HDFS 202 ~ WORKING WITH FAMILIES CHILD, FAMILY AND COMMUNITY, 7TH EDITION BY JANET GONZALEZ-MENA INSTRUCTORS: LEAFE ERIKSEN WEDMORE, MA, EDU. & LYNETTE MACFARLAN, MA, EDU. CHAPTER 2 ISSUES OF ATTACHMENT & TRUST WHAT DOES ATTACHMENT HAVE TO DO WITH SOCIALIZATION? • EVERYTHING! • Attachment is important to relationships and social development. It also impacts cognitive and physical development. • Before we move forward, let’s take a look at what ATTACHMENT means. • Attachment describes the sense of safety a child feels with particular adults through established relationships. Young children have a great desire to explore and learn about the world. They have an equally strong desire to feel safe. John Bowlby, English Psychiatrist, describes the sense of security a baby/child derives from this relationship with an adult as attachment. ATTACHMENT • Think of attachment as a lasting emotional relationship that begins to develop in infancy and serves to tie the infant to one of more people in his or her life. • It is a two-way process… adults who are usually parents or other family members attach to infants, and infants attach to those adults. • Secondarily, infants also attach to responsive and caring caregivers and the caregivers attach to the infant. This two-way process results in a meaningful and significant relationship! ATTACHMENT AND FAMILIES • “To give children a good start, early childhood educators should consider themselves working for the healthy development of two generations, children and their parents or guardians.” Weissbourd & O’Carroll, 2010. ATTACHMENT ~ CULTURES • A child’s culture should always be considered. In some cultures, the ideal attachment of an infant is to the group (extended family) and is not exclusive to the mother. BRAIN DEVELOPMENT ON YOUR OWN, RESEARCH “ATTACHMENT DISORDER!” • Even though attachment is an emotional process that we associate with “the heart,” other processes engaging the brain are also involved. • According to brain research, healthy attachment provides the foundation for later intellectual development. • View, Dr. Perry’s Video Clips in the Learning Modules. • The positive nurturing experiences associated with attachment produce hormones known as neurotransmitters that give the infant a sense of wellbeing. • This sense of well-being reinforces certain pathways in the brain, which leads to mental growth. • On the other hand, children who have attachment issues, or worse, no attachment figures in their life, lack a sense of security and experience stress, which has a detrimental effect on the brain’s development. BRAIN DEVELOPMENT, RELATIONSHIPS AND ATTACHMENT • View the videos by Dr. Bruce Perry Located in your Learning Module, Six Core Strengths for Healthy Children and The Body’s Most Fascinating Organ, The Brain. • In the second video, in regard to attachment disorder, what did Daniel Dafoe mean by the following statement, “To neglect a child is to murder them?” I should tell all of you that I love this guy! It is a professional kind of love! Dr. Perry will become one of your heroes! • After viewing the videos and reading, Growth of Attachment and Trust in your text book, think about how attachment and trust contribute to cognitive development in children. SIGNS OF ATTACHMENT Signs of Attachment in Parents • They feel close to their offspring. • They find parenting pleasurable… even the hard and frustrating parts. • They feel important and needed as a parent. • They often assume a new view of the world because they want to help create a better future for their child. • They touch, cuddle, interact and care for their child in a close and intimate way each and every day. Signs of Attachment in Infants • They quickly distinguish the voice and smell of their mother. • They act less fussy, more interested and animated around their parents or primary caregiver. • They show distress if someone they know appears in their vision or tries to pick them up. • Some babies do not show anxiety with strangers only because they have had a secure and trusting life with multiple caregivers. • They are thriving and healthy. OBSTACLES TO ATTACHMENT WAYS TO SUPPORT PARENTS WHO NEED HELP TO INCREASE ATTACHMENT • • • • • • • • Unwanted pregnancy “Long distance” due to divorce Complicated birth Adoption ~ Lack of bonding early on Infant illness and hospitalization Baby is unresponsive to caregiver or parent (potential disability) Parent was raised with insensitive or unresponsive parents, thus has a skewed vision as to what constitutes a loving relationship. Parent was abused or neglected and lacks the skills or experience to bond with his or her child. • Drug/alcohol abuse or mental illness persists on the part of the parents. • Parents don’t know what they don’t know. That’s where YOU come in! Read about “Ethen” on page 35 of your text. SEPARATION OR FEELINGS OF LOSS • Read, Learning to Cope with Loss on page 33 and 34. • There are many types of loss from being placed in a crib to being left in child care and separating from a parent for the first time. • Loss can be as traumatic as losing a parent or being placed in foster care. Read the article on Separation Anxiety! • Strong attachments between parents and children often result in separation anxiety. This may occur when the child is dropped off at child care, preschool or in someone else’s care. • This is a natural reaction for some children. • How will you provide support to help the parent or primary caregiver deal with separation anxiety? HOW CAREGIVER AND PARENT ROLES DIFFER • Good caregivers have many of the qualities of good parents, and those qualities promote attachment. • One vital quality is responsiveness. This means being fully present with the child and in-tune with their needs. It means responding to their cues in a joyous way. • Another quality is sensitivity. When the infant-care teacher learns to read each infant’s signals, she can respond in a timely fashion. • Infants learn quickly that they can give messages. • They know they have personal power and can influence the people in their world. • They become attached because the caregiver responds and promotes further communication. • Infants get better and better at sending signals especially when their messages are received with tender, loving care. Caregivers must always reciprocate in order to build a trusting relationship. THE CHILD’S ATTACHMENT TO THE CAREGIVER SHOULD ALWAYS BE SECONDARY TO THAT OF THE FAMILY! • A caregiver must be aware that his or her relationship with a child is short-term and can never replace the parent as the child’s primary caregiver and first teacher. • The relationship is not forever! Most importantly, out of respect, it is essential that the caregiver recognize that the child and parents must always have an optimal closeness, whereas the caregiver must have a close and caring relationship with the child at an optimal distance. • Caregivers must always remember that typical, loving parents are of central importance to the child’s development and well-being. Easing the Separation Process for Infants, Toddlers, and Families Nancy Balaban Seven-month-old Max sits on his mother’s lap while she talks with Alice, Max’s primary caregiver. She says goodbye, kisses Max, and hands him to Alice. Max bursts into tears. “Mommy will be back after your nap,” Alice tells him. They sit on the floor to look at Max’s family pictures. “Oh, look, here’s Mommy and Sandy, your dog. Woof-woof!” As Max begins to calm, Alice cuddles him and reads him his favorite book. I T’S A COMMON SIGHT, one we see every day in child care centers and family child care homes. Families and children say goodbye in the morning and then say hello at the end of the day—a repeated demonstration that separation and attachment are two sides of the same coin; a daily declaration of love. The power of attachment Nancy Balaban, EdD, is on the faculty of the Infant and Parent Development and Early Intervention program in the Bank Street Graduate School of Education, New York City. She is the author of many articles and a recent book about separation, Everyday Goodbyes: Starting School and Early Care—A Guide to the Separation Process. Photos © Ellen B. Senisi. Illustration © Adjoa Burrowes. Attachment and separation are the stuff of which life is made. Feelings about saying goodbye aren’t restricted to child care situations. Separating from someone we love and care about is a lifelong experience that affects every one of us many times during the course of our lives. How many separation experiences has each of us had! We begin life with a separation from our nine-month inner home. We leave home to go to school or camp or college. We graduate and leave again. We move to a new home, take a new job, go on a vacation trip. Some get married, some get divorced, and usually we all suffer the ultimate separation, the death of a loved one. The task of adjustment to these separations challenges us at every stage of life, from infancy on. Characteristic of all these experiences is leaving the familiar and heading into the unknown. Where would we be without the strength of our attachments? The bonds between family and child promote resilience, self-regulation, and a positive sense of self. Because firm ties to another help us develop autonomy and the belief that we are lovable, it is critical to encourage and value strong attachments not only between children and parents, but also between teachers and the infants and toddlers they care for (Honig 2002a). If attachment is misunderstood as dependence, it may be wrongly discouraged. Beyond the Journal • Young Children on the Web • November 2006 Building Social Skills 1 Infants’ and toddlers’ trusting attachments to their teachers are critical in helping them cope with the stress of separation. I saw an example of this recently. A director admonished a teacher for holding a two-year-old on her lap several times during the morning because “you are spoiling and babying the child.” Attachment fosters children’s development We know a lot about attachment. According to Eliot (2000), babies are programmed to grow attached to their parents or primary caregivers due to development in their brain’s frontal lobe. The attachment relationship “seems to be responsible for modulating stress. Attachment and brain development are a two-way street” (p. 311). Quality child care, in Eliot’s view, is key in protecting babies’ brains and emotional development. In quality child care infants’ and toddlers’ trusting attachments to their teachers are critical in helping them cope with the stress of separation. Since stress can cause elevated levels of the hormone cortisol, a potential hazard to the brain, and since attachment seems to offer protection, we have another powerful reason to nurture and treasure our attachments with others. Thanks to the seminal work of Ainsworth and Wittig (1969); Bowlby (1969); Mahler, Pine, and Bergman (1975), and a more recent explication by Honig (2002b), we understand that the young child’s slow developmental journey leads to the creation of a person who is both attached to the parent yet separate—a paradox: bound yet free, close yet apart. This human dilemma has been defined as a “developmental necessity” (Resch 1977). According to the theory of Margaret Mahler (Mahler, Pine, & Bergman l975), children and their parents travel together through a series of developmental phases that enable the children, at around age three, to become certain that “I’m me and no one else.” This process becomes partially observable, for example, around seven to nine months, when a baby may become fussy about going to anyone other than a parent. This can be hard on visiting grandparents, other relatives, or caregivers, and embarrassing to parents. However, this is really a baby’s way of saying to the adult, “I love you, and I don’t want to be messing around with anyone else.” Baby and parent hopefully withstand this mild storm and then head together into toddlerhood, where the emotional weather gets a bit more turbulent. Beyond the Journal • Young Children on the Web • November 2006 Building Social Skills 2 It’s exciting when a just-walking child, lured by enchanting sights and sounds, wanders off without a backward glance. But somewhere around 18 to 24 months, according to Mahler’s theory, this runabout toddler becomes aware of her own vulnerability: “Hey, wait a minute. I’m too little to be away from you too long; I can’t take care of myself. I need you!” So parents, who have figured out how to give the toddler some rein without the bit, suddenly find this young wanderer clinging to their legs or climbing into their lap for what Mahler calls “emotional refueling.” It’s at this point that parents as well as teachers must cope with toddlers’ being pulled in two directions at once. One moment they strike out on their own (“I do it myself!”); then moments later they plop down in a lap, seeking security and safety. By negotiating this tempestuous time, parents and toddlers not only become separate from one another, but as long as the parent is a reliable, loving, secure base, the two also become more securely joined. The internal parent In some groups children develop attachments to several caregivers. By the time most babies become toddlers, they are beginning to be able to hold in their minds an internal image of their attachment person or persons. My colleague Virginia Casper (pers. comm. 2005) calls this a “love memory.” Imagine a grandmother at an airport bidding her grandson goodbye. She can draw on the love memory of her grandson to alleviate the pain of parting, and he can do the same by thinking about her. Toddlers also try to rely on love memories for comfort, especially at the moment of separation. However, at a time of great stress, a still fragile love memory may not be available. As this dear memory image recedes, the toddler could feel as though the person has disappeared. Here is an example. I was standing next to a two-year-old and his father, waiting for an elevator. When the elevator door opened, the father stepped in, assuming the child was following. But the door shut, leaving the child with me, a stranger. Screaming, the toddler threw himself on the floor. To him, his father had been swallowed alive. My assurance that “he’s coming right back” did no good. Finally the elevator returned, miraculously spitting out his worried father and reuniting him with the terrified child. This example sheds light on the fragility of that inner image and why infants and toddlers need time and sensitivity to cope with the stress of separation. Beyond the Journal • Young Children on the Web • November 2006 Building Social Skills 3 Variations in attachment Adults’ experiences from their own childhood may influence their feelings about separation. While Mahler’s theory of developmental phases is one among others, in your work you may see some aspects of the behaviors she describes. Although attachment to a secure base and the reaction to strangers are universal (Eliot 2000), there are variations on the theme. In some groups children develop attachments to several caregivers. For example, perhaps you have seen a toddler arrive at her familiar early care setting with an aunt and a cousin, as well as a grandparent in tow, and then bid goodbye to them all. While this may lessen the stress of separating within the familiar community group, it may make it difficult for the child to go to a stranger (Gonzalez-Mena 2005). At the other extreme, there are families who do not risk forming attachments with their babies due to living conditions of dire poverty and widespread infant mortality (Rogoff 2003; Gonzalez-Mena 2005). Other factors come into play in the drama of attachment and separation. Consider temperament, which may influence the manner in which infants and toddlers react to separation (Kristal 2005). How adaptable is an infant to new situations? How easily soothed when upset? How intense is a toddler in expressing emotions? These temperamental factors put a stamp on the way a child faces the world. Adults as well come with assorted temperaments that affect how they separate from their children. A parent might be wary in saying goodbye, while the child might be easygoing. How teachers regard a child’s temperament is another consideration. Teachers may be influenced by their own cultural socialization goals. A recent study found that in China teachers view shy, sensitive children as socially and academically competent, while in North America teachers are likely to view shy, sensitive children as lonely and depressed (Carlson, Feng, & Harwood 2004). In early care programs we need to remember that adults’ experiences from their own childhood may influence their feelings about separation. A parent was very tense bringing her son to the classroom, because her own long-ago early childhood experience involved a punitive teacher. She wrote, The pain of separation is not only from your child but from your own childhood. . . . The past lives on . . . the dangers that lurked in [my world] are simply nowhere to be found in [my son’s]. I know that I can never get my childhood back, and still, when I enter his classroom, with its smell of milk and warm bodies, the adult veneer begins to crack. (Franks 1989) Family circumstances—a new baby, a parent away from home for a period of time, a move to a new home, the death of a pet, marital stress or violence—also affect how children react to separation. Even a change in the family constellation can affect a child (Kristal 2005), as happened for a 23-month-old who had been secure in early care for over a year: Beyond the Journal • Young Children on the Web • November 2006 Building Social Skills 4 Amanda’s father brought her to the center accompanied by her grandparents, freshly arrived from China. They were there to help her mother, who was about to give birth. Amanda was engrossed at the water table but became frantic as the three family members began to leave without saying goodbye. Her father held her for a long time while she sobbed. The abrupt departure, the new family arrangement, plus the impending birth affected Amanda’s usual ability to separate. Children with special needs Although children with special needs or disabilities are as attached to their parents as most children, they may experience a delay in the expression of their separation reactions (Foley 1986), and their cues may be subtle or difficult to read. A study of separation reactions in children with mild retardation, ages three to five years, with developmental ages oneand-a-half to two-and-a-half, revealed that the children did not give strong clues to their feelings (Kessler, Ablon, & Smith 1969). Their regressive behav- Resources on Different Cultural Approaches to Childrearing Carlson, V.J., & R.L. Harwood. Dec 1999/ Jan 2000. Understanding and negotiating cultural differences concerning early developmental competence: The sixraisin solution. Zero to Three. Adapted version online: www.zerotothree.org/ vol20-3.html#six-solution. Gonzalez-Mena, J. 2005. Attachment and separation. In Diversity in early care and education, 4th ed., 79–91. New York: McGraw-Hill. Gonzalez-Mena, J. 2005. A framework for understanding differences. In Diversity in early care and education, 4th ed., 61–77. New York: McGraw-Hill. Gonzalez-Mena, J., & N. Bhavnagri. 2000. Diversity and infant/toddler caregiving. Young Children 55 (5): 31–35. Harkness, S., & C.M. Super, eds. 1996. Parental theories in the management of young children’s sleep in Japan, Italy, and the United States. In Parents’ cultural belief systems: Their origins, expressions, and consequences, 364–84. New York: Guilford. ior was often attributed to the retardation itself, and their aimless running around to hyperactivity rather than separation reactions. The teachers encouraged the children’s responses to separation by talking about where their mothers were, what the mothers were doing, and when they were coming back. When the teachers also helped parents recognize that their children’s behavior reflected feelings of anxiety about separation, the mothers began to understand the depth of their children’s attachment. Children with special needs may be put on a school bus without due consideration for their feelings about separating from their families and connecting to new teachers. In a program for two-year-olds with cerebral palsy, the teachers seldom saw the families because the children arrived by bus. One boy spent a lot of time crying, refusing the teacher’s attention. Sensing that he missed his family, the teacher asked his mother to ride the bus with him and come into the classroom. Her short visits and Beyond the Journal • Young Children on the Web • November 2006 Building Social Skills 5 time on the bus gave her son the security he needed to sustain the separation. The staff were able to help him by reflecting his feelings, saying, “I know you miss your mom, but you’ll see her soon when the bus takes you home after school.” In another early intervention program, teachers encouraged families to use a predictable daily ritual for saying goodbye—for example, a kiss, a hug, and a high-five, always in the same order. Teachers and families sent a “communication book” back and forth daily, between center and home, in which each wrote facts important for the other to know. The effects of culture Cultural preferences may influence how some separations take place. In a small study of mothers’ preferences in toddler attachment behaviors, Anglo mothers disliked clinginess and preferred their children playing at a distance. Puerto Rican mothers, on the other hand, preferred their toddlers to sit close by and display respectfulness (Harwood & Miller 1991). As teachers, we need to understand the importance of cultural beliefs and what separation means to families of diverse cultures. Another study that included a small group of young Korean American children revealed that the children were taught by their families that it is a virtue to hide their feelings and to show deference to teachers (Chu 1978). Their teachers were not Korean American, so we must wonder what the teachers thought. Did they think the children didn’t miss their families because they didn’t cry? Or did the teachers think that the children’s self-control was a sign of precocious maturity? Did the teachers know that Korean culture values undemonstrative behavior? The challenge for early care teachers is to understand that a family’s point of view about raising their child is valid for that family as long as it does no harm. There is abundant information to help teachers understand the variety of familial and cultural beliefs that exist (see “Resources on Different Cultural Approaches to Childrearing”). However, we can learn from families themselves, if we listen well and do not rush to judge practices that are different from our own. It is more respectful to say “Please tell me how you [bathe/feed/give guidance to/toilet train] your child” than to share our ideas of the “correct” way. We need to listen and learn, even if what we hear makes us uncomfortable (such as “I put her on the potty starting at three months”). While an accepting attitude takes considerable practice and requires the support of others, it can forge strong teacher-family relationships. A curriculum of trust By developing a curriculum of trust, teachers can help infants and toddlers, when away from their families in early care, to achieve well-being and comfort as well as the ability to learn (see “Five Tips for Creating a Curriculum of Trust”). Recognition that separation reactions in young children can be expected and are valid provides an unparalleled contribution to children’s development. It is you—early care teachers— Beyond the Journal • Young Children on the Web • November 2006 Building Social Skills 6 Five Tips for Creating a Curriculum of Trust 1. Use a primary caregiving system in which each early care teacher forms a miniature family group of three or four children, focusing on routines like feeding, changing, napping, and playing (Baker & Manfredi/Petitt 2004). Although the caregiver-child relationship is close, it is not exclusive. The best system relies on the cooperation and mutual helpfulness of the caregiving team. If a teacher is comforting a baby and another child from her primary group requires attention, the teacher needs to know that another staff member will pitch in to help. The primary caregiver provides a secure base for the child and the family. The relationship eases a child’s anxiety and reassures the family not only during the transition from home to center care, but throughout the whole of the child’s stay. Primary caregiving has been described as being “best for everyone involved” (Bernhardt 2000, 74). 2. Institute a gradual easing into the program for the family and child together. A slow entry process gives the child time to adjust, the parent time to know the early care teacher, and the teacher time to know the child and family. Many programs invite a family member and the child to stay only a short time on the child’s first day and then increase the time each day for two or three days, until the adult says, “Goodbye, I’ll be back later,” and the teacher supports the separation. Programs must explain the purpose of the plan for gradual adjustment to families before they enter. An easing-in process isn’t simple when a parent must go to work, but trying to facilitate it is worth the effort. The payback is a happy child and a trusting parent. 3. Be there to support the everyday goodbyes. Hugging, kissing, crying, waving at the window or door, saying “I love you”—all allow feelings to come out in the open. Emphasizing that Mom or Dad or Grandma will be back is very important, because young children are not always sure that is so. Since separation is a central concern in early childhood, teacher support may be required throughout the year. When teachers form a secure base with children, children are able to explore and learn. Research shows that the quality of early relationships with teachers is an important predictor of children’s future social relations with peers and their later school satisfaction and achievement (Howes & Ritchie 2002). Teachers and caregivers are important people. 4. Anticipate and be prepared for regressions or shifts in behavior during a child’s first weeks in the program. For example, a toddler who is toilet trained may lose control during the separation period. An easygoing baby may cling like Velcro to the parent. One child may increase thumb sucking, another may bite or hit occasionally, while others may resist going to sleep, refuse to eat, have frequent tantrums, or begin waking at night at home. Knowing that these behaviors may occur enables teachers to be accepting when a child hits. Saying “He doesn’t like it when you hit, so let’s find another toy for you” establishes the child’s trust in a teacher who is there to help. 5. Offer children tangible reminders of their parents, such as photographs or a favorite toy or blanket. Provide books about hello and goodbye, play peekaboo games (Szamreta 2003), use important words from a child’s home language, and ensure consistent classroom routines. Beyond the Journal • Young Children on the Web • November 2006 Building Social Skills 7 who can show children and families that participation in a quality early care and education program is a unique opportunity for children’s growth. When teachers and caregivers ease the separation process by building trust, they help children build competence, confidence, and self-assurance. References Copyright © 2006 by the National Association for the Education of Young Children. See Permissions and Reprints online at www.journal.naeyc.org/about/permissions.asp. Ainsworth, M.D.S., & B.A. Wittig. 1969. Attachment and exploratory behavior of one-year-olds in a strange situation. In Determinants of infant behavior, ed. B.M. Foss, 111–36. London: Methuen. Baker, A.C., & L.A. Manfredi/Petitt. 2004. Relationships, the heart of quality care: Creating community among adults in early care settings. Washington, DC: NAEYC. Balaban, N. 2006. Everyday goodbyes: Starting school and early care—A guide to the separation process. New York: Teachers College Press. Bernhardt, J.L. 2000. A primary caregiving system for infants and toddlers: Best for everyone involved. Young Children 55 (2):74–80. Bowlby, J. 1969. Attachment and loss. Volume I: Attachment. New York: Basic Books. Carlson, V.J., X. Feng, & R.L. Harwood. 2004. The “ideal baby”: A look at the intersection of temperament and culture. Zero to Three 24 (4): 22–28. Cited in Balaban 2006, 64. Chu, H. 1978. The Korean learner in an American school. In Teaching for cross-cultural understanding. Arlington, VA: Arlington Public Schools. Cited in Farver, Kim, & Lee 1995, 1097. Eliot, L. 2000. What’s going on in there? How the brain and mind develop in the first five years. New York: Bantam. Farver, J.A.M., Y.K. Kim, & Y. Lee. 1995. Cultural differences in Korean- and Anglo-American preschoolers’ social interaction and play behaviors. Child Development 66: 1088–99. Foley, G. 1986. Emotional development of children with handicaps. In The feeling child: Affective development reconsidered, ed. N. Curry, 57–73. New York: Haworth Press. Cited in Balaban 2006, 66. Franks, L. 1989. Hers: The little red chair. New York Times, March 12, Late City Final Edition, Sec. 6. Gonzalez-Mena, J. 2005. Diversity in early care and education: Honoring differences. Rev. ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. Harwood, R., & J.G. Miller. 1991. Perceptions of attachment behavior: A comparison of Anglo and Puerto Rican mothers. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 37 (4): 583–99. Honig, A.S. 2002a. Attachment to early childhood caregivers. In Secure relationships: Nurturing infant/toddler attachment in early care settings, 21–38. Washington, DC: NAEYC. Honig, A.S. 2002b. Secure relationships: Nurturing infant/toddler attachment in early care settings. Washington, DC: NAEYC. Howes, C., & S. Ritchie. 2002. A matter of trust: Connecting teachers and learners in the early childhood classroom. New York: Teachers College Press. Kessler, J.W., G. Ablon, & E. Smith. 1969. Separation reactions in young, mildly retarded children. Children 16: 2–7. Kristal, J. 2005. The temperament perspective: Working with children’s behavioral styles. Baltimore, MD: Brookes. Mahler, M.S., F. Pine, & A. Bergman. 1975. The psychological birth of the human infant: Symbiosis and individuation. New York: Basic Books. Resch, R. 1977. On separating as a developmental phenomenon: A natural study. Psychoanalytic Contemporary Science 5: 197–269. Rogoff, B. 2003. The cultural nature of human development. New York: Oxford University Press. Szamreta, J.M. 2003. Peekaboo power to ease separation and build secure relationships. Young Children 58 (1): 88–94. ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ Beyond the Journal • Young Children on the Web • November 2006 Building Social Skills 8
Purchase answer to see full attachment