Reflective Paper

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NOTE: In the previous reflective papers, we have considered who we are as practitioners, as well as considered what theories might inform our projects. Now, I am asking learners to reflect on their prospective research question(s) and purpose statement.

INSTRUCTION:

After reading the chapters from Creswell and Creswell (2018), write a one- to two-page (double-spaced) reflection that addresses the following:

What are your preliminary research question(s) (for theorizing from the literature) to address your emerging problem of practice?

What is your rationale for this as your research question?

Take care to incorporate supportive information from the text (with proper citation!).

Also -- keep in mind that our research questions are for theorizing from the literature, as opposed to research questions for conducting a study. Questions on this distinction?

No Plagarism..

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Chapter 6 The Purpose Statement Page 117 The last section of an introduction, as mentioned in Chapter 5, is to present a purpose statement that establishes the intent of the entire research study. It is the most important statement in the entire study, and it needs to be clear, specific, and informative. From it, all other aspects of the research follow, and readers will be lost unless it is carefully drafted. In journal articles, researchers write the purpose statement into introductions as the final statement; in theses and dissertations, it often stands as a separate section. In this chapter devoted exclusively to the purpose statement, we address the reasons for developing it, key principles to use in its design, and examples of good models in crafting one for your proposal. Significance and Meaning of a Purpose Statement According to Locke, Spirduso, and Silverman (2013), the purpose statement indicates why you want to conduct the study and what you intend to accomplish. Unfortunately, proposal-writing texts give little attention to the purpose statement, and writers on method often incorporate it into discussions about other topics, such as specifying research questions or hypotheses. Wilkinson (1991), for example, refers to it within the context of the research question and objective. Other authors frame it as an aspect of the research problem (Castetter & Heisler, 1977). Closely examining their discussions, however, indicates that they both refer to the purpose statement as the central, controlling idea in a study. This passage is called the purpose statement because it conveys the overall intent of a proposed study in a sentence or several sentences. It may also be called a study aim or the research objective of a project. In proposals, researchers need to distinguish clearly between the purpose statement, the research problem, and the research questions. The purpose statement sets forth the intent of the study, not the problem or issue leading to a need for the study (see Chapter 5). The purpose is also not the research questions— those questions that the data collection will attempt to answer (discussed in Chapter 7). Instead and again, the purpose statement sets the objectives, the intent, or the major idea of a proposal or a study. This idea builds on a need (the problem) and is refined into specific questions (the research questions). Given the importance of the purpose statement, it is helpful to set it apart from other aspects of the proposal or study and to frame it as a single sentence or paragraph that readers can easily identify. Although qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods purpose statements share similar topics, each is identified in the following paragraphs and illustrated with fill-in scripts for constructing a thorough but manageable purpose statement. A Qualitative Purpose Statement Good qualitative purpose statements contain information about the central phenomenon explored in the study, the participants in the study, and the research site. It also conveys an emerging design and uses research words drawn from the language of qualitative inquiry (Schwandt, 2014). Thus, one might consider several basic design features for writing this statement: Use words such as purpose, intent, study aim, or objective to signal attention to this statement as the central controlling idea. Set the statement off as a separate sentence or paragraph, and use the language of research, such as “The purpose (or intent or objective) of this study is (was) (will be) . . .” Researchers often use the present or past verb tense in journal articles and dissertations and the future tense in proposals because researchers are presenting a proposal for a study not yet undertaken. Focus on a single phenomenon (or concept or idea). Narrow the study to one idea to be explored or understood. This focus means that a purpose does not convey relating two or more variables or comparing two or more groups, as is typically found in quantitative research. Instead, advance a single phenomenon, recognizing that the study may evolve into an exploration of relationships or comparisons among ideas. None of these related explorations could be anticipated at the beginning. For example, a project might begin by exploring teacher identity and the marginalization of this identity in a particular school (Huber & Whelan, 1999), the meaning of baseball culture in a study of the work and talk of stadium employees (Trujillo, 1992), or how individuals cognitively represent AIDS (Anderson & Spencer, 2002). These examples illustrate a focus on a single idea. Use action verbs to convey how learning will take place. Action verbs and phrases, such as, understand, develop, explore, examine the meaning of, generate, or discover, keep the inquiry open and convey an emerging design. Use neutral words and phrases—nondirectional language—such as, exploring the “self-expression experiences of individuals” rather than the “successful self-expression of individuals.” Other words and phrases that may be problematic include useful, positive, and informing—all words that suggest a directional outcome that may or may not occur. McCracken (1988) referred to the need in qualitative interviews to let the respondent describe his or her experience. Interviewers (or purpose statement writers) can easily violate the “law of nondirection” (McCracken, 1988, p. 21) in qualitative research by using words that suggest a directional orientation. Provide a general working definition of the central phenomenon or idea, especially if the phenomenon is a term that is not typically understood by a broad audience. Consistent with the rhetoric of qualitative research, this definition is not rigid and set but tentative and evolving throughout a study based on information from participants. Hence, a writer might say, “A tentative definition at this time for ___________ (central phenomenon) is . . .” Page 118 It should also be noted that this definition is not to be confused with the detailed definition of terms section as discussed in Chapter 2 on the review of the literature. The intent here is to convey to readers at an early stage in a proposal or research study a general sense of the central phenomenon so that they can better understand the types of questions and responses asked of participants and data sources. Include words denoting the strategy of inquiry to be used in data collection, analysis, and the process of research, such as whether the study will use an ethnographic, grounded theory, case study, phenomenological, narrative approach, or some other strategy. Mention the participants in the study, such as one or more individuals, a group of people, or an entire organization. Identify the site for the research, such as homes, classrooms, organizations, programs, or events. Describe this site in enough detail so that the reader knows exactly where a study will take place. As a final thought in the purpose statement, include some language that delimits the scope of participation or research sites in the study. For example, the study may be limited to women or Latinas only. The research site may be limited to one metropolitan city or to one small geographic area. The central phenomenon may be limited to individuals in business organizations who participate in creative teams. These delimitations help to further define the parameters of the research study. Although considerable variation exists in the inclusion of these points in purpose statements, a good dissertation or thesis proposal should contain many of them. To assist you, here is a script that should be helpful in drafting a complete statement. A script, as used in this book, contains the major words and ideas of a statement and provides space for the researcher to insert information. The purpose (or study aim) of this ___________ (strategy of inquiry, such as ethnography, case study, or other type) study is (was? will be?) to ___________ (understand? explore? develop? generate? discover?) the ___________ (central phenomenon being studied) for ___________ (the participants, such as the individual, groups, organization) at ___________ (research site). At this stage in the research, the ___________ (central phenomenon being studied) will be generally defined as ___________ (provide a general definition). Page 122 A Quantitative Purpose Statement Quantitative purpose statements differ considerably from the qualitative models in terms of the language and a focus on relating or comparing variables or constructs. Recall from Chapter 3 the types of major variables: independent, mediating, moderating, and dependent. The design of a quantitative purpose statement includes the variables in the study and their relationship, the participants, and the research site. It also includes language associated with quantitative research and the deductive testing of relationships or theories. A quantitative purpose statement begins with identifying the proposed major variables in a study (independent, intervening, dependent), accompanied by a visual model to clearly identify this sequence, and locating and specifying how the variables will be measured or observed. Finally, the intent of using the variables quantitatively will typically be either to relate variables, as one usually finds in a survey, or to compare samples or groups in terms of an outcome, as commonly found in experiments. The major components of a good quantitative purpose statement include the following: Include words to signal the major intent of the study, such as purpose, intent, or objective. Start with “The purpose (or objective or intent) of this study is (was, will be) . . .” Identify the theory, model, or conceptual framework. At this point, one does not need to describe it in detail; in Chapter 3, we suggested the possibility of writing a separate “Theoretical Perspective” section for this purpose. Mentioning it in the purpose statement provides emphasis on the importance of the theory and foreshadows its use in the study. Identify the independent and dependent variables, as well as any mediating or moderating variables used in the study. Use words that connect the independent and dependent variables to indicate that they are related, such as “the relationship between” two or more variables or a “comparison of” two or more groups. Also, a purpose statement could be to “describe” variables. Most quantitative studies employ one or more of these three options for discussing variables in the purpose statement. A combination of comparing and relating might also exist—for example, a two-factor experiment in which the researcher has two or more treatment groups as well as a continuous independent variable. Although one typically finds studies about comparing two or more groups in experiments, it is also possible to compare groups in a survey study. Position or order the variables from left to right in the purpose statement—with the independent variable followed by the dependent variable. Place intervening variables between the independent and dependent variables. Many researchers also place the moderating variables as related to the independent variables. In experiments, the independent variable will always be the manipulated variable. Mention the specific type of strategy of inquiry (such as survey or experimental research) used in the study. By incorporating this information, the researcher anticipates the methods discussion and enables a reader to associate the relationship of variables to the inquiry approach. Make reference to the participants (or the unit of analysis) in the study, and mention the research site. Generally define each key variable, preferably using set and accepted established definitions found in the literature. General definitions are included at this point to help the reader best understand the purpose statement. They do not replace specific, operational definitions found later when a writer has a “Definition of Terms” section in a proposal (details about how variables will be measured). Also, delimitations that affect the scope of the study might be mentioned, such as the scope of the data collection or limited to certain individuals. Page 123 Based on these points, a quantitative purpose statement script can include these ideas: The purpose of this ___________ (experiment? survey?) study is (was? will be?) to test the theory of ___________ that ___________ (describes outcomes) or ___________ (compares? relates?) the ___________ (independent variable) to ___________ (dependent variable), controlling for ___________ (mediating or moderating variables) for ___________ (participants) at ___________ (the research site). The independent variable(s) ___________ will be defined as ___________ (provide a definition). The dependent variable(s) will be defined as ___________ (provide a definition), and the intervening variable(s), ___________, (identify the intervening variables) will be defined as ___________ (provide a definition). Page 125 A Mixed Methods Purpose Statement Mixed methods purpose statements contains the overall intent of the study, information about both the quantitative and qualitative strands of the study, and a rationale of incorporating both strands to study the research problem. These statements need to be identified early, in the introduction, and they provide major signposts for the reader to understand the quantitative and qualitative parts of a study. Several guidelines might direct the organization and presentation of the mixed methods purpose statement: Page 126 Begin with words that signal intent, such as “The purpose of,” “The study aim is,” or “The intent of.” Indicate the overall purpose of the study from a content perspective, such as “The intent is to learn about organizational effectiveness” or “The intent is to examine families with stepchildren.” In this way, the reader has an anchor to use to understand the overall study before the researcher divides the project into quantitative and qualitative strands. Indicate the type of mixed methods design, such as a convergent design, an explanatory sequential design, an exploratory sequential design or a complex design (as discussed in Chapter 10). Discuss the reasons or justification for combining both quantitative and qualitative data. This reason could be one of the following (see Chapter 10 for more detail about these reasons): To develop a complete understanding of a research problem by comparing quantitative and qualitative results from the two databases (a convergent design). To understand the data at a more detailed level by using qualitative follow-up data collection to help explain quantitative results, such as a survey (see also O’Cathain, Murphy, & Nicholl, 2007) (an explanatory sequential design). To develop a new measurement instrument that actually fits the culture of a sample by first exploring qualitatively (e.g., through interviews) and then testing the instrument with a large sample (an exploratory sequential design). To incorporate these reasons (and designs) into a larger design, methodology, or theory such as an experimental design, a case study or evaluation methodology, or a theory of participatory–social justice research (see Chapter 10). Based on these elements, three examples of mixed methods purpose statement scripts follow based on the convergent, explanatory sequential, and exploratory sequential designs (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018). This first example of a mixed methods purpose statement is a script for a convergent mixed methods strategy in which quantitative and qualitative data are collected and analyzed separately and the two databases compared to best understand a research problem. Page 127 This mixed methods study will address ___________ [overall content aim]. A convergent mixed methods design will be used, and it is a type of design in which qualitative and quantitative data are collected in parallel, analyzed separately, and then merged. In this study, ___________ [quantitative data] will be used to test the theory of ___________ [the theory] that predicts that ___________ [independent variables] will ___________ [positively, negatively] influence the ___________ [dependent variables] for ___________ [participants] at ___________ [the site]. The ___________ [type of qualitative data] will explore ___________ [the central phenomenon] for ___________ [participants] at ___________ [the site]. The reason for collecting both quantitative and qualitative data is to ___________ [the mixing reason]. This second script illustrates a mixed methods purpose statement for an explanatory sequential design in which the intent is to understand the quantitative database at a deeper level using follow-up qualitative data. This study will address ___________ [content aim]. An explanatory sequential mixed methods design will be used, and it will involve collecting quantitative data first and then explaining the quantitative results with in-depth qualitative data. In the first quantitative phase of the study, ___________ [quantitative instrument] data will be collected from ___________ [participants] at ___________ [research site] to test ___________ [name of theory] to assess whether ___________ [independent variables] relate to ___________ [dependent variables]. The second qualitative phase will be conducted as a follow up to the quantitative results to help explain the quantitative results. In this exploratory follow-up, the tentative plan is to explore ___________ [the central phenomenon] with ___________ [participants] at ___________ [research site]. The final script is an illustration of the purpose statement that might be used for an exploratory sequential design in which the intent is to develop measures (or instruments) that work with a sample by first collecting qualitative data and then using it to design measures or the instrument that can be tested with a sample of a population. This study addresses ___________ [content aim]. The purpose of this exploratory sequential design will be to first qualitatively explore with a small sample, to design a feature (e.g., instrument, website, experimental intervention activities, new variables), and then to test this feature out with a large sample. The first phase of the study will be a qualitative exploration of ___________ [the central phenomenon] in which ___________ [types of data] will be collected from ___________ [participants] at ___________ [research site]. From this initial exploration, the qualitative findings will be used to develop a quantitative feature that can be tested with a large sample. In the tentatively planned quantitative phase, ___________ [quantitative data] will be collected from ___________ [participants] at ___________ [research site]. Other examples are available that include embedding the core mixed methods designs (i.e., convergent, explanatory sequential, and exploratory sequential) into complex designs such as an intervention or experimental trial, a case study, a participatory–social justice framework, or an evaluation study can be found in Creswell and Plano Clark (2018). It is helpful to look closely at several examples of purpose statements as found in recent published articles. Although these examples may not include all of the elements of the scripts, they do serve as examples of reasonably complete purpose statements that clearly convey the purpose of a mixed methods study. The discussion will be limited to the three core types of design: (a) a convergent design (Example 6.8), (b) an explanatory sequential design (Example 6.9), and (c) an exploratory sequential design (Example 6.10). Other designs that expand these possibilities will be detailed further in Chapter 10. Page 130 Summary This chapter emphasizes the primary importance of a purpose statement. This statement advances the central idea in a study. In writing a qualitative purpose statement, a researcher needs to identify a single central phenomenon and to pose a tentative definition for it. Also, the researcher includes in this statement strong action words, such as discover, develop, or understand; uses nondirectional language; and mentions the strategy of inquiry, the participants, and the research site. In a quantitative purpose statement, the researcher states the theory being tested as well as the variables and their description, relationship, or comparison. It is important to position the independent variable first and the dependent variable second. The researcher conveys the strategy of inquiry as well as the participants and the research site for the investigation. In some purpose statements, the researcher also defines the key variables used in the study. In a mixed methods study, a purpose statement includes a statement of intent, the type of mixed methods design, the forms of qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis, and the reason for collecting both forms of data. Students and instructors, please visit the companion website for videos featuring John W. Creswell, fulltext SAGE journal articles, quizzes and activities, plus additional tools for research design https://edge.sagepub.com/creswellrd5e Reference: John W Creswell, J David Creswell. (2018). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. Los Angelos. Sage Publications, Inc. Chapter 7 Research Questions and Hypotheses Page 133 Investigators place signposts to carry the reader through a plan for a study. The first signpost is the purpose statement, which establishes the central intent for the study. The next would be the research questions or hypotheses that narrow the purpose statement to predictions about what will be learned or questions to be answered in the study. This chapter begins by advancing several principles in designing qualitative research questions and helpful scripts for writing these questions. It then turns to the design of quantitative research questions and hypotheses and ways to write these elements into a study. Finally, it advances the use of research questions and hypotheses in mixed methods studies, and it suggests the development of a unique mixed methods question that ties together or integrates the quantitative and qualitative data in a study. Qualitative Research Questions In a qualitative study, inquirers state research questions, not objectives (i.e., specific goals for the research) or hypotheses (i.e., predictions that involve variables and statistical tests). These research questions assume two forms: (a) a central question and (b) associated subquestions. Ask one or two central research questions. The central question is a broad question that asks for an exploration of the central phenomenon or concept in a study. The inquirer poses this question, consistent with the emerging methodology of qualitative research, as a general issue so as to not limit the views of participants. To arrive at this question, ask, “What is the broadest question that I can ask in the study?” Beginning researchers trained in quantitative research might struggle with this approach because they are accustomed to reverse thinking. They narrow the quantitative study to specific, narrow questions or hypotheses based on a few variables. In qualitative research, the intent is to explore the general, complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon and present the broad, varied perspectives or meanings that participants hold. The following are guidelines for writing qualitative research questions: Ask no more than five to seven subquestions in addition to your central questions. Several subquestions follow each general central question; they narrow the focus of the study but leave open the questioning. This approach is well within the limits set by Miles and Huberman (1994), who recommended that researchers write no more than a dozen qualitative research questions in all (central and subquestions). The subquestions, in turn, become specific questions used during interviews (or in observing or when looking at documents). In developing an interview protocol or guide, the researcher might ask an icebreaker question at the beginning, for example, followed by five or so subquestions in the study (see Chapter 9). The interview would then end with an additional wrap-up or summary question or by asking, “Who should I turn to, to learn more about this topic?” (Asmussen & Creswell, 1995). Relate the central question to the specific qualitative strategy of inquiry. For example, the specificity of the questions in ethnography at this stage of the design differs from that in other qualitative strategies. In ethnographic research, Spradley (1980) advanced a taxonomy of ethnographic questions that included a mini-tour of the culture-sharing group, their experiences, use of native language, contrasts with other cultural groups, and questions to verify the accuracy of the data. In critical ethnography, the research questions may build on a body of existing literature. These questions become working guidelines rather than proven truths (Thomas, 1993, p. 35). Alternatively, in phenomenology, the questions might be broadly stated without specific reference to the existing literature or a typology of questions. Moustakas (1994) talked about asking what the participants experienced and what contexts or situations in which they experienced it. A phenomenological example is “What is it like for a mother to live with a teenage child who is dying of cancer?” (Nieswiadomy, 1993, p. 151). In grounded theory, the questions may be directed toward generating a theory of some process, such as the exploration of a process as to how caregivers and patients interact in a hospital setting. In a qualitative case study, the questions may address a description of the case and the themes that emerge from studying it. Begin the research questions with the words what or how to convey an open and emerging design. The word why often implies that the researcher is trying to explain why something occurs, and this suggests to us probable cause-and-effect thinking that we associate with quantitative research and that limits the explanations rather than opening them up for participant views. Focus on a single phenomenon or concept. As a study develops over time, factors will emerge that may influence this single phenomenon, but begin a study with a single focus to explore in great detail. We often ask, “What is the one, single concept that you want to explore?” Use exploratory verbs that convey the language of emerging design. These verbs tell the reader that the study will do the following: • Report (or reflect) the stories (e.g., narrative research) • Describe the essence of the experience (e.g., phenomenology) • Discover or generate (e.g., grounded theory) Seek to understand (e.g., ethnography) • Explore a process (e.g., case study) Page 134 Use these more exploratory verbs as nondirectional rather than directional words of quantitative research, such as affect, influence, impact, determine, cause, and relate. Expect the research questions to evolve and change during the study in a manner consistent with the assumptions of an emerging design. Often in qualitative studies, the questions are under continual review and reformulation (as in a grounded theory study). This approach may be problematic for individuals accustomed to quantitative designs in which the research questions remain fixed and never change throughout the study. Use openended questions without reference to the literature or theory unless otherwise indicated by a qualitative strategy of inquiry. Specify the participants and the research site for the study if the information has not yet been given. Here is a typical script for a qualitative central question: ______ (How or what?) is the _________ (“story for” for narrative research; “meaning of” the phenomenon for phenomenology; “theory that explains the process of” for grounded theory; “culturesharing pattern” for ethnography; “issue” in the “case” for case study) of _________ (central phenomenon) for _________ (participants) at _________ (research site). Page 136 Quantitative Research Questions and Hypotheses In quantitative studies, investigators use quantitative research questions and hypotheses, and sometimes objectives, to shape and specifically focus the purpose of the study. Quantitative research questions inquire about the relationships among variables that the investigator seeks to know. They are frequently used in social science research and especially in survey studies. Quantitative hypotheses, on the other hand, are predictions the researcher makes about the expected outcomes of relationships among variables. They are numeric estimates of population values based on data collected from samples. Testing of hypotheses employs statistical procedures in which the investigator draws inferences about the population from a study sample (see also Chapter 8). Hypotheses are used often in experiments or intervention trials in which investigators compare groups. Advisers sometimes recommend their use in a formal research project, such as a dissertation or thesis, as a means of stating the direction a study will take. Objectives, on the other hand, indicate the goals or objectives for a study. They often appear in proposals for funding, but tend to be used with less frequency in social and health science research. Because of this, the focus here will be on research questions and hypotheses. Here is an example of a script for a quantitative research question describing outcomes of score for a variable: What is the frequency and variation of scores on ____________(name the variable) for ______________(participants) in the study? Here is an example of a script for a quantitative research question focused on examining the relationship among variables: Does _________ (name the theory) explain the relationship between _________ (independent variable) and _________ (dependent variable), controlling for the effects of _________ (mediating variable)? Alternatively, a script for a quantitative null hypothesis might be as follows: There is no significant difference between _________ (the control and experimental groups on the independent variable) on _________ (dependent variable). Guidelines for writing good quantitative research questions and hypotheses include the following. Page 137 The use of variables in research questions or hypotheses is typically limited to three basic approaches. The researcher may compare groups on an independent variable to see its impact on a dependent variable (this would be an experiment or group comparisons). Alternatively, the investigator may relate one or more independent variables to one or more dependent variables (this would be a survey that correlates variables). Third, the researcher may describe responses to the independent, mediating, or dependent variables (this would be a descriptive study). Most quantitative research falls into one or more of these three categories. The most rigorous form of quantitative research follows from a test of a theory (see Chapter 3) and the specification of research questions or hypotheses that logically follow from the relationship among variables in the theory. The independent and dependent variables must be measured separately and not measured on the same concept. This procedure reinforces the cause-andeffect logic of quantitative research. To eliminate redundancy, write only research questions or hypotheses—not both—unless the hypotheses build on the research questions. Choose the form based on tradition, recommendations from an adviser or faculty committee, or whether past research indicates a prediction about outcomes. If hypotheses are used, there are two forms: (a) null and (b) alternative. A null hypothesis represents the traditional approach: It makes a prediction that in the general population, no relationship or no significant difference exists between groups on a variable. The wording is, “There is no difference (or relationship)” between the groups. Example 7.3 illustrates a null hypothesis. The second form, popular in journal articles, is the alternative or directional hypothesis. The investigator makes a prediction about the expected outcome, basing this prediction on prior literature and studies on the topic that suggest a potential outcome. For example, the researcher may predict that “scores will be higher for Group A than for Group B” on the dependent variable or that “Group A will change more than Group B” on the outcome. These examples illustrate a directional hypothesis because an expected prediction (e.g., higher, more change) is made. Example 7.4 illustrates a directional hypothesis. Another type of alternative statement is the nondirectional hypothesis—a prediction is made, but the exact form of differences (e.g., higher, lower, more, less) is not specified because the researcher does not know what can be predicted from past literature. Thus, the investigator might write, “There is a difference” between the two groups. Example 7.5 incorporates both types of hypotheses. Unless the study intentionally employs demographic variables as predictors, use nondemographic variables (i.e., attitudes or behaviors) as mediating variables. These are variables that “stand between” the independent and dependent variables. Demographic variables are often used as moderating variables that affect the influence of the independent variable on the dependent variable. Because quantitative studies attempt to verify theories, demographic variables (e.g., age, income level, educational level) typically enter these studies as moderating variables instead of major independent variables. Use the same pattern of word order in the questions or hypotheses to enable a reader to easily identify the major variables. This calls for repeating key phrases and positioning the variables with the independent first and concluding with the dependent in left-to-right order (as discussed in Chapter 6 on good purpose statements). Example 7.6 illustrates word order with independent variables stated first in the phrase. Page 141 Mixed Methods Research Questions and Hypotheses In discussions about methods, researchers typically do not see specific questions or hypotheses especially tailored to mixed methods research. However, discussion now exists about the use of a new type of research question—a mixed methods question—in studies and commentary as to how to design them (see Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011, 2018 Tashakkori & Creswell, 2007). A strong mixed methods study should contain at least three research questions: the qualitative question, the quantitative question or hypothesis, and a mixed methods question. This mixed methods question represents what the researcher needs to know about the integration or combination of the quantitative and qualitative data. This configuration is necessary because mixed methods does not rely exclusively on either qualitative or quantitative research but on both forms of inquiry. Researchers should consider what types of questions should be presented and when and what information is most needed to convey the nature of the study: Page 142 Both qualitative and quantitative research questions (or hypotheses) need to be advanced in a mixed methods study in order to narrow and focus the purpose statement. Before the two databases can be integrated or combined, they need to be analyzed separately in response to questions (or hypotheses). These questions or hypotheses can be advanced at the beginning or emerge during a later phase of the research. For example, if the study begins with a quantitative phase, the investigator might introduce hypotheses. Later in the study, when the qualitative phase is addressed, the qualitative research questions appear. When writing these questions or hypotheses, follow the guidelines in this chapter for scripting good questions or hypotheses. Some attention should be given to the order of the research questions and hypotheses. The order will reflect the type of mixed methods design being used, as will be discussed in Chapter 10. In a single-phase mixed methods project in which the quantitative and qualitative results are merged, either the quantitative or the qualitative questions can be posed first. In a two-phase project, the first-phase questions would come first, followed by the second-phase questions so that readers see them in the order in which they will be addressed in the proposed study. In a three-phase project, often the mixed methods question will reside in the middle in the order of questioning, and the first-phase question will be qualitative and the final-phase question will be quantitative. These different types of phased projects will be discussed later in Chapter 10 as specific types of mixed methods research designs. In addition to quantitative questions/hypotheses and qualitative questions, include a mixed methods research question that directly addresses the mixing or integration of the quantitative and qualitative strands of the research. This is the question that will be answered in the study based on the mixing (see Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018). This is an innovative form of a question in research methods, and Tashakkori and Creswell (2007, p. 208) call it a “hybrid” or “integrated” question. The mixed methods question can be written in different ways. This can assume one of three forms. The first is to write it in a way that conveys the methods or procedures in a study (e.g., Does the qualitative data help explain the results from the initial quantitative phase of the study?). The second form is to write it in a way that conveys the content of the study (e.g., Does the theme of social support help to explain why some students become bullies in schools?) (see Tashakkori & Creswell, 2007). The third approach is to combine the methods and content as a hybrid question (e.g., How does the qualitative interview data on student bullying further explain why social support, as measured quantitatively, tends to discourage bullying as measured on a bullying scale?). Consider how to present the quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods questions in a mixed methods study. An ideal format would be to write the questions into separate sections, such as the quantitative questions or hypotheses, the qualitative questions, and the mixed methods question. This format highlights the importance of all three sets of questions and draws the readers’ attention to the separate quantitative and qualitative strands coming together (or being integrated) in a mixed methods study. Often researchers position the mixed methods question (written in methods or content or some combination form) last because the study will build to this element of the design. Example 7.8 is a good illustration of a mixed methods question focused on the intent of mixing, to integrate the qualitative interviews and the quantitative data, the relationship of scores and student performance. This question emphasized what the integration was attempting to accomplish—a comprehensive and nuanced understanding—and at the end of the article, the authors presented evidence answering this question. Page 144 Summary Research questions and hypotheses narrow the purpose statement and become major signposts for readers. Qualitative researchers ask at least one central question and several subquestions. They begin the questions with words such as how or what and use exploratory verbs, such as explore, understand, or discover. They pose broad, general questions to allow the participants to explain their ideas. They also focus initially on one central phenomenon of interest. The questions may also mention the participants and the site for the research. Quantitative researchers write either research questions or hypotheses. Both forms include variables that are described, related, or compared with the independent and dependent variables measured separately. In many quantitative proposals, writers use research questions; however, a more formal statement of research employs hypotheses. These hypotheses are predictions about the outcomes of the results, and they may be written as alternative hypotheses specifying the results to be expected (more or less, higher or lower of something). They also may be stated in the null form, indicating no expected difference or no relationship between groups on a dependent variable. Typically, the researcher writes the independent variable(s) first, followed by the dependent variable(s). One model for ordering the questions in a quantitative proposal is to begin with descriptive questions followed by the inferential questions that relate variables or compare groups. We encourage mixed methods researchers to write quantitative, qualitative, and a mixed methods question into their studies. The mixed methods question might be written to emphasize the methods or the content of the study, or both, and these questions might be placed at different points in a study. By adding a mixed methods question, the researcher conveys the importance of integrating or combining the quantitative and qualitative elements. An ideal format would be to write the three types of questions into separate sections, such as the quantitative questions or hypotheses, the qualitative questions, and the mixed methods question into a study. Reference: John W Creswell, J David Creswell. (2018). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. Los Angelos. Sage Publications, Inc.
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Research Proposal

Purpose statement
The study aims to explain the factors that contribute to academic success within the
Career and Technical Adult Education Department with high school students. The research will
contain various sections that assist in answering the study questions. The investigation has
included the introduction part in the study, which explains the problem of a practice, which is
literacy. Moreover, the research purpose and the study question applied in guiding the
investigation has been incorporated in the introduction part. Literature examination is an
additional part in t...


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