Chapter 6 The Purpose Statement
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The last section of an introduction, as mentioned in Chapter 5, is to present a purpose statement that
establishes the intent of the entire research study. It is the most important statement in the entire study,
and it needs to be clear, specific, and informative. From it, all other aspects of the research follow, and
readers will be lost unless it is carefully drafted. In journal articles, researchers write the purpose
statement into introductions as the final statement; in theses and dissertations, it often stands as a separate
section. In this chapter devoted exclusively to the purpose statement, we address the reasons for
developing it, key principles to use in its design, and examples of good models in crafting one for your
proposal.
Significance and Meaning of a Purpose Statement
According to Locke, Spirduso, and Silverman (2013), the purpose statement indicates why you want to
conduct the study and what you intend to accomplish. Unfortunately, proposal-writing texts give little
attention to the purpose statement, and writers on method often incorporate it into discussions about other
topics, such as specifying research questions or hypotheses. Wilkinson (1991), for example, refers to it
within the context of the research question and objective. Other authors frame it as an aspect of the
research problem (Castetter & Heisler, 1977). Closely examining their discussions, however, indicates
that they both refer to the purpose statement as the central, controlling idea in a study.
This passage is called the purpose statement because it conveys the overall intent of a proposed study in a
sentence or several sentences. It may also be called a study aim or the research objective of a project. In
proposals, researchers need to distinguish clearly between the purpose statement, the research problem,
and the research questions. The purpose statement sets forth the intent of the study, not the problem or
issue leading to a need for the study (see Chapter 5). The purpose is also not the research questions—
those questions that the data collection will attempt to answer (discussed in Chapter 7). Instead and again,
the purpose statement sets the objectives, the intent, or the major idea of a proposal or a study. This idea
builds on a need (the problem) and is refined into specific questions (the research questions).
Given the importance of the purpose statement, it is helpful to set it apart from other aspects of the
proposal or study and to frame it as a single sentence or paragraph that readers can easily identify.
Although qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods purpose statements share similar topics, each is
identified in the following paragraphs and illustrated with fill-in scripts for constructing a thorough but
manageable purpose statement.
A Qualitative Purpose Statement
Good qualitative purpose statements contain information about the central phenomenon explored in
the study, the participants in the study, and the research site. It also conveys an emerging design and
uses research words drawn from the language of qualitative inquiry (Schwandt, 2014). Thus, one might
consider several basic design features for writing this statement:
Use words such as purpose, intent, study aim, or objective to signal attention to this statement as the
central controlling idea. Set the statement off as a separate sentence or paragraph, and use the
language of research, such as “The purpose (or intent or objective) of this study is (was) (will be) . . .”
Researchers often use the present or past verb tense in journal articles and dissertations and the future
tense in proposals because researchers are presenting a proposal for a study not yet undertaken. Focus
on a single phenomenon (or concept or idea). Narrow the study to one idea to be explored or
understood. This focus means that a purpose does not convey relating two or more variables or
comparing two or more groups, as is typically found in quantitative research. Instead, advance a single
phenomenon, recognizing that the study may evolve into an exploration of relationships or comparisons
among ideas. None of these related explorations could be anticipated at the beginning. For example, a
project might begin by exploring teacher identity and the marginalization of this identity in a particular
school (Huber & Whelan, 1999), the meaning of baseball culture in a study of the work and talk of
stadium employees (Trujillo, 1992), or how individuals cognitively represent AIDS (Anderson & Spencer,
2002). These examples illustrate a focus on a single idea. Use action verbs to convey how learning will
take place. Action verbs and phrases, such as, understand, develop, explore, examine the meaning of,
generate, or discover, keep the inquiry open and convey an emerging design. Use neutral words and
phrases—nondirectional language—such as, exploring the “self-expression experiences of individuals”
rather than the “successful self-expression of individuals.” Other words and phrases that may be
problematic include useful, positive, and informing—all words that suggest a directional outcome that
may or may not occur. McCracken (1988) referred to the need in qualitative interviews to let the
respondent describe his or her experience. Interviewers (or purpose statement writers) can easily
violate the “law of nondirection” (McCracken, 1988, p. 21) in qualitative research by using words that
suggest a directional orientation. Provide a general working definition of the central phenomenon or
idea, especially if the phenomenon is a term that is not typically understood by a broad audience.
Consistent with the rhetoric of qualitative research, this definition is not rigid and set but tentative and
evolving throughout a study based on information from participants. Hence, a writer might say, “A
tentative definition at this time for ___________ (central phenomenon) is . . .”
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It should also be noted that this definition is not to be confused with the detailed definition of terms
section as discussed in Chapter 2 on the review of the literature. The intent here is to convey to readers
at an early stage in a proposal or research study a general sense of the central phenomenon so that they
can better understand the types of questions and responses asked of participants and data sources.
Include words denoting the strategy of inquiry to be used in data collection, analysis, and the process of
research, such as whether the study will use an ethnographic, grounded theory, case study,
phenomenological, narrative approach, or some other strategy. Mention the participants in the study,
such as one or more individuals, a group of people, or an entire organization. Identify the site for the
research, such as homes, classrooms, organizations, programs, or events. Describe this site in enough
detail so that the reader knows exactly where a study will take place. As a final thought in the purpose
statement, include some language that delimits the scope of participation or research sites in the study.
For example, the study may be limited to women or Latinas only. The research site may be limited to
one metropolitan city or to one small geographic area. The central phenomenon may be limited to
individuals in business organizations who participate in creative teams. These delimitations help to
further define the parameters of the research study.
Although considerable variation exists in the inclusion of these points in purpose statements, a good
dissertation or thesis proposal should contain many of them. To assist you, here is a script that should
be helpful in drafting a complete statement. A script, as used in this book, contains the major words and
ideas of a statement and provides space for the researcher to insert information. The purpose (or study
aim) of this ___________ (strategy of inquiry, such as ethnography, case study, or other type) study is
(was? will be?) to ___________ (understand? explore? develop? generate? discover?) the ___________
(central phenomenon being studied) for ___________ (the participants, such as the individual, groups,
organization) at ___________ (research site). At this stage in the research, the ___________ (central
phenomenon being studied) will be generally defined as ___________ (provide a general definition).
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A Quantitative Purpose Statement
Quantitative purpose statements differ considerably from the qualitative models in terms of the
language and a focus on relating or comparing variables or constructs. Recall from Chapter 3 the types
of major variables: independent, mediating, moderating, and dependent.
The design of a quantitative purpose statement includes the variables in the study and their
relationship, the participants, and the research site. It also includes language associated with
quantitative research and the deductive testing of relationships or theories. A quantitative purpose
statement begins with identifying the proposed major variables in a study (independent, intervening,
dependent), accompanied by a visual model to clearly identify this sequence, and locating and specifying
how the variables will be measured or observed. Finally, the intent of using the variables quantitatively
will typically be either to relate variables, as one usually finds in a survey, or to compare samples or
groups in terms of an outcome, as commonly found in experiments.
The major components of a good quantitative purpose statement include the following:
Include words to signal the major intent of the study, such as purpose, intent, or objective. Start with
“The purpose (or objective or intent) of this study is (was, will be) . . .” Identify the theory, model, or
conceptual framework. At this point, one does not need to describe it in detail; in Chapter 3, we
suggested the possibility of writing a separate “Theoretical Perspective” section for this purpose.
Mentioning it in the purpose statement provides emphasis on the importance of the theory and
foreshadows its use in the study. Identify the independent and dependent variables, as well as any
mediating or moderating variables used in the study. Use words that connect the independent and
dependent variables to indicate that they are related, such as “the relationship between” two or more
variables or a “comparison of” two or more groups. Also, a purpose statement could be to “describe”
variables. Most quantitative studies employ one or more of these three options for discussing variables
in the purpose statement. A combination of comparing and relating might also exist—for example, a
two-factor experiment in which the researcher has two or more treatment groups as well as a
continuous independent variable. Although one typically finds studies about comparing two or more
groups in experiments, it is also possible to compare groups in a survey study. Position or order the
variables from left to right in the purpose statement—with the independent variable followed by the
dependent variable. Place intervening variables between the independent and dependent variables.
Many researchers also place the moderating variables as related to the independent variables. In
experiments, the independent variable will always be the manipulated variable. Mention the specific
type of strategy of inquiry (such as survey or experimental research) used in the study. By incorporating
this information, the researcher anticipates the methods discussion and enables a reader to associate
the relationship of variables to the inquiry approach. Make reference to the participants (or the unit of
analysis) in the study, and mention the research site. Generally define each key variable, preferably
using set and accepted established definitions found in the literature. General definitions are included at
this point to help the reader best understand the purpose statement. They do not replace specific,
operational definitions found later when a writer has a “Definition of Terms” section in a proposal
(details about how variables will be measured). Also, delimitations that affect the scope of the study
might be mentioned, such as the scope of the data collection or limited to certain individuals.
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Based on these points, a quantitative purpose statement script can include these ideas:
The purpose of this ___________ (experiment? survey?) study is (was? will be?) to test the theory of
___________ that ___________ (describes outcomes) or ___________ (compares? relates?) the
___________ (independent variable) to ___________ (dependent variable), controlling for ___________
(mediating or moderating variables) for ___________ (participants) at ___________ (the research site).
The independent variable(s) ___________ will be defined as ___________ (provide a definition). The
dependent variable(s) will be defined as ___________ (provide a definition), and the intervening
variable(s), ___________, (identify the intervening variables) will be defined as ___________ (provide a
definition).
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A Mixed Methods Purpose Statement
Mixed methods purpose statements contains the overall intent of the study, information about both the
quantitative and qualitative strands of the study, and a rationale of incorporating both strands to study
the research problem. These statements need to be identified early, in the introduction, and they
provide major signposts for the reader to understand the quantitative and qualitative parts of a study.
Several guidelines might direct the organization and presentation of the mixed methods purpose
statement:
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Begin with words that signal intent, such as “The purpose of,” “The study aim is,” or “The intent of.”
Indicate the overall purpose of the study from a content perspective, such as “The intent is to learn
about organizational effectiveness” or “The intent is to examine families with stepchildren.” In this way,
the reader has an anchor to use to understand the overall study before the researcher divides the
project into quantitative and qualitative strands. Indicate the type of mixed methods design, such as a
convergent design, an explanatory sequential design, an exploratory sequential design or a complex
design (as discussed in Chapter 10). Discuss the reasons or justification for combining both quantitative
and qualitative data. This reason could be one of the following (see Chapter 10 for more detail about
these reasons): To develop a complete understanding of a research problem by comparing quantitative
and qualitative results from the two databases (a convergent design). To understand the data at a more
detailed level by using qualitative follow-up data collection to help explain quantitative results, such as a
survey (see also O’Cathain, Murphy, & Nicholl, 2007) (an explanatory sequential design). To develop a
new measurement instrument that actually fits the culture of a sample by first exploring qualitatively
(e.g., through interviews) and then testing the instrument with a large sample (an exploratory sequential
design). To incorporate these reasons (and designs) into a larger design, methodology, or theory such as
an experimental design, a case study or evaluation methodology, or a theory of participatory–social
justice research (see Chapter 10).
Based on these elements, three examples of mixed methods purpose statement scripts follow based on
the convergent, explanatory sequential, and exploratory sequential designs (Creswell & Plano Clark,
2018). This first example of a mixed methods purpose statement is a script for a convergent mixed
methods strategy in which quantitative and qualitative data are collected and analyzed separately and
the two databases compared to best understand a research problem.
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This mixed methods study will address ___________ [overall content aim]. A convergent mixed methods
design will be used, and it is a type of design in which qualitative and quantitative data are collected in
parallel, analyzed separately, and then merged. In this study, ___________ [quantitative data] will be
used to test the theory of ___________ [the theory] that predicts that ___________ [independent
variables] will ___________ [positively, negatively] influence the ___________ [dependent variables] for
___________ [participants] at ___________ [the site]. The ___________ [type of qualitative data] will
explore ___________ [the central phenomenon] for ___________ [participants] at ___________ [the
site]. The reason for collecting both quantitative and qualitative data is to ___________ [the mixing
reason].
This second script illustrates a mixed methods purpose statement for an explanatory sequential design
in which the intent is to understand the quantitative database at a deeper level using follow-up
qualitative data.
This study will address ___________ [content aim]. An explanatory sequential mixed methods design
will be used, and it will involve collecting quantitative data first and then explaining the quantitative
results with in-depth qualitative data. In the first quantitative phase of the study, ___________
[quantitative instrument] data will be collected from ___________ [participants] at ___________
[research site] to test ___________ [name of theory] to assess whether ___________ [independent
variables] relate to ___________ [dependent variables]. The second qualitative phase will be conducted
as a follow up to the quantitative results to help explain the quantitative results. In this exploratory
follow-up, the tentative plan is to explore ___________ [the central phenomenon] with ___________
[participants] at ___________ [research site].
The final script is an illustration of the purpose statement that might be used for an exploratory
sequential design in which the intent is to develop measures (or instruments) that work with a sample
by first collecting qualitative data and then using it to design measures or the instrument that can be
tested with a sample of a population.
This study addresses ___________ [content aim]. The purpose of this exploratory sequential design will
be to first qualitatively explore with a small sample, to design a feature (e.g., instrument, website,
experimental intervention activities, new variables), and then to test this feature out with a large
sample. The first phase of the study will be a qualitative exploration of ___________ [the central
phenomenon] in which ___________ [types of data] will be collected from ___________ [participants]
at ___________ [research site]. From this initial exploration, the qualitative findings will be used to
develop a quantitative feature that can be tested with a large sample. In the tentatively planned
quantitative phase, ___________ [quantitative data] will be collected from ___________ [participants]
at ___________ [research site].
Other examples are available that include embedding the core mixed methods designs (i.e., convergent,
explanatory sequential, and exploratory sequential) into complex designs such as an intervention or
experimental trial, a case study, a participatory–social justice framework, or an evaluation study can be
found in Creswell and Plano Clark (2018).
It is helpful to look closely at several examples of purpose statements as found in recent published
articles. Although these examples may not include all of the elements of the scripts, they do serve as
examples of reasonably complete purpose statements that clearly convey the purpose of a mixed
methods study. The discussion will be limited to the three core types of design: (a) a convergent design
(Example 6.8), (b) an explanatory sequential design (Example 6.9), and (c) an exploratory sequential
design (Example 6.10). Other designs that expand these possibilities will be detailed further in Chapter
10.
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Summary This chapter emphasizes the primary importance of a purpose statement. This statement
advances the central idea in a study. In writing a qualitative purpose statement, a researcher needs to
identify a single central phenomenon and to pose a tentative definition for it. Also, the researcher
includes in this statement strong action words, such as discover, develop, or understand; uses
nondirectional language; and mentions the strategy of inquiry, the participants, and the research site. In
a quantitative purpose statement, the researcher states the theory being tested as well as the variables
and their description, relationship, or comparison. It is important to position the independent variable
first and the dependent variable second. The researcher conveys the strategy of inquiry as well as the
participants and the research site for the investigation. In some purpose statements, the researcher also
defines the key variables used in the study. In a mixed methods study, a purpose statement includes a
statement of intent, the type of mixed methods design, the forms of qualitative and quantitative data
collection and analysis, and the reason for collecting both forms of data.
Students and instructors, please visit the companion website for videos featuring John W. Creswell, fulltext SAGE journal articles, quizzes and activities, plus additional tools for research design
https://edge.sagepub.com/creswellrd5e
Reference:
John W Creswell, J David Creswell. (2018). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed
Methods Approaches. Los
Angelos. Sage Publications, Inc.
Chapter 7 Research Questions and Hypotheses
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Investigators place signposts to carry the reader through a plan for a study. The first signpost is the
purpose statement, which establishes the central intent for the study. The next would be the research
questions or hypotheses that narrow the purpose statement to predictions about what will be learned
or questions to be answered in the study. This chapter begins by advancing several principles in
designing qualitative research questions and helpful scripts for writing these questions. It then turns to
the design of quantitative research questions and hypotheses and ways to write these elements into a
study. Finally, it advances the use of research questions and hypotheses in mixed methods studies, and
it suggests the development of a unique mixed methods question that ties together or integrates the
quantitative and qualitative data in a study.
Qualitative Research Questions
In a qualitative study, inquirers state research questions, not objectives (i.e., specific goals for the
research) or hypotheses (i.e., predictions that involve variables and statistical tests). These research
questions assume two forms: (a) a central question and (b) associated subquestions.
Ask one or two central research questions. The central question is a broad question that asks for an
exploration of the central phenomenon or concept in a study. The inquirer poses this question,
consistent with the emerging methodology of qualitative research, as a general issue so as to not limit
the views of participants. To arrive at this question, ask, “What is the broadest question that I can ask in
the study?” Beginning researchers trained in quantitative research might struggle with this approach
because they are accustomed to reverse thinking. They narrow the quantitative study to specific, narrow
questions or hypotheses based on a few variables. In qualitative research, the intent is to explore the
general, complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon and present the broad, varied
perspectives or meanings that participants hold. The following are guidelines for writing qualitative
research questions: Ask no more than five to seven subquestions in addition to your central questions.
Several subquestions follow each general central question; they narrow the focus of the study but leave
open the questioning. This approach is well within the limits set by Miles and Huberman (1994), who
recommended that researchers write no more than a dozen qualitative research questions in all (central
and subquestions). The subquestions, in turn, become specific questions used during interviews (or in
observing or when looking at documents). In developing an interview protocol or guide, the researcher
might ask an icebreaker question at the beginning, for example, followed by five or so subquestions in
the study (see Chapter 9). The interview would then end with an additional wrap-up or summary
question or by asking, “Who should I turn to, to learn more about this topic?” (Asmussen & Creswell,
1995). Relate the central question to the specific qualitative strategy of inquiry. For example, the
specificity of the questions in ethnography at this stage of the design differs from that in other
qualitative strategies. In ethnographic research, Spradley (1980) advanced a taxonomy of ethnographic
questions that included a mini-tour of the culture-sharing group, their experiences, use of native
language, contrasts with other cultural groups, and questions to verify the accuracy of the data. In
critical ethnography, the research questions may build on a body of existing literature. These questions
become working guidelines rather than proven truths (Thomas, 1993, p. 35). Alternatively, in
phenomenology, the questions might be broadly stated without specific reference to the existing
literature or a typology of questions. Moustakas (1994) talked about asking what the participants
experienced and what contexts or situations in which they experienced it. A phenomenological example
is “What is it like for a mother to live with a teenage child who is dying of cancer?” (Nieswiadomy, 1993,
p. 151). In grounded theory, the questions may be directed toward generating a theory of some process,
such as the exploration of a process as to how caregivers and patients interact in a hospital setting. In a
qualitative case study, the questions may address a description of the case and the themes that emerge
from studying it. Begin the research questions with the words what or how to convey an open and
emerging design. The word why often implies that the researcher is trying to explain why something
occurs, and this suggests to us probable cause-and-effect thinking that we associate with quantitative
research and that limits the explanations rather than opening them up for participant views. Focus on a
single phenomenon or concept. As a study develops over time, factors will emerge that may influence
this single phenomenon, but begin a study with a single focus to explore in great detail. We often ask,
“What is the one, single concept that you want to explore?” Use exploratory verbs that convey the
language of emerging design. These verbs tell the reader that the study will do the following:
• Report (or reflect) the stories (e.g., narrative research)
• Describe the essence of the experience (e.g., phenomenology)
• Discover or generate (e.g., grounded theory) Seek to understand (e.g., ethnography)
• Explore a process (e.g., case study)
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Use these more exploratory verbs as nondirectional rather than directional words of quantitative
research, such as affect, influence, impact, determine, cause, and relate. Expect the research questions
to evolve and change during the study in a manner consistent with the assumptions of an emerging
design. Often in qualitative studies, the questions are under continual review and reformulation (as in a
grounded theory study). This approach may be problematic for individuals accustomed to quantitative
designs in which the research questions remain fixed and never change throughout the study. Use openended questions without reference to the literature or theory unless otherwise indicated by a
qualitative strategy of inquiry. Specify the participants and the research site for the study if the
information has not yet been given.
Here is a typical script for a qualitative central question:
______ (How or what?) is the _________ (“story for” for narrative research; “meaning of” the
phenomenon for phenomenology; “theory that explains the process of” for grounded theory; “culturesharing pattern” for ethnography; “issue” in the “case” for case study) of _________ (central
phenomenon) for _________ (participants) at _________ (research site).
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Quantitative Research Questions and Hypotheses
In quantitative studies, investigators use quantitative research questions and hypotheses, and
sometimes objectives, to shape and specifically focus the purpose of the study. Quantitative research
questions inquire about the relationships among variables that the investigator seeks to know. They are
frequently used in social science research and especially in survey studies. Quantitative hypotheses, on
the other hand, are predictions the researcher makes about the expected outcomes of relationships
among variables. They are numeric estimates of population values based on data collected from
samples. Testing of hypotheses employs statistical procedures in which the investigator draws
inferences about the population from a study sample (see also Chapter 8). Hypotheses are used often in
experiments or intervention trials in which investigators compare groups. Advisers sometimes
recommend their use in a formal research project, such as a dissertation or thesis, as a means of stating
the direction a study will take. Objectives, on the other hand, indicate the goals or objectives for a study.
They often appear in proposals for funding, but tend to be used with less frequency in social and health
science research. Because of this, the focus here will be on research questions and hypotheses.
Here is an example of a script for a quantitative research question describing outcomes of score for a
variable:
What is the frequency and variation of scores on ____________(name the variable) for
______________(participants) in the study? Here is an example of a script for a quantitative research
question focused on examining the relationship among variables: Does _________ (name the theory)
explain the relationship between _________ (independent variable) and _________ (dependent
variable), controlling for the effects of _________ (mediating variable)? Alternatively, a script for a
quantitative null hypothesis might be as follows: There is no significant difference between _________
(the control and experimental groups on the independent variable) on _________ (dependent variable).
Guidelines for writing good quantitative research questions and hypotheses include the following.
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The use of variables in research questions or hypotheses is typically limited to three basic approaches.
The researcher may compare groups on an independent variable to see its impact on a dependent
variable (this would be an experiment or group comparisons). Alternatively, the investigator may relate
one or more independent variables to one or more dependent variables (this would be a survey that
correlates variables). Third, the researcher may describe responses to the independent, mediating, or
dependent variables (this would be a descriptive study). Most quantitative research falls into one or
more of these three categories. The most rigorous form of quantitative research follows from a test of a
theory (see Chapter 3) and the specification of research questions or hypotheses that logically follow
from the relationship among variables in the theory. The independent and dependent variables must be
measured separately and not measured on the same concept. This procedure reinforces the cause-andeffect logic of quantitative research. To eliminate redundancy, write only research questions or
hypotheses—not both—unless the hypotheses build on the research questions. Choose the form based
on tradition, recommendations from an adviser or faculty committee, or whether past research
indicates a prediction about outcomes. If hypotheses are used, there are two forms: (a) null and (b)
alternative. A null hypothesis represents the traditional approach: It makes a prediction that in the
general population, no relationship or no significant difference exists between groups on a variable. The
wording is, “There is no difference (or relationship)” between the groups. Example 7.3 illustrates a null
hypothesis. The second form, popular in journal articles, is the alternative or directional hypothesis. The
investigator makes a prediction about the expected outcome, basing this prediction on prior literature
and studies on the topic that suggest a potential outcome. For example, the researcher may predict that
“scores will be higher for Group A than for Group B” on the dependent variable or that “Group A will
change more than Group B” on the outcome. These examples illustrate a directional hypothesis because
an expected prediction (e.g., higher, more change) is made. Example 7.4 illustrates a directional
hypothesis. Another type of alternative statement is the nondirectional hypothesis—a prediction is
made, but the exact form of differences (e.g., higher, lower, more, less) is not specified because the
researcher does not know what can be predicted from past literature. Thus, the investigator might
write, “There is a difference” between the two groups. Example 7.5 incorporates both types of
hypotheses. Unless the study intentionally employs demographic variables as predictors, use
nondemographic variables (i.e., attitudes or behaviors) as mediating variables. These are variables that
“stand between” the independent and dependent variables. Demographic variables are often used as
moderating variables that affect the influence of the independent variable on the dependent variable.
Because quantitative studies attempt to verify theories, demographic variables (e.g., age, income level,
educational level) typically enter these studies as moderating variables instead of major independent
variables. Use the same pattern of word order in the questions or hypotheses to enable a reader to
easily identify the major variables. This calls for repeating key phrases and positioning the variables with
the independent first and concluding with the dependent in left-to-right order (as discussed in Chapter 6
on good purpose statements). Example 7.6 illustrates word order with independent variables stated first
in the phrase.
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Mixed Methods Research Questions and Hypotheses
In discussions about methods, researchers typically do not see specific questions or hypotheses
especially tailored to mixed methods research. However, discussion now exists about the use of a new
type of research question—a mixed methods question—in studies and commentary as to how to design
them (see Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011, 2018 Tashakkori & Creswell, 2007). A strong mixed methods
study should contain at least three research questions: the qualitative question, the quantitative
question or hypothesis, and a mixed methods question. This mixed methods question represents what
the researcher needs to know about the integration or combination of the quantitative and qualitative
data. This configuration is necessary because mixed methods does not rely exclusively on either
qualitative or quantitative research but on both forms of inquiry. Researchers should consider what
types of questions should be presented and when and what information is most needed to convey the
nature of the study:
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Both qualitative and quantitative research questions (or hypotheses) need to be advanced in a mixed
methods study in order to narrow and focus the purpose statement. Before the two databases can be
integrated or combined, they need to be analyzed separately in response to questions (or hypotheses).
These questions or hypotheses can be advanced at the beginning or emerge during a later phase of the
research. For example, if the study begins with a quantitative phase, the investigator might introduce
hypotheses. Later in the study, when the qualitative phase is addressed, the qualitative research
questions appear. When writing these questions or hypotheses, follow the guidelines in this chapter for
scripting good questions or hypotheses. Some attention should be given to the order of the research
questions and hypotheses. The order will reflect the type of mixed methods design being used, as will be
discussed in Chapter 10. In a single-phase mixed methods project in which the quantitative and
qualitative results are merged, either the quantitative or the qualitative questions can be posed first. In
a two-phase project, the first-phase questions would come first, followed by the second-phase
questions so that readers see them in the order in which they will be addressed in the proposed study.
In a three-phase project, often the mixed methods question will reside in the middle in the order of
questioning, and the first-phase question will be qualitative and the final-phase question will be
quantitative. These different types of phased projects will be discussed later in Chapter 10 as specific
types of mixed methods research designs. In addition to quantitative questions/hypotheses and
qualitative questions, include a mixed methods research question that directly addresses the mixing or
integration of the quantitative and qualitative strands of the research. This is the question that will be
answered in the study based on the mixing (see Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018). This is an innovative form
of a question in research methods, and Tashakkori and Creswell (2007, p. 208) call it a “hybrid” or
“integrated” question. The mixed methods question can be written in different ways. This can assume
one of three forms. The first is to write it in a way that conveys the methods or procedures in a study
(e.g., Does the qualitative data help explain the results from the initial quantitative phase of the study?).
The second form is to write it in a way that conveys the content of the study (e.g., Does the theme of
social support help to explain why some students become bullies in schools?) (see Tashakkori &
Creswell, 2007). The third approach is to combine the methods and content as a hybrid question (e.g.,
How does the qualitative interview data on student bullying further explain why social support, as
measured quantitatively, tends to discourage bullying as measured on a bullying scale?). Consider how
to present the quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods questions in a mixed methods study. An
ideal format would be to write the questions into separate sections, such as the quantitative questions
or hypotheses, the qualitative questions, and the mixed methods question. This format highlights the
importance of all three sets of questions and draws the readers’ attention to the separate quantitative
and qualitative strands coming together (or being integrated) in a mixed methods study. Often
researchers position the mixed methods question (written in methods or content or some combination
form) last because the study will build to this element of the design.
Example 7.8 is a good illustration of a mixed methods question focused on the intent of mixing, to
integrate the qualitative interviews and the quantitative data, the relationship of scores and student
performance. This question emphasized what the integration was attempting to accomplish—a
comprehensive and nuanced understanding—and at the end of the article, the authors presented
evidence answering this question.
Page 144
Summary Research questions and hypotheses narrow the purpose statement and become major
signposts for readers. Qualitative researchers ask at least one central question and several subquestions.
They begin the questions with words such as how or what and use exploratory verbs, such as explore,
understand, or discover. They pose broad, general questions to allow the participants to explain their
ideas. They also focus initially on one central phenomenon of interest. The questions may also mention
the participants and the site for the research. Quantitative researchers write either research questions
or hypotheses. Both forms include variables that are described, related, or compared with the
independent and dependent variables measured separately. In many quantitative proposals, writers use
research questions; however, a more formal statement of research employs hypotheses. These
hypotheses are predictions about the outcomes of the results, and they may be written as alternative
hypotheses specifying the results to be expected (more or less, higher or lower of something). They also
may be stated in the null form, indicating no expected difference or no relationship between groups on
a dependent variable. Typically, the researcher writes the independent variable(s) first, followed by the
dependent variable(s). One model for ordering the questions in a quantitative proposal is to begin with
descriptive questions followed by the inferential questions that relate variables or compare groups. We
encourage mixed methods researchers to write quantitative, qualitative, and a mixed methods question
into their studies. The mixed methods question might be written to emphasize the methods or the
content of the study, or both, and these questions might be placed at different points in a study. By
adding a mixed methods question, the researcher conveys the importance of integrating or combining
the quantitative and qualitative elements. An ideal format would be to write the three types of
questions into separate sections, such as the quantitative questions or hypotheses, the qualitative
questions, and the mixed methods question into a study.
Reference:
John W Creswell, J David Creswell. (2018). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed
Methods Approaches. Los
Angelos. Sage Publications, Inc.
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