666 Diagnosing Performance Problems in Individuals, Groups, and Organizations 705 Expectations 706 Capabilities 706 Opportunities 706 Motivation 707 Concluding Comments on the Diagnostic Model Team Building at the Top 707 Executive Teams Are Different 707 Applying Individual Skills and Team Skills Tripwire Lessons 709 Punishment 708 712 Myths Surrounding the Use of Punishment 712 Punishment, Satisfaction, and Performance 713 Administering Punishment 715 Index 721 707 Part Leadership Is a Process, Not a Position 1 Leader Followers Leadership Situation If any single idea is central to this book, it is that leadership is a process, not a position. The entire first part of this book explores that idea. One is not a leader—except perhaps in name only—merely because one holds a title or position. Leadership involves something happening as a result of the interaction between a leader and followers. In Chapter 1 we define leadership and explore its relationship to concepts such as management and followership, and we also introduce the interactional framework. The interactional framework is based on the idea that leadership involves complex interactions between the leader, the followers, and the situations they are in. That framework provides the organizing principle for the rest of the book. Chapter 2 looks at how we can become better leaders by profiting more fully from our experiences, which is not to say that either the study or the practice of leadership is simple. Part 1 concludes with a chapter focusing on basic leadership skills. There also will be a corresponding skills chapter at the conclusion of each of the other three parts in this book. Chapter 1 What Do We Mean by Leadership? Introduction It is old news now that in the last presidential election most of the country was dismayed with the candidates of the two major political parties. “Can’t we do better than this?” was a question on the minds of many millions of Americans. In fact, however, our collective dismay about the quality of our leaders is not limited to particular presidential candidates—it is pervasive. According to a poll by the Center for Public Leadership at Harvard Kennedy School, 70 percent of Americans believe our country is in desperate need of better leaders and faces national decline unless something changes.1 And a 2013 Harris Poll showed that the percentage of people expressing even some confidence in governmental, corporate, and financial leadership has plummeted from about 90 percent to 60 percent since 1996.2 Yet we also sometimes see stories of extraordinary leadership by otherwise ordinary people. In the spring of 1972, an airplane flew across the Andes mountains carrying its crew and 40 passengers. Most of the passengers were members of an amateur ­Uruguayan rugby team en route to a game in Chile. The plane never arrived. It crashed in snow-covered mountains, breaking into several pieces on impact. The main part of the fuselage slid like a toboggan down a steep valley, coming to rest in waist-deep snow. Although a number of people died immediately or within a day of the impact, the picture for the 28 survivors was not much better. The fuselage offered little protection from the extreme cold, food supplies were scant, and a number of passengers had serious injuries from the crash. Over the next few days, several surviving passengers became psychotic and several others died from their injuries. The passengers who were relatively uninjured set out to do what they could to improve their chances of survival. Several worked on “weatherproofing” the wreckage; others found ways to get water; and those with medical training took care of the injured. Although shaken by the crash, the survivors initially were confident they would be found. These feelings gradually gave way to despair as search and rescue teams failed to find the wreckage. With the passing of several weeks and no sign of rescue in sight, the remaining passengers decided to mount expeditions to determine the best way to 2 Chapter 1 What Do We Mean by Leadership? 3 Lives of great men all remind us We can make our lives sublime And, departing, leave behind us Footprints on the sands of time. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, American poet escape. The most physically fit were chosen to go on the expeditions because the thin mountain air and the deep snow made the trips difficult. The results of the trips were both frustrating and demoralizing: The expedition members determined they were in the middle of the Andes mountains, and walking out to find help was believed to be impossible. Just when the survivors thought nothing worse could possibly happen, an avalanche hit the wreckage and killed several more of them. The remaining survivors concluded they would not be rescued, and their only hope was for someone to leave the wreckage and find help. Three of the fittest passengers were chosen for the final expedition, and everyone else’s work was directed toward improving the expedition’s chances of success. The three expedition members were given more food and were exempted from routine survival activities; the rest spent most of their energies securing supplies for the trip. Two months after the plane crash, the expedition members set out on their final attempt to find help. After hiking for 10 days through some of the most rugged terrain in the world, the expedition stumbled across a group of Chilean peasants tending cattle. One of the expedition members stated, “I come from a plane that fell in the mountains. I am Uruguayan . . .” Eventually 14 other survivors were rescued. When the full account of their survival became known, it was not without controversy. It had required extreme and unsettling measures: The survivors had lived only by eating the flesh of their deceased comrades. Nonetheless, their story is one of the most moving survival dramas of all time, magnificently told by Piers Paul Read in Alive.3 It is a story of tragedy and courage, and it is a story of leadership. Perhaps a story of survival in the Andes is so far removed from everyday experience that it does not seem to hold any relevant lessons about leadership for you personally. But consider some of the basic issues the Andes survivors faced: tension between individual and group goals, dealing with the different needs and personalities of group members, and keeping hope alive in the face of adversity. These issues are not so different from those facing many groups we’re a part of. We can also look at the Andes experience for examples of the emergence of informal leaders in groups. Before the flight, a young man named Parrado was awkward and shy, a “second-stringer” both athletically and socially. Nonetheless, this unlikely hero became the best loved and most respected among the survivors for his courage, optimism, fairness, and emotional support. Persuasiveness in group decision making also was an important part of leadership among the Andes survivors. During the difficult discussions preceding the agonizing decision to survive on the flesh of their deceased comrades, one of the rugby players made his reasoning clear: “I know that if my dead body could help you stay alive, then I would want you to use it. In fact, if I do die and you don’t eat me, then I’ll come back from wherever I am and give you a good kick in the ass.”4 What Is Leadership? The Andes story and the experiences of many other leaders we’ll introduce to you in a series of profiles sprinkled throughout the chapters provide numerous examples of leadership. But just what is leadership? People who do research on 4 Part One Leadership Is a Process, Not a Position The halls of fame are open wide and they are always full. Some go in by the door called “push” and some by the door called “pull.” Stanley Baldwin, British prime minister in the 1930s Remember the difference between a boss and a leader: a boss says, “Go!”—a leader says, “Let’s go!” E. M. Kelly l­eadership disagree more than you might think about what leadership really is. Most of this disagreement stems from the fact that leadership is a complex phenomenon involving the leader, the followers, and the situation. Some leadership researchers have focused on the personality, physical traits, or behaviors of the leader; others have studied the relationships between leaders and followers; still others have studied how aspects of the situation affect how leaders act. Some have extended the latter viewpoint so far as to suggest there is no such thing as leadership; they argue that organizational successes and failures are often falsely attributed to the leader, but the situation may have a much greater impact on how the organization functions than does any individual, including the leader.5 Perhaps the best way for you to begin to understand the complexities of leadership is to see some of the ways leadership has been defined. Leadership researchers have defined leadership in many different ways: • The process by which an agent induces a subordinate to behave in a desired • • • • • • • manner.6 Directing and coordinating the work of group members.7 An interpersonal relation in which others comply because they want to, not because they have to.8 The process of influencing an organized group toward accomplishing its goals.9 Actions that focus resources to create desirable opportunities.10 Creating conditions for a team to be effective.11 The ability to engage employees, the ability to build teams, and the ability to achieve results; the first two represent the how and the latter the what of leadership.12 A complex form of social problem solving.13 As you can see, definitions of leadership differ in many ways, and these differences have resulted in various researchers exploring disparate aspects of leadership. For example, if we were to apply these definitions to the Andes survival scenario described earlier, some researchers would focus on the behaviors Parrado used to keep up the morale of the survivors. Researchers who define leadership as influencing an organized group toward accomplishing its goals would examine how Parrado managed to convince the group to stage and support the final expedition. One’s definition of leadership might also influence just who is considered an appropriate leader for study. Thus each group of researchers might focus on a different aspect of leadership, and each would tell a different story regarding the leader, the followers, and the situation. Although having many leadership definitions may seem confusing, it is important to understand that there is no single correct definition. The various definitions can help us appreciate the multitude of factors that affect leadership, as well as different perspectives from which to view it. For example, in the first definition just listed, the word subordinate seems to confine leadership to downward influence in hierarchical relationships; it seems to exclude informal leadership. The second definition emphasizes the directing and coordinating aspects of leadership, Chapter 1 What Do We Mean by Leadership? 5 “Future generations will be living in a world that is very different from that to which we are accustomed. It is essential that we prepare ourselves and our children for that new world.” Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan and thereby may deemphasize emotional aspects of leadership. The emphasis placed in the third definition on subordinates’ “wanting to” comply with a leader’s wishes seems to exclude any kind of coercion as a leadership tool. Further, it becomes problematic to identify ways in which a leader’s actions are really leadership if subordinates voluntarily comply when a leader with considerable potential coercive power merely asks others to do something without explicitly threatening them. Similarly, a key reason behind using the phrase desirable opportunities in one of the definitions was precisely to distinguish between leadership and tyranny. And partly because there are many different definitions of leadership, there is also a wide range of individuals we consider leaders. In addition to the stories about leaders and leadership that we sprinkle throughout this book, we highlight several in each chapter in a series of Profiles in Leadership. The first of these is Profiles in Leadership 1.1, which highlights Sheikh Zayed, the founder of the United Arab Emirates. Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan PROFILES IN LEADERSHIP 1.1 Sheikh Zayed founded the United Arab Emirates (UAE) in 1971 and led it through arguably the world’s greatest national transformation of the past ­100 years. When he was born in 1918 the area was a desert dominated by warring Arab tribes, and its economy was based largely on fishing and pearldiving. But consider the UAE today: • • • The city of Dubai is one of the safest cities in the world, its airport is the busiest international airport in the world, and a new skyscraper is built every day. One of those buildings, the Burj Khalifa, is the tallest building in the world, and the Dubai Mall is the largest shopping center in the world. Women hold leadership roles throughout society including in business, government, and the military. Religious openness is evident in the major cities with Muslim mosques, Christian churches, Hindu temples, and even Jewish synagogues found throughout the major cities. It is the first country in the Arab region to enact a comprehensive law combating human trafficking. So how did Zayed launch this amazing transformation? The story begins with the early life of the man himself. As a boy and young man, he traveled extensively throughout the region living alongside Bedouin tribesmen, learning about their way of life in the desert. That same thirst for learning prompted him to conduct extensive research into the ancient history of the region, leading to his discovery that 15,000 years ago the Arabian peninsula was originally covered by thick forests and only later transformed into a desert. But those ancient forests— transformed through eons into oil—still lay under the desert sand. He committed himself to returning the region to greenness. One element of that quest became the planting of trees, and now more than a million trees are growing within the UAE. He established experimental agricultural stations across the country. He initiated projects of water distribution, conservation, and desalination. And he believed that the real resource of any nation is its people, and committed his considerable wealth, energy, and talents to make education for all citizens— men and women—a top national priority. The list of his transformations goes on: health care, wildlife conservation, and job rights, to name just a few. This was a man who transformed a desert into a modern, thriving region still affirming the moderate Islamic values that his entire life embodied. 6 Part One Leadership Is a Process, Not a Position Mindful of the Profiles in Leadership running throughout the book, you might wonder (as we do) about just what kind of leaders ought to be profiled in these pages. Should we use illustrations featuring leaders who rose to the top in their respective organizations? Should we use illustrations featuring leaders who contributed significantly to enhancing the effectiveness of their organizations? We suspect you answered yes to both questions. But there’s the rub. You see, leaders who rise to the top in their organizations are not always the same as those who help make their organizations more effective. As it turns out, successful managers (i.e., those promoted quickly through the ranks) spend relatively more time than others in organizational socializing and politicking; and they spend relatively less time than the latter on traditional management responsibilities like planning and decision making. Truly effective managers, however, make real contributions to their organization’s performance.14 This distinction is a critical one, even if quite thorny to untangle in leadership research. A recent 10-year study of what separated the “best of the best” executives from all the rest in their organizations offers some valuable insights even for people at the very beginning of their careers (and this study was studying real effectiveness, not just success-at-schmoozing, as described in the preceding paragraph). These “best of the best” executives demonstrated expertise and across their careers excelled across all facets of their organization’s functions—they knew the whole business, not just a piece of it. And they also knew and cared about the people they worked with. These top-performing leaders formed deep and trusting relationships with others, including superiors, peers, and direct reports. They’re the kind of people others want working for them, and the kind others want to work for. By the way, relational failure with colleagues proved to be the quickest route to failure among the second-best executives.15 All considered, we find that defining leadership as “the process of influencing an organized group toward accomplishing its goals” is fairly comprehensive and helpful. Several implications of this definition are worth further examination. Leadership Is Both a Science and an Art Saying leadership is both a science and an art emphasizes the subject of leadership as a field of scholarly inquiry, as well as certain aspects of the practice of leadership. The scope of the science of leadership is reflected in the number of studies— approximately 8,000—cited in an authoritative reference work, Bass & Stogdill’s Handbook of Leadership: Theory, Research, and Managerial Applications.16 A review of leadership theory and research over the past 25 years notes the expanding breadth and complexity of scholarly thought about leadership in the preceding quarter century. For example, leadership involves dozens of different theoretical domains and a wide variety of methods for studying it.17 However, being an expert on leadership research is neither necessary nor sufficient for being a good leader. Some managers may be effective leaders without ever having taken a course or training program in leadership, and some scholars in the field of leadership may be relatively poor leaders themselves. What’s more, new academic models of leadership consider the “locus” of leadership (where Chapter 1 What Do We Mean by Leadership? 7 Any fool can keep a rule. God gave him a brain to know when to break the rule. General Willard W. Scott A democracy cannot follow a leader unless he is dramatized. A man to be a hero must not content himself with heroic virtues and anonymous action. He must talk and explain as he acts—drama. William Allen White, American writer and editor, Emporia Gazette l­eadership emanates from) as not just coming from an individual leader (whether holding a formal position or not, as we’ll explore later in this chapter) but also as emanating alternatively from groups or even from an entire organization.18 Nonetheless, knowing something about leadership research is relevant to leadership effectiveness. Scholarship may not be a prerequisite for leadership effectiveness, but understanding some of the major research findings can help individuals better analyze situations using a variety of perspectives. That, in turn, can tell leaders how to be more effective. Even so, because skills in analyzing and responding to situations vary greatly across leaders, leadership will always remain partly an art as well as a science. Highlight 1.1 raises the question of whether leadership should be considered a true science or not. Leadership Is Both Rational and Emotional Leadership involves both the rational and emotional sides of human experience. Leadership includes actions and influences based on reason and logic as well as those based on inspiration and passion. We do not want to cultivate merely intellectualized leaders who respond with only logical predictability. Because people differ in their thoughts and feelings, hopes and dreams, needs and fears, goals and ambitions, and strengths and weaknesses, leadership situations can be complex. People are both rational and emotional, so leaders can use rational techniques and emotional appeals to influence followers, but they must also weigh the rational and emotional consequences of their actions. Is the Study of Leadership a “Real” Science? HIGHLIGHT 1.1 In this chapter we posit that leadership is both a science and an art. Most people, we think, accept the idea that some element of leadership is an art in the sense that it can’t be completely prescribed or routinized into a set of rules to follow, that there is an inherent personal element to leadership. Perhaps even because of that, many people are skeptical about the idea that the study of leadership can be a “real” science like physics and chemistry. Even when acknowledging that thousands of empirical studies of leadership have been published, many still resist the idea that it is in any way analogous to the “hard” sciences. It might interest you to know, then, that a lively debate is ongoing today among leadership scholars about whether leadership ought to model itself after physics. And the debate is about more than “physics envy.” The debate is reminiscent of the early twentieth century, when some of the great minds in psychology proposed that psychological theory should be based on formal and explicit mathematical models rather than armchair speculation. Today’s debate about the field of leadership looks at the phenomena from a systems perspective and revolves around the extent to which there may be fundamental similarities between leadership and thermodynamics. So are you willing to consider the possibility that the dynamics governing molecular bonding can also explain how human beings organize themselves to accomplish a shared objective? Source: R. B. Kaiser, “Beyond Physics Envy? An Introduc- tion to the Special Issue,” Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice & Research 66 (2014), pp. 259–60. 8 Part One Leadership Is a Process, Not a Position A full appreciation of leadership involves looking at both of these sides of human nature. Good leadership is more than just calculation and planning, or following a checklist, even though rational analysis can enhance good leadership. Good leadership also involves touching others’ feelings; emotions play an important role in leadership, too. Just one example of this is the civil rights movement of the 1960s, which was based on emotions as well as on principles. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. inspired many people to action; he touched people’s hearts as well as their minds. Aroused feelings, however, can be used either positively or negatively, constructively or destructively. Some leaders have been able to inspire others to deeds of great purpose and courage. By contrast, as images of Adolf Hitler’s mass rallies or present-day angry mobs attest, group frenzy can readily become group mindlessness. As another example, emotional appeals by the Reverend Jim Jones resulted in approximately 800 of his followers volitionally committing suicide. The mere presence of a group (even without heightened emotional levels) can also cause people to act differently than when they are alone. For example, in airline cockpit crews, there are clear lines of authority from the captain down to the first officer (second in command) and so on. So strong are the norms surrounding the authority of the captain that some first officers will not take control of the airplane from the captain even in the event of impending disaster. Foushee reported a study wherein airline captains in simulator training intentionally feigned incapacitation so that the response of the rest of the crew could be observed.19 The feigned incapacitations occurred at a predetermined point during the plane’s final approach in landing, and the simulation involved conditions of poor weather and visibility. Approximately 25 percent of the first officers in these simulated flights allowed the plane to crash. For some reason, the first officers did not take control even when it was clear the captain was allowing the aircraft to deviate from the parameters of a safe approach. This example demonstrates how group dynamics can influence the behavior of group members even when emotional levels are not high. (Believe it or not, airline crews are so well trained that this is not an emotional situation.) In sum, it should be apparent that leadership involves followers’ feelings and nonrational behavior as well as rational behavior. Leaders need to consider both the rational and the emotional consequences of their actions. In fact, some scholars have suggested that the very idea of leadership may be rooted in our emotional needs. Belief in the potency of leadership, however—what has been called the romance of leadership—may be a cultural myth that has utility primarily insofar as it affects how people create meaning about causal events in complex social systems. Such a myth, for example, may be operating in the tendency of many people in the business world to automatically attribute a company’s success or failure to its leadership. Rather than being a casual factor in a company’s success, however, it might be the case that “leadership” is merely a romanticized notion—an obsession people want to and need to believe in.20 Related to this may be a tendency to attribute a leader's success primarily if not entirely to that person's unique individual qualities. That idea is further explored in Profiles in Leadership 1.2. Chapter 1 What Do We Mean by Leadership? 9 Bill Gates’s Head Start PROFILES IN LEADERSHIP 1.2 Belief in an individual’s potential to overcome great odds and achieve success through talent, strength, and perseverance is common in America, but usually there is more than meets the eye in such success stories. Malcolm Gladwell’s best seller Outliers presents a fascinating exploration of how situational factors contribute to success in addition to the kinds of individual qualities we often assume are allimportant. Have you ever thought, for example, that Bill Gates was able to create Microsoft because he’s just brilliant and visionary? Well, let’s take for granted he is brilliant and ­visionary—there’s plenty of evidence of that. The point here, however, is that’s not always enough (and maybe it’s never enough). Here are some of the things that placed Bill Gates, with all his intelligence and vision, at the right time in the right place: • • • • ­ ortunately, at about the same time, a group called F the Computer Center Corporation was formed at the University of Washington to lease computer time. One of its founders, coincidentally a parent at Gates’s own school, thought the school’s computer club could get time on the computer in exchange for testing the company’s new software programs. Gates then started a regular schedule of taking the bus after school to the company’s offices, where he programmed long into the evening. During one seven-month period, Gates and his fellow computer club members averaged eight hours a day, seven days a week, of computer time. When Gates was a high school senior, another extraordinary opportunity presented itself. A major national company (TRW) needed programmers with specialized experience—exactly, as it turned out, the kind of experience the kids at Gates’s school had been getting. Gates successfully lobbied his teachers to let him spend a spring doing this work in another part of the state for independent study credit. Gates was born to a wealthy family in Seattle that placed him in a private school for seventh grade. In 1968, his second year there, the school started a computer club—even before most colleges had computer clubs. • In the 1960s virtually everyone who was learning about computers used computer cards, a tedious and mind-numbing process. The computer at Gates’s school, however, was linked to a mainframe in downtown Seattle. Thus in 1968 Bill Gates was practicing computer programming via time-sharing as an eighth grader; few others in the world then had such opportunity, whatever their age. It appears that Gates’s success is at least partly an example of the right person being in the right place at just the right time. Even at a wealthy private school like the one Gates attended, however, funds ran out to cover the high costs of buying time on a mainframe computer. If you want some ham, you gotta go into the smokehouse. Huey Long, governor of Louisiana, 1928–1932 By the time Gates dropped out of Harvard after his sophomore year, he had accumulated more than 10,000 hours of programming experience. It was, he’s said, a better exposure to software development than anyone else at a young age could have had—and all because of a lucky series of events. Source: Malcolm Gladwell, Outliers: The Story of Success (New York: Little, Brown and Company, 2008). Leadership and Management In trying to answer the question “What is leadership?” it is natural to look at the relationship between leadership and management. To many people, the word ­management suggests words like efficiency, planning, paperwork, procedures, regulations, control, and consistency. Leadership is often more associated with words like risk taking, dynamic, creativity, change, and vision. Some people say leadership is fundamentally a value-choosing, and thus a value-laden, activity, whereas management 10 Part One Leadership Is a Process, Not a Position is not. Leaders are thought to do the right things, whereas managers are thought to do things right.21,22 Here are some other distinctions between managers and leaders:23 • Managers administer; leaders innovate. • Managers maintain; leaders develop. • Managers control; leaders inspire. • Managers have a short-term view; leaders, a long-term view. • Managers ask how and when; leaders ask what and why. • Managers imitate; leaders originate. • Managers accept the status quo; leaders challenge it. While acknowledging this general distinction between leadership and management is essentially accurate and even useful, however, it has had unintended negative effects: “Some leaders now see their job as just coming up with big and vague ideas, and they treat implementing them, or even engaging in conversation and planning about the details of them, as mere ‘management’ work that is beneath their station and stature.”24 Zaleznik goes so far as to say these differences reflect fundamentally different personality types: Leaders and managers are basically different kinds of people.25 He says some people are managers by nature; other people are leaders by nature. One is not better than the other; they are just different. Their differences, in fact, can be useful because organizations typically need both functions performed well. For example, consider again the U.S. civil rights movement in the 1960s. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. gave life and direction to the civil rights movement in America. He gave dignity and hope of freer participation in national life to people who before had little reason to expect it. He inspired the world with his vision and eloquence, and he changed the way we live together. America is a different nation today because of him. Was Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. a leader? Of course. Was he a manager? Somehow that does not seem to fit, and the civil rights movement might have failed if it had not been for the managerial talents of his supporting staff. Leadership and management complement each other, and both are vital to organizational success. With regard to the issue of leadership versus management, the authors of this book take a middle-of-the-road position. We think of leadership and management as closely related but distinguishable functions. Our view of the relationship is depicted in Figure 1.1, which shows leadership and management as two overlapping FIGURE 1.1 Leadership and Management Overlap Leadership Management Chapter 1 What Do We Mean by Leadership? 11 functions. Although some functions performed by leaders and managers may be unique, there is also an area of overlap. In reading Highlight 1.2, do you see more good management in the response to the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, more good leadership, or both? And in Profiles in Leadership 1.3 you can read about leaders from two different eras in American history. The Response of Leadership to a Natural Disaster HIGHLIGHT 1.2 Much has been written about the inadequate response of local, state, and federal agencies to Hurricane Katrina. It may be instructive to compare the response of government agencies to a natural disaster on a different coast a century earlier: the San Francisco earthquake and fire of 1906. While the precipitant disaster was the earthquake itself, much destruction resulted from the consequent fire, one disaster aggravating the impact of the others. Poles throughout the city fell, taking the high-tension wires they were carrying with them. Gas pipes broke; chimneys fell, dropping hot coals into thousands of gallons of gas spilled by broken fuel tanks; stoves and heaters in homes toppled over; and in moments fires erupted across the city. Because the earthquake’s first tremors also broke water pipes throughout the city, fire hydrants everywhere suddenly went dry, making fighting the fires virtually impossible. In objective terms, the disaster is estimated to have killed as many as 3,000 people, rendered more than 200,000 homeless, and by some measures caused $195 billion in property loss as measured by today’s dollars. How did authorities respond to the crisis when there were far fewer agencies with presumed response plans to combat disasters, and when hightech communication methods were unheard of? Consider these two examples: • The ranking officer assigned to a U.S. Army post in San Francisco was away when the earthquake struck, so it was up to his deputy to help organize the army’s and federal government’s response. The deputy immediately cabled W ­ ashington, D.C., • requesting tents, rations, and medicine. Secretary of War William Howard Taft, who would become the next U.S. president, responded by immediately dispatching 200,000 rations from Washington state. In a matter of days, every tent in the U.S. Army had been sent to San Francisco, and the longest hospital train in history was dispatched from Virginia. Perhaps the most impressive example of leadership initiative in the face of the 1906 disaster was that of the U.S. Post Office. It recovered its ability to function in short order without losing a single item that was being handled when the earthquake struck. And because the earthquake had effectively destroyed the city’s telegraphic connection (telegrams inside the city were temporarily being delivered by the post office), a critical question arose: How could people struck by the disaster communicate with their families elsewhere? The city postmaster immediately announced that all citizens of San Francisco could use the post office to inform their families and loved ones of their condition and needs. He further stipulated that for outgoing private letters it would not matter whether the envelopes bore stamps. This was what was needed: Circumstances demanded that people be able to communicate with friends and family whether or not they could find or pay for stamps. This should remind us that modern leadership is not necessarily better leadership, and that leadership in government is not always bureaucratic and can be both humane and innovative. 12 Part One Leadership Is a Process, Not a Position A Tale of Two Leaders PROFILES IN LEADERSHIP 1.3 In 2015 the musical Hamilton opened on Broadway. It would go on to win a Pulitzer Prize and 11 Tony awards. It tells the story of Alexander Hamilton, a founding father whose singularly important role in our history has been largely forgotten. If you are like most people—at least before ­Hamilton opened on Broadway—you probably know very little about Alexander Hamilton’s life. So consider just a few noteworthy pieces of his life story: • • He was born out of wedlock to a mixed-race couple in the West Indies in 1755. He served an apprenticeship in St. Croix with a trading company where his experience with seafaring traders and smugglers provided insight key to his later establishment of the U.S. Coast Guard and customs service. He attended college in the American colonies, and at the age of 22 served as George Washington’s private secretary and as his unofficial chiefof-staff during the Revolutionary War. He was the main architect of the new American government following the Constitutional Convention of 1787. Rather impressive accomplishments for someone you had not heard much about before the musical became popular. But Lin-Manuel Miranda became fascinated with the character when he read Ron Chernow’s excellent biography of Hamilton. It inspired him to write the musical (both the script and the music) and to star in the title role. And just as many Americans have become newly acquainted with Alexander Hamilton the leader, many have come to appreciate Lin-Manuel Miranda the leader as well. Among his accomplishments was his selection as one of Time magazine’s 100 most influential people of 2016. In reflecting on the award and his own legacy, he told Time magazine, “We have this amount of time. It’s the tiniest grain of sand of time we’re allowed on this earth, and what do we leave behind? I think that question has gnawed at me as long as I’ve been conscious. That’s something that Hamilton outright states in our show, and I think that’s something I share with him.” Sources: R. Chernow, Alexander Hamilton (New York: Penguin, 2004); J. McGregor, “How Hamilton’s Lin-Manuel Miranda Makes Us Think about Legacy,” Washington Post, May 4, 2016. Leadership Myths Few things pose a greater obstacle to leadership development than certain unsubstantiated and self-limiting beliefs about leadership. Therefore, before we begin examining leadership and leadership development in more detail, we consider what they are not. Here we examine several beliefs (we call them myths) that stand in the way of fully understanding and developing leadership. Myth: Good Leadership Is All Common Sense At face value, this myth says one needs only common sense to be a good leader. It also implies, however, that most if not all of the studies of leadership reported in scholarly journals and books only confirm what anyone with common sense already knows. The problem, of course, is with the ambiguous term common sense. It implies a common body of practical knowledge about life that virtually any reasonable person with moderate experience has acquired. A simple experiment, however, may convince you that common sense may be less common than you think. Ask a few Chapter 1 What Do We Mean by Leadership? 13 If you miss seven balls out of ten, you’re batting three hundred and that’s good enough for the Hall of Fame. You can’t score if you keep the bat on your shoulder. Walter B. Wriston, chairman of Citicorp, 1970–1984 friends or acquaintances whether the old folk wisdom “Absence makes the heart grow fonder” is true or false. Most will say it is true. After that, ask a different group whether the old folk wisdom “Out of sight, out of mind” is true or false. Most of that group will answer true as well, even though the two proverbs are contradictory. A similar thing sometimes happens when people hear about the results of studies concerning human behavior. On hearing the results, people may say, “Who needed a study to learn that? I knew it all the time.” However, several experiments showed that events were much more surprising when subjects had to guess the outcome of an experiment than when subjects were told the outcome.26,27 What seems obvious after you know the results and what you (or anyone else) would have predicted beforehand are not the same thing. Hindsight is always 20/20. The point might become clearer with a specific example. Read the following paragraph: After World War II, the U.S. Army spent enormous sums of money on studies only to reach conclusions that, many believed, should have been apparent at the outset. One, for example, was that southern soldiers were better able to stand the climate in the hot South Sea islands than northern soldiers were. This sounds reasonable, but there is a problem: The statement here is exactly contrary to the actual findings. Southerners were no better than northerners in adapting to tropical climates.28 Common sense can often play tricks on us. Put a little differently, one challenge of understanding leadership may be to know when common sense applies and when it does not. Do leaders need to act confidently? Of course. But they also need to be humble enough to recognize that others’ views are useful, too. Do leaders need to persevere when times get tough? Yes. But they also need to recognize when times change and a new direction is called for. If leadership were nothing more than common sense, there should be few, if any, problems in the workplace. However, we venture to guess you have noticed more than a few problems between leaders and followers. Effective leadership must be something more than just common sense. Myth: Leaders Are Born, Not Made Never reveal all of yourself to other people; hold back something in reserve so that people are never quite sure if they really know you. Michael Korda, author, editor Some people believe that being a leader is either in one’s genes or not; others believe that life experiences mold the individual and that no one is born a leader. Which view is right? In a sense, both and neither. Both views are right in that innate factors as well as formative experiences influence many sorts of behavior, including leadership. Yet both views are wrong to the extent they imply leadership is either innate or acquired; what matters more is how these factors interact. It does not seem useful, we believe, to think of the world as comprising two mutually exclusive types of people, leaders and nonleaders. It is more useful to address how each person can make the most of leadership opportunities he or she faces. It may be easier to see the pointlessness of asking whether leaders are born or made by looking at an alternative question of far less popular interest: Are college professors born or made? Conceptually the issues are the same, and here too the 14 Part One Leadership Is a Process, Not a Position answer is that every college professor is both born and made. It seems clear enough that college professors are partly “born” because (among other factors) there is a genetic component to intelligence, and intelligence surely plays some part in becoming a college professor (well, at least a minor part!). But every college professor is also partly “made.” One obvious way is that college professors must have advanced education in specialized fields; even with the right genes one could not become a college professor without certain requisite experiences. Becoming a college professor depends partly on what one is born with and partly on how that inheritance is shaped through experience. The same is true of leadership. More specifically, research indicates that many cognitive abilities and personality traits are at least partly innate.29 Thus natural talents or characteristics may offer certain advantages or disadvantages to a leader. Consider physical characteristics: A man’s above-average height may increase others’ tendency to think of him as a leader; it may also boost his own self-confidence. But it doesn’t make him a leader. The same holds true for psychological characteristics that seem related to leadership. The stability of certain characteristics over long periods (for example, at school reunions people seem to have kept the same personalities we remember them as having years earlier) may reinforce the impression that our basic natures are fixed, but different environments nonetheless may nurture or suppress different leadership qualities. Myth: The Only School You Learn Leadership from Is the School of Hard Knocks Progress always involves risks. You can’t steal second base and keep your foot on first. Frederick B. Wilcox Some people skeptically question whether leadership can develop through formal study, believing instead it can be acquired only through actual experience. It is a mistake, however, to think of formal study and learning from experience as mutually exclusive or antagonistic. In fact, they complement each other. Rather than ask whether leadership develops from formal study or from real-life experience, it is better to ask what kind of study will help students learn to discern critical lessons about leadership from their own experience. Approaching the issue in such a way recognizes the vital role of experience in leadership development, but it also admits that certain kinds of study and training can improve a person’s ability to discern important lessons about leadership from experience. It can, in other words, accelerate the process of learning from experience. We argue that one advantage of formally studying leadership is that formal study provides students with a variety of ways of examining a particular leadership situation. By studying the different ways researchers have defined and examined leadership, students can use these definitions and theories to better understand what is going on in any leadership situation. For example, earlier in this chapter we used different leadership definitions as a framework for describing or analyzing the situation facing Parrado and the survivors of the plane crash, and each definition focused on a different aspect of leadership. These frameworks can similarly be applied to better understand the experiences one has as both a leader and a follower. We think it is difficult for leaders, particularly novice leaders, to examine leadership situations from multiple perspectives; but we also believe developing this skill Chapter 1 What Do We Mean by Leadership? 15 Howard Schultz PROFILES IN LEADERSHIP 1.4 Starbucks began in 1971 as a very different company than we know it as today. The difference is due in large part to the way its former CEO, Howard Schultz, reframed the kind of business Starbucks should be. Schultz joined Starbucks in 1981 to head its marketing and retail store operations. While on a trip to Italy in 1983, Schultz was amazed by the number and variety of espresso bars there—1,500 in the city of Turin alone. He concluded that the Starbucks stores in Seattle had missed the point: Starbucks should be not just a store but an experience—a gathering place. Everything looks clearer in hindsight, of course, but the Starbucks owners resisted Schultz’s vision; Starbucks was a retailer, they insisted, not a restaurant or bar. Schultz’s strategic reframing of the Starbucks opportunity was ultimately vindicated when—after having departed Starbucks to pursue the same idea with another company—Schultz had the opportunity to purchase the whole Starbucks operation in Seattle, including its name. Despite today’s pervasiveness of Starbucks across the world, however, and the seeming obviousness of Schultz’s exemplary leadership, the Starbucks story has not been one of completely consistent success. After Schultz retired as Starbucks CEO when it was a global megabrand, the company’s performance suffered to the point Schultz complained that it was “losing its soul.” He was asked to return as CEO in 2008 and has tried to resurrect Starbucks by bringing new attention to the company’s operating efficiency and by admitting, in effect, that some of his own earlier instinctive approach to company strategy and management would no longer be sufficient for the new global scale of the Starbucks operation. In fact, Schultz discovered the challenges and the road to recovery even more daunting than he expected. Leadership— even for one with a proven track record—is never easy. Schultz stepped down as Starbucks CEO for the second time in 2017. can help you become a better leader. Being able to analyze your experiences from multiple perspectives may be the greatest single contribution a formal course in leadership can give you. Maybe you can reflect on your own leadership over a cup of coffee in Starbucks as you read about the origins of that company in Profiles in Leadership 1.4. The Interactional Framework for Analyzing Leadership Perhaps the first researcher to formally recognize the importance of the leader, follower, and situation in the leadership process was Fred Fiedler.30 Fiedler used these three components to develop his contingency model of leadership, a theory of leadership discussed in more detail in Chapter 14. Although we recognize Fiedler’s contributions, we owe perhaps even more to Hollander’s transactional approach to leadership.31 We call our approach the interactional framework. Several aspects of this derivative of Hollander’s approach are worthy of additional comment. First, as shown in Figure 1.2, the framework depicts leadership as a function of three elements—the leader, the followers, and the situation. Second, a particular leadership scenario can be examined using each level of analysis separately. Although this is a useful way to understand the leadership process, we can 16 Part One Leadership Is a Process, Not a Position Leader FIGURE 1.2 An Interactional Framework for Analyzing Leadership Personality, position, expertise, etc. Followers Values, norms, cohesiveness, etc. Task, stress, environment, etc. Situation Source: Adapted from E. P. Hollander, Leadership Dynamics: A Practical Guide to Effective Relationships (New York: Free Press, 1978). understand the process even better if we also examine the interactions among the three elements, or lenses, represented by the overlapping areas in the figure. For example, we can better understand the leadership process if we not only look at the leaders and the followers but also examine how leaders and followers affect each other in the leadership process. Similarly, we can examine the leader and the situation separately, but we can gain a better understanding of the leadership process by looking at how the situation can constrain or facilitate a leader’s actions and how the leader can change different aspects of the situation to be more effective. Thus a final important aspect of the framework is that leadership is the result of a complex set of interactions among the leader, the followers, and the situation. These complex interactions may be why broad generalizations about leadership are problematic: Many factors influence the leadership process (see Highlight 1.3). An example of one such complex interaction between leaders and followers is evident in what have been called in-groups and out-groups. Sometimes there is a high degree of mutual influence and attraction between the leader and a few subordinates. These subordinates belong to the in-group and can be distinguished by their high degree of loyalty, commitment, and trust felt toward the leader. Other subordinates belong to the out-group. Leaders have considerably more influence with in-group followers than with out-group followers. However, this greater degree of influence has a price. If leaders rely primarily on their formal authority to influence their followers (especially if they punish them), then leaders risk losing the high levels of loyalty and commitment followers feel toward them.32 The Leader This element examines primarily what the leader brings as an individual to the leadership equation. This can include unique personal history, interests, character traits, and motivation. Chapter 1 I must follow the people. Am I not their leader? Benjamin Disraeli, 19th-century British prime minister The crowd will follow a leader who marches twenty steps in advance; but if he is a thousand steps in front of them, they do not see and do not follow him. Georg Brandes, Danish scholar What Do We Mean by Leadership? 17 Leaders are not all alike, but they tend to share many characteristics. Research has shown that leaders differ from their followers, and effective leaders differ from ineffective leaders, on various personality traits, cognitive abilities, skills, and values.33–38 Another way personality can affect leadership is through temperament, by which we mean whether a leader is generally calm or is instead prone to emotional outbursts. Leaders who have calm dispositions and do not attack or belittle others for bringing bad news are more likely to get complete and timely information from subordinates than are bosses who have explosive tempers and a reputation for killing the messenger. Another important aspect of the leader is how he or she achieved leader status. Leaders who are appointed by superiors may have less credibility with subordinates and get less loyalty from them than leaders who are elected or emerge by consensus from the ranks of followers. Often emergent or elected officials are better able to influence a group toward goal achievement because of the power conferred on them by their followers. However, both elected and emergent leaders need to be sensitive to their constituencies if they wish to remain in power. More generally, a leader’s experience or history in a particular organization is usually important to her or his effectiveness. For example, leaders promoted from within an organization, by virtue of being familiar with its culture and policies, may be ready to “hit the ground running.” In addition, leaders selected from within an organization are typically better known by others in the organization than are leaders selected from the outside. That is likely to affect, for better or worse, the latitude others in the organization are willing to give the leader; if the leader is widely respected for a history of accomplishment, she may be given more latitude than a newcomer whose track record is less well known. On the other hand, many people tend to give new leaders a fair chance to succeed, and newcomers to an organization often take time to learn the organization’s informal rules, norms, and “ropes” before they make any radical or potentially controversial decisions. A leader’s legitimacy also may be affected by the extent to which followers participated in the leader’s selection. When followers have had a say in the selection or election of a leader, they tend to have a heightened sense of psychological identification with her, but they also may have higher expectations and make more demands on her.39 We also might wonder what kind of support a leader has from his own boss. If followers sense their boss has a lot of influence with the higher-ups, subordinates may be reluctant to take their complaints to higher levels. On the other hand, if the boss has little influence with higher-ups, subordinates may be more likely to make complaints at these levels. The foregoing examples highlight the sorts of insights we can gain about leadership by focusing on the individual leader as a level of analysis. Even if we were to examine the individual leader completely, however, our understanding of the leadership process would be incomplete. The Followers Followers are a critical part of the leadership equation, but their role has not always been appreciated, at least in empirical research (but read Highlight 1.3 to see how the role of followers has been recognized in literature). For a long time, in fact, “the 18 Part One Leadership Is a Process, Not a Position The First Band of Brothers HIGHLIGHT 1.3 Many of you probably have seen, or at least heard of, the award-winning series Band of Brothers that followed a company of the famous 101st Airborne division during World War II, based on a book of the same title by Stephen Ambrose. You may not be aware that an earlier band of brothers was made famous by William Shakespeare in his play Henry V. In one of the most famous speeches by any of Shakespeare’s characters, the young Henry V tried to unify his followers when their daring expedition to conquer France was failing. French soldiers followed Henry’s army along the rivers, daring them to cross over and engage the French in battle. Just before the battle of Agincourt, Henry’s rousing words rallied his vastly outnumbered, weary, and tattered troops to victory. Few words of oratory have ever better bonded a leader with his followers than ­Henry’s call for unity among “we few, we happy few, we band of brothers.” Hundreds of years later, Henry’s speech is still a powerful illustration of a leader who emphasized the importance of his followers. Modern leadership All men have some weak points, and the more vigorous and brilliant a person may be, the more strongly these weak points stand out. It is highly desirable, even essential, therefore, for the more influential members of a general’s staff not to be too much like the general. Major General Hugo Baron von FreytagLoringhoven, antiHitler conspirator concepts like vision, charisma, relationship orientation, and empowerment are readily evident in ­Henry’s interactions with his followers. Here are the closing lines of Henry’s famous speech: From this day to the ending of the world, But we in it shall be remembered— We few, we happy few, we band of brothers; For he today that sheds his blood with me Shall be my brother; be he ne’er so vile, This day shall gentle his condition; And gentlemen in England now-a-bed Shall think themselves accurs’d they were not here, And hold their manhoods cheap whiles any speaks That fought with us upon Saint Crispin’s day. Shakespeare’s insights into the complexities of leadership should remind us that while modern research helps enlighten our understanding, it does not represent the only, and certainly not the most moving, perspective on leadership to which we should pay attention. Source: Ambrose, S.E. Band of Brothers (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001). common view of leadership was that leaders actively led and subordinates, later called followers, passively and obediently followed.”40 Over time, especially in the last century, social change shaped people’s views of followers, and leadership theories gradually recognized the active and important role that followers play in the leadership process.41 Today it seems natural to accept the important role followers play. One aspect of our text’s definition of leadership is particularly worth noting in this regard: Leadership is a social influence process shared among all members of a group. Leadership is not restricted to the influence exerted by someone in a particular position or role; followers are part of the leadership process, too. In recent years both practitioners and scholars have emphasized the relatedness of ­leadership and followership. As Burns observed, the idea of “one-man leadership” is a contradiction in terms.42 Obvious as this point may seem, it is also clear that early leadership researchers paid relatively little attention to the roles followers play in the leadership process.43,44 However, we know that the followers’ expectations, personality traits, maturity levels, levels of competence, and motivation affect the leadership process, too. Highlight 1.4 describes a systematic approach to classifying different kinds of followers that has had a major impact on research.45–48 Chapter 1 What Do We Mean by Leadership? 19 Followership Styles HIGHLIGHT 1.4 The concept of different styles of leadership is reasonably familiar, but the idea of different styles of followership is relatively new. The very word follower has a negative connotation to many, evoking ideas of people who behave like sheep and need to be told what to do. Robert Kelley, however, believes that followers, rather than representing the antithesis of leadership, are best viewed as collaborators with leaders in the work of organizations. Kelley believes that different types of followers can be described in terms of two broad dimensions. One of them ranges from independent, critical thinking at one end to dependent, uncritical thinking on the other end. According to Kelley, the best followers think for themselves and offer constructive advice or even creative solutions. The worst followers need to be told what to do. Kelley’s other dimension ranges from whether people are active followers or passive followers in the extent to which they are engaged in work. According to Kelley, the best followers are selfstarters who take initiative for themselves, whereas the worst followers are passive, may even dodge responsibility, and need constant supervision. Using these two dimensions, Kelley has suggested five basic styles of followership: 1. Alienated followers habitually point out all the negative aspects of the organization to others. While alienated followers may see themselves as mavericks who have a healthy skepticism of the organization, leaders often see them as cynical, negative, and adversarial. not to make waves. Because they do not like to stick out, pragmatists tend to be mediocre performers who can clog the arteries of many organizations. Because it can be difficult to discern just where they stand on issues, they present an ambiguous image with both positive and negative characteristics. In organizational settings, pragmatists may become experts in mastering the bureaucratic rules that can be used to protect them. 4. Passive followers display none of the characteristics of the exemplary follower (discussed next). They rely on the leader to do all the thinking. Furthermore, their work lacks enthusiasm. Lacking initiative and a sense of responsibility, passive followers require constant direction. Leaders may see them as lazy, incompetent, or even stupid. Sometimes, however, passive followers adopt this style to help them cope with a leader who expects followers to behave that way. 5. Exemplary followers present a consistent picture to both leaders and coworkers of being independent, innovative, and willing to stand up to superiors. They apply their talents for the benefit of the organization even when confronted with bureaucratic stumbling blocks or passive or pragmatist coworkers. Effective leaders appreciate the value of exemplary followers. When one of the authors was serving in a follower role in a staff position, he was introduced by his leader to a conference as “my favorite subordinate because he’s a loyal ‘No-Man’.” 2. Conformist followers are the “yes people” of organizations. While very active at doing the organization’s work, they can be dangerous if their orders contradict societal standards of behavior or organizational policy. Often this style is the result of either the demanding and authoritarian style of the leader or the overly rigid structure of the organization. Exemplary followers—high on both critical dimensions of followership—are essential to organizational success. Leaders, therefore, would be well advised to select people who have these characteristics and, perhaps even more important, create the conditions that encourage these behaviors. 3. Pragmatist followers are rarely committed to their group’s work goals, but they have learned Source: R. Kelley, The Power of Followership (New York: Doubleday Currency, 1992). 20 Part One Leadership Is a Process, Not a Position The nature of followers’ motivation to do their work is also important. Workers who share a leader’s goals and values, and who feel intrinsically rewarded for performing a job well, might be more likely to work extra hours on a time-critical project than those whose motivation is solely monetary. Even the number of followers reporting to a leader can have significant implications. For example, a store manager with three clerks working for him can spend more time with each of them (or on other things) than can a manager responsible for eight clerks and a separate delivery service; chairing a task force with 5 members is a different leadership activity than chairing a task force with 18 members. Still other relevant variables include followers’ trust in the leader and their degree of confidence that he or she is interested in their well-being. Another aspect of followers’ relations to a leader is described in Profiles in Leadership 1.5. Paul Revere PROFILES IN LEADERSHIP 1.5 A fabled story of American history is that of Paul Revere’s ride through the countryside surrounding Boston, warning towns that the British were coming, so that local militia could be ready to meet them. As a result, when the British did march toward ­Lexington on the following day, they faced unexpectedly fierce resistance. At Concord the British were beaten by a ragtag group of locals, and so began the American Revolutionary War. It has been taken for granted by generations of Americans that the success of Paul Revere’s ride lay in his heroism and in the self-evident importance of the news itself. A little-known fact, however, is that Paul Revere was not the only rider that night. A fellow revolutionary by the name of William Dawes had the same mission: to ride simultaneously through a separate set of towns surrounding Boston to warn them that the British were coming. He did so, carrying the news through just as many towns as Revere did. But his ride was not successful; those local militia leaders weren’t aroused and did not rise up to confront the British. If they had been, Dawes would be as famous today as Paul Revere. Why was Revere’s ride successful when Dawes’s ride was not? Paul Revere started a word-of-mouth epidemic, and Dawes did not, because of differing kinds of relationships the two men had with others. It wasn’t, after all, the nature of the news itself that proved ultimately important so much as the nature of the men who carried it. Paul Revere was a gregarious and social person—what Malcolm Gladwell calls a connector. Gladwell writes that Revere was “a fisherman and a hunter, a cardplayer and a theaterlover, a frequenter of pubs and a successful businessman. He was active in the local Masonic Lodge and was a member of several select social clubs.” He was a man with a knack for always being at the center of things. So when he began his ride that night, it was Revere’s nature to stop and share the news with anyone he saw on the road, and he would have known who the key players were in each town to notify. Dawes was not by nature so gregarious as Revere, and he did not have Revere’s extended social network. It’s likely he wouldn’t have known whom to share the news w...
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Running head: SKILLS TO BUILD PERSONAL CREDIBILITY

Skills to Build Personal Credibility
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SKILLS TO BUILD PERSONAL CREDIBILITY

There are different skills that different News Anchor specialists use to build personal
credibility and influence others. For any news anchor to be attractive, he or she should be unique
on the way he or she deals with matters being tabled on his or her desk (Berkman & Syme,
1979). Furthermore, there should be a pleasant environment that promotes the comfortable
performance of duties.
In this discussion, we will elaborate on some of the skills applied by Job B in his line of
duty. Job B is a re-known news anchor who has attracted the interest of many. These skills were
useful in that they made him create a smart relation between him and those who were with him.
During communication, Job uses excellent communication skills (Moos, 2013). He...


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