Administration of Organizations in Criminal Justice: CCJ5200_0127_18111 TEXTBOOK: Cronkhite, C. L. (2013). Law enforcement and justice administration: Strategies for the 21st century (2nd ed.). Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning. Each question must be answered individually. The total word count for the assignment is 2000 words with 4 scholarly resources. The reading for this unit is attached. 1. Describe how the conflict and consensus models discussed in chapter 9 apply to viewing criminal justice as a system. 2. In chapter 9, lack of adequate public financing for the criminal justice system was discussed as a factor in criminal justice administrators not being able to achieve their goals. Do you think that this situation will change in the future? 3. Check the mission and/or value statements of various criminal justice agencies on the Internet. Can you find Social Equity concepts within these statements? 4. What is the difference between positive and negative discipline. Using a criminal justice organization’s functions and criminal justice employees, provide at least three examples of both positive and negative discipline. 150 word response to each peer post: Robinson, Gregory Question 1 I believe this situation can change in the future. Our text in chapter 9 talks about how such an advantage can be from public police benefitting from private police or security. There are twice as many private security personnel as there are public law enforcement officers. Many individuals are of the conclusion that the public police cannot give satisfactory service. Subsequently, numerous private entities are creating their security forces. It would be wise to “promote coordination between patrol officers and security officers.” Security officers should be considered assets that can extend the efforts of the public police (Cronkhite, 2013, p. 206). Many public police departments enroll the help of citizens through neighborhood watch programs. Why not do the same with the private security segment? Security officers can be trained to make crime and arrest reports relating to occurrences within the businesses where they are utilized, thus saving a patrol officer’s time. They can be alerted to criminals operating in the region and act as extra “eyes and ears’, or as I call it, they can become force multipliers because it relates crime and law enforcement action (Stewart, 1985, p. 761). Numerous calls for service can be dealt with by welltrained security officers in this manner, giving more available time for patrol officers. When unused commerce comes to the neighborhood, a theme park, or other enterprises, is presented to a municipality, are more public police officers funded, usually not (Bethel, 2020). Open systems administration should work to get local legislation that requires a fitting number of security officers to be contracted by the new business. An extra prerequisite should be that the concerned police division is included in the selection and training of the private security workforce (Stewart, 1985). Diminished funding implies still low pay rates for officers, and low staffing, which influences all areas of the neighborhood to incorporate the schools. When the financing is missing, so many areas are affected. Minimal visibility (which is an excellent deterrent to crime), work morale, numerous officers are searching for other places to serve where they think they may be reasonably compensated. Indeed within the schools, reduced public funding means low teacher pay rates, the conditions of the schools aren’t conducive to a great learning environment. Diminished financing may be an issue and will be until it is addressed appropriately and forcefully (Cronkhite, 2013). DQ Q1 Sandrell, Brandon Police organizations are in place to not only investigate acts of past criminal activity but to assist the community in the prevention of future crime. By focusing on the prevention aspect, the community will have a higher trust of the police administrators based on seeing them as a member of the community rather than an outside source generating revenue (Cronkhite, 2013). Although police agencies have many responsibilities to the community, funding will always play a major role in the operational success of the police agency. If you research how much funding actually goes to local police agencies from tax dollars you will be hard-pressed to find any real answers. Federally the budget for law enforcement only consists of 5% of the federal budget which includes the entire federal justice system (Reich, 2019). Although funding for criminal justice organizations is sufficient there appears to be an exceeding demand to do more with less as different needs and programs are created. Many programs and services are created using innovative methods by administrators within the criminal justice organizations. The future of these programs depends largely on the outcome of current programs and services and the positive influence and trust of the community. Funding for criminal justice follows economic trends and will be down in bad years and up in good years. Regardless of what kind of economic impact there is, the federal government will have grants for local police available based on revenue. “The Department of Justice offers funding opportunities to support law enforcement and public safety activities in state, local, and tribal jurisdictions; to assist victims of crime; to provide training and technical assistance; to conduct research; and to implement programs that improve the criminal, civil, and juvenile justice systems” (Justice, 2020). Based on the federal government grants providing a boost, local agencies can better utilize their local funding to operate programs such as Explorers. Police explorers is a program that gives kids an opportunity to explore a career in law enforcement (Law Enforcement Exploring, 2020). This program is something that is not necessary for the daily operation of the police department but offers a positive influence and community outreach. The level of funding this program has directly correlated with the type of experience the youth get. Items such as uniforms, fees, and activities are better with better funding. Should the funding to the program be cut and the grants available be exhausted the program may not be as successful as the participants would not wish to be a part of it. Criminal Justice organizations should be run as a family household. The essential items to make the organization's function should be paid for with priority whereas the extra benefits to the community through public outreach are secondary as long as the benefits to the program are weighed with the mission of the organization. A family should not pay for cable television and neglect the electricity the same as an organization that should not pay for an explorer program without funding the organization's employees. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR RESALE OR DISTRIBUTION CHAPTER Applying Open Systems Concepts to the Administration of Contemporary Criminal Justice Agencies 9 T U R N E R , T A Introduction The human body is an open system, as it depends on life-supporting substances from the surrounding M environment in order to exist. Humans could not live without food, water, air, and other elements from outside the body. So it is with organizations, and this is whyM Open Systems concepts are important. Woodrow Wilson’s description of public organizations, Y in the latter part of the century, inferred that they were closed systems. Administrators were to be concerned only with carrying out the directions of the representatives of the people through the internal operations of the organization. They were 1 were part of their environment. Public not encouraged to work directly with the public, who certainly administrators were to provide a proper organization structure wherein motivated employees would 5 efficiently and effectively achieve the wishes of elected officials. Public administrators managed their 2 intergovernmental environment that was agencies as closed systems with little concern for the social and outside the boundaries of their organizations. 1 In the 1960s, as Organization Functions and Employee Relations concepts continued to be enhanced, a major shift in administrative interest occurred. An outlookTdeveloped that held that public administrators had to be more directly concerned with their environment. S This was a significant departure from the emphasis of the previous 70 years. However, this was not a sudden change. It developed, as with other changes in administrative approaches, over time. The roots of its development can be found decades earlier. For example, in 1938, Chester Barnard encouraged public administrators to look beyond the immediate borders of their organizations and encouraged a more Open Systems view (Barnard 1938). His writings only incidentally began a departure from the closed systems view. In the Employee Relations development period, the Hawthorne experiments recognized the role of informally organized groups within the larger organization. However, it was not until the end of World War II that this shift in thinking started to crystallize. System theorists began to describe the interactions of social units with a larger social world. Organizations were created to resolve the problems of the postwar United States. 195 41344_CH09_FINAL.indd 195 2/8/12 10:07:39 AM © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR RESALE OR DISTRIBUTION Eclectic Perspective Client-Oriented Social Equity T U R N E R , Figure 9.1 Open Systems Employee Relations T Organization Functions A M M Y Themes for “Mentally” Filing Additional Contemporary Filing Cabinet of the Five Contextual Key Concepts and Terms Relating to the Organization Function Theme 1 5 key points are brought forward to interact with the The following summaries of Open Systems applications discussed in this chapter. Key historic 2 Open Systems concepts to remember are: • Bureaucracy is outdated (or is it?) 1 1967, “Organizations of the Future,” Warren Bennis T • Refocusing on Organization Functions 1966, “The Road to PPB: The Stages S of Budget Reform,” Allen Schick The need for Open Systems organizations • 1966, The Social Psychology of Organizations, Daniel Katz and Robert Kahn First, the forewarning from Warren Bennis that bureaucracy was outdated was based partly on the closed system concept of the past. Bennis’s predictions that the bureaucratic structure would not exist in 25 years certainly has not come to pass. However, for bureaucracy to survive, it has had to become more interconnected with the environment; Open Systems approaches have had to be implemented. Schick’s writings about budget reform are a reminder that even while focused on one contextual theme, attention to the others is required. During this period, when much attention was being paid to 196 41344_CH09_FINAL.indd 196 CHAPTER 9 Applying Open Systems Concepts to the Administration 2/8/12 10:07:40 AM © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR RESALE OR DISTRIBUTION developing Open Systems concepts, a troubled economy caused a refocusing to Organization Functions concepts. This is why Eclectic Perspective administrators must have a grasp of all the contextual themes and be prepared to eclectically apply the best mix of administrative approaches to the situation at hand. Contemporary Open Systems Concepts Even though it was Ludwig von Bertalanffy who formulated the original Open Systems concept, Katz and Kahn are remembered as major contributors to it being applied in the public sector. They listed nine characteristics of an Open System (Katz and Kahn 1966): (1) environmental awareness and importation of energy and resources, (2) conversion of energy into goods and services, (3) outputs, (4) cyclical character of processes, (5) negative entropy, (6) feedback, (7) functional steady state or dynamic homeostasis, (8) movement toward growth and expansion, and (9) equifinality. More recently, Gareth Morgan defined the “Principles of Open Systems” as follows: • • • • • Homeostasis: an open system seeks a steady state through T self-regulation based on feedback. Negative entropy: an open system sustains itself by importing energy from its environment. U of an open system must be as diverse as Requisite variety: the internal regulatory mechanisms the environment with which it is trying to deal. R Equifinality: in an open system, there may be many different ways of achieving any particular goal. System evolution: the capacity of an open system toNevolve depends on an ability to move to more complex forms of differentiation and integration. E (Morgan 1997, 40–41) One of the terms that came from Max Weber’s originalR “principles” of bureaucracy was that of the rational organization. Weber defined rational organizations as tightly organized structures that are best , able to deal with conditions that are stable and predictable. The closed system approach could exist under these conditions, and it should be acknowledged that some agencies still function as such. However, in today’s ever-changing social, political, and economical environment, the “nonrational” Open Systems T approach is best suited for survival. It might be said that all things are systems. This meansAthey have inputs; they process these inputs and produce outputs. Take an air-conditioning system, forM example. Air is the input. The heating and cooling system processes the input and dispenses it as a comfortable output (at least that is the goal). An objective is established, say, a temperature of 72 degrees asM the desired output. In order for the system to be successful, it must have a feedback component. In the Y case of an air-conditioning system, the thermostat continually measures the output and compares it with the objective. If the output is 68 degrees, the processing unit is so informed and the heat is increased until the desired temperature is achieved. Conversely, if the output is 80 degrees, the cooling unit is activated until the temperature of the output 1 decreases to the desired temperature. 5 approach applies to all levels in an orgaAs with most administrative concepts, the Open Systems nization. Figure 9.2 illustrates how this concept is used in viewing 2 the environmental sources that influence behavior at the organizational, group, and individual levels. Today’s administrator must have an 1 understanding of the ways in which the accomplishment of goals and objectives depends on elements outside the organization. T Total Quality Management (TQM) is based on an Open Systems approach that focuses on the S customer and her demand for quality products and services. This approach also was the beginning of the movement toward the fifth contextual theme, Client-Oriented service. TQM encompasses: 1. Creating a constancy of purpose, commitment of purpose, and commitment toward the continuous improvement of all processes, products, and services. 2. Use of systems and scientific thinking. 3. Development and use of effective leadership instead of management by control. 4. Generating an environment where people can be creative, take risks, and experience pride of workmanship, accomplishment, and self-fulfillment. Contemporary Open Systems Concepts 41344_CH09_FINAL.indd 197 197 2/8/12 10:07:40 AM © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR RESALE OR DISTRIBUTION Content removed due to copyright restrictions T U Source: Harrison, M. I. (1987). Diagnosing Organizations: Methods, Models, and Processes. Newbury Park, RSage Publications, Inc. Reprinted with permission of Sage CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Copyright © 1987 by Publications, Inc. N E 5. Creating an organization of honest andR open communication, both vertical and horizontal. 6. Being customer-oriented. (Greebler-Schepper 1990, 7) , Figure 9.2 Open Systems Approach to Diagnosing Individual and Group Performance TQM is customer-oriented and focuses on the client as part of the Open Systems environment. It emphasizes the importance of quantitative methods as well as human resources in striving for continuous improvement in products and services. ItTis a good example of how one concept often promotes the beginning of a movement toward another theme. A Deming’s Fourteen Points for the Transformation of Management further promoted the Open Systems approach in the 1980s. It is referred toM here to illustrate how the Open Systems concepts, developed in the private sector, eventually moved into the public sector, then into criminal justice administration. It M need to keep abreast of business administration trends. is a reminder that criminal justice administrators It is interesting to note that although W. Edwards Y Deming developed his concepts for U.S. industries, they did not become widely recognized until he was invited to apply them in Japan. Deming (along with Joseph Juran) was invited to teach statistical quality control techniques to the Japanese to help revitalize their industries following World War II. In the postwar era, “made in Japan” 1 was a sign of cheaply made and poor-quality products. Deming focused the Japanese industry on the 5 Open System’s idea that it was the quality that the client wanted that was most important. Deming’s 2 helped Japan become a world leader in the production attention to the environment and the customer of many global products. Even after his death, 1 he is still revered today in Japan, with a Deming Award given yearly to an outstanding industry in that country. Deming’s concepts revolved around 14 T principles, listed here. S Deming’s Fourteen Points for the Transformation of Management 1. Create consistency of purpose toward improvement of product and service. 2. Adopt the new philosophy of concern for quality. 3. Cease dependence on mass inspection to achieve quality; build quality into the product in the first place. 4. End the practice of awarding business on the basis of price alone. Move toward a single supplier for any one time and build a long-term relationship of loyalty and trust. 5. Constantly improve the system of production and service so that quality and productivity improve and costs decrease. 6. Institute training on the job. 198 41344_CH09_FINAL.indd 198 CHAPTER 9 Applying Open Systems Concepts to the Administration 2/8/12 10:53:47 PM © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR RESALE OR DISTRIBUTION 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. Institute leadership. The aim of supervision should be to help people and machines do a better job. Drive out fear, so that everyone may work effectively for the company. Break down barriers between departments so that people work as a team. Eliminate slogans, exhortations, and targets for the workforce. Such exhortations only create adversarial relationships, as the major causes of low quality and productivity can be traced to the system and thus lie beyond the power of the workforce. Eliminate work standards (quotas) and numerical goals (MBO [management by objective]). Instead, substitute leadership and the processes for improvement. Remove barriers that rob workers of the right to take pride in their work, including abolishment of individual performance appraisals and annual merit or ranking systems. Instead, change the emphasis from sheer numbers to quality. Institute a vigorous program of education and self-improvement. Take action to accomplish the transformation. Put everybody in the organization to work on the transformation. T U R Open Systems and the Criminal Justice System N to criminal justice agencies, Deming’s Just as a private sector administrative concept can be applied Fourteen Principles can be applied to criminal justice administration. E Quality Management’s Fourteen Principles Adapted forRPolice Departments 1. Develop a constant commitment to the improvement of, officer behavior and the services provided to Source: Adapted from Deming, W. E. 1986. Out of the Crisis. Cambridge, MA: MIT. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. the community and to discovering the relationship between what the police do (outputs) and the results (outcomes) obtained. Adopt a philosophy of management that is based on a T belief in the desirability of change in order to adapt to the changing community environment in which Athe police function. Change supervisory and management practices designed to monitor officers whose behavior is inapM propriate and to emphasize practices that ensure that officers will not engage in such behavior before M is more important than detection. This they get the opportunity to do so. In other words, prevention change requires an in-depth understanding of the organizational and environmental processes that Y “cause” both good and bad officer behavior. Determine the type of department activities and officer behavior that will result in developing a longterm relationship of loyalty and trust with a substantial1 majority of members of the community. [The authors do not believe that it is possible for the police, by the very nature of their work, to satisfy or meet the expectations of all members of a community.] 5 Constantly work on police systems and processes in order2to improve quality, obtain better results, and sustain a long-term relationship of loyalty and trust with the community. Make a commitment to training of all kinds, particularly1on-the-job training, to give officers the needed intellectual and technical skills and to show them exactly Thow to do a good job. Emphasize leadership more than management. One purpose of leadership is to help police officers do S a better job. Work toward the elimination of fear—fear of the mistakes associated with innovation and fear of punishment for those mistakes—so that everyone can concentrate on doing a good job rather than worrying about the consequences of making a mistake. To a substantial degree, this also applies to officer behavior. [The authors believe that both the organization and the community must be more forgiving of officer mistakes that are not intentionally illegal or malicious.] Break down any barriers that exist between departmental functions (e.g., patrol and investigations) so that there will be more teamwork in problem solving. Open Systems and the Criminal Justice System 41344_CH09_FINAL.indd 199 199 2/8/12 10:07:40 AM © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR RESALE OR DISTRIBUTION 10. Do not expect or exhort workers to accomplish things that cannot be accomplished, because this only 11. 12. 13. 14. creates an adversarial relationship between management and workers. Often, the failure to accomplish what managers want is the result of a system failure or is related to something in the police environment, both of which are outside the control of the individual officer. Eliminate quotas, numerical targets, and management by objectives. Instead, substitute leadership to ensure that service—in terms of quality and quantity—will be achieved. In many police departments, it is usually possible for a well-qualified, hard-working officer to accomplish more and do it better than any performance measure might determine. Give back to the worker, supervisor, and manager the right to be proud of their work and the service they provide. The quality of the service must become more important than the number of services. The police and the community must have a clear understanding of what constitutes quality service. Make a strong commitment to the education and improvement of each employee. Involve everybody in the transformation of the police department because it is everyone’s responsibility to ensure that total quality management is implemented. T U Today, the goals (or missions) of a criminal justice agency are established in relationship to an agency’s environment, particularly the needsRof the public. For example, a parole agency’s goal may be to return those who have been imprisoned to Nsociety as law-abiding citizens. An objective (previously defined as a commitment that is time-bound and quantifiable) of a given unit of parole officers might E then be to improve their service by reducing recidivism by a certain percentage during the coming year. R Parole administrators can then establish a feedback system that allows them to measure parolees who are rearrested as a means of control. , A “big Y, little x” parole administrator would place major efforts on motivating employees to achieve Source: Adapted from Deming, W. E. 1986. Out of the Crisis. Cambridge, MA: MIT. this objective. However, they would not wait until the year is up to measure whether the objective was met. They would establish feedback that allows T them to know about their employees’ progress. If feedback discloses that progress is not being made toward the objective, the administrator would find out A such as high caseload assignments are at fault. Maybe why. In this example, perhaps internal factors external conditions such as a lack of employment M or educational opportunities for parolees are factors. An Open Systems outlook might then cause the administrator to generate efforts outside the agency, such as pursuing an increase in tax revenue.M Some criminal justice agencies have a history of acting as a closed system (Munro 1977). This limits an Yorganization’s outlook to only the structural boundaries of the official organization. Closed systems institutions experience communication difficulties with the outside world and often limit the information they provide other agencies and the public. Historically, this has contributed to political alienation and 1 fragmentation of services (Munro 1977). Progressive corrections administrators now recognize that their agencies must interact with other 5 criminal justice agencies as well as society in general. They realized that their goals are related to political, social, and economic conditions. For example, the proposed closing of a prison may be caused by 2 reduced government funds. However, it also might be politically resisted because the local economy 1 could depend on the prison remaining open. T Today’s conditions call for a more “nonrational system” approach, which means that criminal justice administrators must recognize that they exist in an unpredictable environment and that organizations S have to be more open to surrounding conditions. Because state judges, prosecutors, and public defenders often are elected, they need to be responsive to the public they serve. For example, the police may feel they have enough evidence to convict an arrestee and request a court trail. However, prosecutors may feel the evidence is not strong enough to guarantee a conviction and refuse to file a complaint, fearing that losing a case may affect them politically. Viewing all the components of the criminal justice system as interrelated is significant. Police, court, and corrections administrators must understand how the other components contribute to and conflict with each agency’s success. Figure 9.3 provides an overview of the interconnection of each component as their 200 41344_CH09_FINAL.indd 200 CHAPTER 9 Applying Open Systems Concepts to the Administration 2/8/12 10:07:40 AM 41344_CH09_FINAL.indd 201 Release Suspended or dropped Imprisonment Expiration of sentence Open Systems and the Criminal Justice System Corrections Discharge Parole Violation hearing Detention (in jail) Preliminary hearing Continuation on suspension Discharge Prosecution denied Information or indictment grand jury Diversion Discharge Arraignment Guilty plea Source: Adapted from the U.S. Department of Justice. Compendium of Federal Justice Statistics. (1989). Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1992, p.3. The Criminal Justice System in the United States Fines Appeal and costs Sentencing Probation Release First appearance T A M M Y Acquitted Convicted 1 5 2 1 T S Trial Booking Release on bail or recognizance Pre-trial activities T U R N E R , Figure 9.3 Guilty plea Sentencing Arrest Investigation Adjudication The criminal event Investigation and arrest © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR RESALE OR DISTRIBUTION 201 2/8/12 10:07:40 AM © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR RESALE OR DISTRIBUTION mutual “clients” are moved through the system. Therefore, each agency can be considered a subsystem within the overall criminal justice system. This view assumes that the various parts work together by design to achieve the overall mission of the social product that we call justice. This perspective has been called the consensus model and envisions all the component parts striving toward the common goal by harmoniously moving cases and people through the system. In reality, this is not the case! The conflict process model takes the opposite view. It views the component parts functioning primarily to serve their own interests. This theoretical perspective sees justice more as a product of conflicts among agencies that ultimately serves to protect individual rights. Here, we can compare the consensus model as focusing mainly on public safety, whereas the conflict model is more concerned with individual rights. Herbert Packer (1968) referred to these opposing views of the criminal justice system with slightly different terms. One he called the crime-control model, which emphasizes the efficient arrest and conviction of offenders. The other he called the due process model, which places the emphasis on individual rights. An Open Systems perspective allows the administrator to realize that, although desirable, a “steady T state” is often not obtainable. Support for community safety versus individual rights can shift from one extreme to the other. These shifts affect whoU gets elected and the elected officials who are appointed to criminal justice positions. Those elected and appointed can further affect this balance. Successful criminal R and take appropriate actions to compensate for those justice administrators keep abreast of these shifts shifts that may affect the goals of their agencies. N Appropriate actions might mean having to alter goals or mount a campaign to change public opinion. E Figure 9.4 provides a perspective of the common progress, or lack of progress, of arrestees through the R by the police, on average, only 20 adults are imprisoned. criminal justice system. Starting with 100 arrests This graphically illustrates how the consensus and conflict actions of the various agencies can affect the , overall results. Even though criminal justice agencies have a diversity of functions (police, courts, and corrections), and serve at various levels (local, state, and federal), they are linked by laws and procedures so as to be considered a system. The police are T most concerned with arrest and conviction. The courts are concerned with ensuring that guilt is proven beyond a reasonable double and that the rights of deA is most concerned with carrying out the court-ordered fendants are protected. The corrections system punishment and providing corrective measures M that reduce recidivism. The author, as a police administrator, oversaw a large drug arrest operation. Over a 6-month period, M not considered was the impact that a large number of more than 7,000 arrests were made. What was arrests would have on the prosecutors, public Y defenders, and courts. The outcome was an overloading of the systems. This resulted in many arrestees being released without prosecution because the system could not accommodate the volume within the required constitutional time limits. Members of the court system often are 1 accused by “crime control” advocates of being “too soft on criminals,” when the real cause may be a lack of the public funds necessary to support full prosecution 5 of criminals. Surveys have found that 90% of all criminal cases prepared for trial are eventually resolved through plea bargaining (Bureau of Justice 2 Statistics 2003). Public safety advocates often point to this fact as evidence that criminals are not getting the sentences they deserve. In reality, even if no more than 1 half the cases were plea negotiated, the system would “crash” because of the volume of cases that would T go to trial. Corrections administrators also often find S themselves confronted with opposing public and political views regarding individual rights and public safety. For example, mandatory and “three strikes and you’re out” sentencing legislation may require maximum-length sentences for offenders. At the same time, individual rights advocates may be filing civil action for overcrowded prison conditions. Jim Collins stated, “Most people in the social sector face some very serious systemic constraints. They may face limits in funding and constraints on their decisions. As a result, if you’re in the social sector, you have to deal with what are sometimes really oppressive constraints. The ability to confront the constraints is what’s critical. If we ignore the restraints—try to pretend that they are not there—it’s like a rock climber who’s trying to pretend that gravity isn’t there. But on the other hand, if you say that gravity will prevent you from making any progress, that’s equally debilitating” (Subject to Debate, 2006, 3). 202 41344_CH09_FINAL.indd 202 CHAPTER 9 Applying Open Systems Concepts to the Administration 2/8/12 10:07:40 AM © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR RESALE OR DISTRIBUTION 1,000 serious crimes 500 unreported crimes 500 crimes reported to police 400 unsolved crimes 100 people arrested 35 juveniles go to juvenile court 30 put on probation or dismissed 5 retained in system T U 65 adults considered for prosecutionR N E R 40 cases accepted for prosecution , 30 cases go to trial 27 plead guilty The Criminal Justice “Funnel” 10 jump bail or abscond T A M M 2 found guilty Y 1 5 2 20 adults 1 incarcerated T S 29 sentenced Figure 9.4 25 cases dropped 1 acquitted 9 placed on probation Source: Derived from Rainville, G. & Reaves, B. (2003). Felony Defendants in Large Urban Countries, 2000. Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics. The truth is that public taxes do not provide for a justice system that can fully handle today’s crime volume. There are some things criminal justice administrations just have to accept, and they need to make the best of what they have. Otherwise, they will need to promote public support for additional funding. Open Systems and the Criminal Justice System 41344_CH09_FINAL.indd 203 203 2/8/12 10:07:40 AM © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR RESALE OR DISTRIBUTION Open Systems Concepts and Establishing Justice and Ensuring Domestic Tranquility The Preamble of the United States Constitution reads: We the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. As will be discussed in the next chapter, various governmental agencies are given police power to ensure these conditions. The criminal justice system is given the responsibility to “establish justice” and “ensure domestic tranquility.” Within the Open Systems view, it is important that criminal justice administrators realize that the fulfillment of these overall responsibilities requires coordination between criminal justice agencies. It also involves coordination with, and enlisting the aid of, many “outside” T agencies. The obtainment of these constitutionally prescribed conditions should be the goal of all the components of the criminal justice system. The achievement of these conditions requires an Open Systems U approach within the criminal justice system—that is, cooperation between the subsystems. R private police, reducing crime committed by juveniles, Here, crime prevention, coordination with and professional treatment programs are discussed N as examples of Open Systems approaches in achieving these conditions. Open Systems, or “thinking outside the box,” enables criminal justice administrators Eresources outside their organization. to look for ways to achieve goals by involving R Crime Prevention as an Open Systems , Approach Criminal justice administrators often give crime prevention a low priority. A common tendency in contending with budget cuts is to reduce crime prevention assignments so as to increase “crime fightT of crime prevention staff is often considered an approing” resources. The reduction or elimination priate economical measure. A more productive A approach, however, may be to use crime prevention approaches as leverage in making the best use of available personnel. A few crime prevention staff M can prevent crimes that would require the work of involved in an effective crime prevention program many personnel. M Alfonso Lenhardt, chief executive officer of the National Crime Prevention Council, points to the Y “$428 billion yearly cost of crime” (Lenhardt 2006, 3) and the importance of prevention in his article titled “The Economics of Prevention: Reducing Costs and Crime.” He states that prevention does indeed save money and recommends that criminal justice administrators document the cost-benefit ratio of crime 1 prevention efforts and use these facts in building community and government support for prevention 5 programs that work (Lenhardt 2006). Another approach, called the Crime Triangle, 2 involves viewing a crime problem as three elements: victim, offender, and location/opportunity (Bureau of Justice Assistance 1993, 3). Viewing a crime in 1 of the relationship between these elements and suggests this manner provides a better understanding where more information is needed and what T approach may be most practical. Usually, the three elements must be present before a crime can occur: an offender (someone who is motivated to commit S target must be present), and a location (the victim and the crime), a victim (a desirable and vulnerable offender must both be in the same place at the same time). By removing one or more of these elements, the crime may be prevented. A recent law enforcement article (Rivero 2010) adds to the Crime Triangle a more Open Systems approach (Figure 9.5). Surrounding the triangle is an outer triangle of crime control, also known as an “intervention.” A “handler” can supervise the offender. “Managers” make the time and place less conducive for criminal activity through environmental design (lighting, security hardware). “Guardians, such as probation officers, can protect victims. . . . Any of these three interventions can negate the formation of one of the three necessary sides of the crime triangle, thus preventing crime” (Rivero 2010, 67). 204 41344_CH09_FINAL.indd 204 CHAPTER 9 Applying Open Systems Concepts to the Administration 2/8/12 10:07:40 AM © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR RESALE OR DISTRIBUTION Ha Of de fen Of e ac r ge na lace P e& Pl Target/Victim CRIME Ma Tim e& Tim CRIME nd fen ler de r Figure 2 r Figure 1 Target/Victim Capable Guardian Figure 9.5 Intervention Crime Triangle Approaches Source: Intervention Crime Triangle Approaches (Rivero, David A. [2010] “Proactive Patrolling through the Use of Patrol Scripts.” The Police Chief [September 2010], 67). T In meeting contemporary challenges, progressive criminal justice administrators are finding that U crime prevention efforts are most effectively applied through an Open Systems approach that involves R are: resources outside their agencies. Examples of such approaches • • • • N Involving the media to convey crime prevention suggestions to the public. Preventing victims from becoming victims again. E Crime prevention specialist programs composed of volunteer citizens. R that new construction includes Local legislation and review of building permits to ensure building designs that prevent crime. , Enlisting the aid of the news media in providing crime prevention tips can be a productive effort. Even a large crime prevention staff can contact only a small percentage of the public. Television, radio, newspapers, T of the population. By using the media, and the Internet, however, communicate daily with a large segment criminal justice administrators can capitalize on the concept of A personnel leverage (obtaining a comparatively large result through a process that multiplies the efforts of a small number of employees). M Many crimes can be prevented by simply informing the public of how to prevent them. For example, most burglaries involve unlocked dwellings. If the public could M be reminded of this through the media, a great many crimes could be prevented. Y The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) requires radio and television stations to provide a certain amount of listening and viewing time for public service announcements. Criminal justice administrators can make use of this time for crime prevention1purposes. Another idea is to obtain the services of noted celebrities in making media prevention messages. Many well-known personalities are willing to volunteer their5services. The idea is to make these messages “grab” the interest of the listener or viewer long enough to 2 get the crime prevention message across. Preventing crime victims from becoming victims again can be another useful approach. Patrol of1 is to apprehend criminals. However, ficers are often thought of as crime fighters whose main function most research shows that patrol officers seldom encounter T crimes in progress (Biech and Kessler 1977, 25–77; Kelling and Pate 1980). As an undercover police officer, the author can remember seeing how many S crimes went on in the presence of a passing patrol car. Traditionally, patrol officers have not considered crime prevention an important part of their jobs. However, if police officers are not successful at catching criminals in the act, shouldn’t crime prevention be a part of their efforts to reduce crime? Realistically, most people are not concerned with crime prevention techniques until they become the victim of crime. What member of the criminal justice system is most often first to come in contact with the victim? The patrol officer responding to the victim’s reporting of a crime is the person who usually makes first contact. Often, the patrol officer just takes a report and goes on to the next callfor-service. However, an Open Systems approach would be to have patrol officers take time to help victims avoid becoming victims again by suggesting related crime prevention approaches. For example, Crime Prevention as an Open Systems Approach 41344_CH09_FINAL.indd 205 205 2/8/12 10:07:40 AM © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR RESALE OR DISTRIBUTION for the victim of a burglary, suggestions about deadbolt locks, increased outdoor lighting, and removal of shrubbery that could hide intruders would be appropriate. At the same time as the officer is providing useful crime prevention information, he or she is building citizen–police trust. Police administrators should consider that the extra time the officer spends with the victim can ultimately result in less crime and more public support. Establishing a Crime Prevention Specialist Volunteer Program is another way to use “outside” resources. Innovative criminal justice administrators have found that by enlisting the aid of specially trained volunteers, crime prevention efforts can be expanded without reducing the number of officers on patrol. The growing number of senior citizens who want to get involved in meaningful activities should be considered as likely volunteers. The author, as a police administrator, was involved in such a program that recruited more than 600 such volunteers in the Los Angeles area. The media can be of assistance in recruiting volunteers. Screening of applicants is necessary to ensure that reliable people are selected. Training and coordination can be provided by regular crime prevention specialists. The Los Angeles Police Department has made some of the volunteers “reserve officer specialT ists,” a special reserve officer classification requiring much less training than regular reserve officers who perform patrol duties. Volunteer crime prevention specialists can: U • • • • Conduct crime prevention meetingsR as part of neighborhood watch programs. Conduct Operation Identification programs that assist residents in marking property for later N identification if stolen. Conduct security surveys of residences. E Distribute crime prevention information. R This is an example of the way in which people,outside the formal organization can be used to help achieve agency goals. Fostering crime prevention through legislation and the review of building permits is yet another useful method of crime prevention. By enacting T local ordinances that require “target hardening” construction in residential and business structures, the opportunity for crime to occur can be reduced. Such requirements as deadbolt locks, entry doors A equipped with viewers so occupants can see who is outside, and windows and sliding doors equipped with Mspecial locks are just a few features that can prevent many illegal entries. Additionally, arrangements should be made for building permits to be reviewed by crime M prevention personnel to ensure proper construction that will prevent crime. Another idea is to encourage insurance companies to give reduced rates onY structures that have built-in crime prevention construction. Gaining the public’s assistance in preventing crime should be a component of the Eclectic Perspective criminal administrator’s approach to reducing crime. The news media, volunteers, police officers on the 1 beat, and legislation are effective Open Systems. 5 Coordination with Private Police as2 an Open Systems Approach Private security personnel often are overlooked by law enforcement in establishing crime prevention 1 programs. From an Open Systems approach, however, the private police can be a valuable extension of public police resources. Figure 9.6 shows how T there are more than twice as many private security personnel as there are public law enforcement officers. The author, having been a private security director, S saw how most private businesses of any size developed or are developing their own private security. A growing number of private business executives are of the opinion that the public police cannot provide adequate service. Consequently, many develop their own security forces. Law enforcement administrators would be wise to promote coordination between patrol officers and security officers. Security officers should be considered resources that can extend the efforts of the public police. Many police departments enlist the aid of citizens through neighborhood watch programs. Why not do the same with private security personnel? Security officers can be trained to make crime and arrest reports relating to incidents in the businesses where they are employed, thus saving a patrol officer’s time. They can be alerted to criminals operating in the area and act as additional “eyes and ears” for the 206 41344_CH09_FINAL.indd 206 CHAPTER 9 Applying Open Systems Concepts to the Administration 2/8/12 10:07:40 AM © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR RESALE OR DISTRIBUTION Millions of persons 2.0 1.5 Private security 1.0 0.5 T U R 0 N 2010 1970 E Police Figure 9.6 Comparison of the Number of Private versus Public R in Brief. (1991). Washington, DC: U.S. Source: Estimated based on figures from A National Justice Research Department of Justice. 2005 figures from http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bj , Law enforcement public police. Many calls-for-service to the public police can be handled by properly trained security T officers, thereby providing more available time for patrol officers. When a new business, manufacturing plant, entertainment A theme park, or other enterprise is introduced into a municipality, are more public police funded to handle the increase in policing demands? Mwork to get local legislation that requires Seldom, if ever! Open Systems police administrators should an appropriate number of security officers to be hired by new M businesses. An additional requirement should be that the concerned police department be involved in the selection and training of the private Y security personnel. Figure 9.7 shows the general responsibilities of the author as a private security director. These responsibilities can provide insight into the scope of private police activities that coincide with the Figure 9.7 ECTRO URITY EC & RECOVERY PLAN EL SE SE C CU N IO CT N LA 1 5 ROTECTI P E ON2 IV UT PL AN EC UIPMENT IN X Q E E S P1 Y E T I TRAININ R G ITY P UR T C DATA S I N LOSS S PREVENTION Typical Private Security Responsibilities Coordination with Private Police as an Open Systems Approach 41344_CH09_FINAL.indd 207 207 2/8/12 10:07:40 AM © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR RESALE OR DISTRIBUTION public police. For example, “electronic data security” is a growing private security specialty that public criminal investigators can make use of in their investigation of computer crimes. Developing strong ties with local security agencies should be a part of the Open Systems criminal justice administrators’ approach to accomplishing their public responsibilities. Reducing Youth Crime as an Open Systems Approach The author, as a criminal justice administrator responsible for a police juvenile division, conducted research on the common causes of juvenile crime. Most juvenile delinquents were found to be subject to one or more of the following factors: • • • • No one at home when they came home from school No central interest in life and a feeling of disenfranchisement with society A contributing mental, physical, or physiological ailment A failure of the juvenile justice system to take appropriate action to prevent continuing T delinquency U A closed systems reaction would probably be “all these factors are beyond the control of the interworkings R (“thinking outside the box”), however, would include the of a police agency.” An Open Systems approach realization that in achieving the goal of domestic N tranquility, juvenile delinquency is of prime importance and outside assistance may be required. Figure 9.8 charts the action (or rather, inaction) of the juvenile E The author first constructed this chart in the 1970s. justice system with “hardcore” juvenile offenders. R , Steps that develop hardcores* Law enforcement Probation department TJuvenile court A M M Y Probation department Juvenile court 1 5 2 1 T S Counsel and release repeatedly Placed on informal supervision and continued violations held in abeyance Released due to legal technicality Placed on probation and continued violations held in abeyance Commits serious crime and sent to camp for rehabilitation * 10 or more arrests, at least 5 arrests for felony offenses. Figure 9.8 208 41344_CH09_FINAL.indd 208 Juvenile Justice System Inactions CHAPTER 9 Applying Open Systems Concepts to the Administration 2/8/12 10:07:41 AM © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR RESALE OR DISTRIBUTION Recent research in several metropolitan cities finds that the chart is still accurate and that these juveniles grow up to be habitual criminals (Chicago Tribune 2006, 3). In Figure 9.8, each arrest of an average offender is displayed as a step, from left to right. The progression from the juvenile’s first arrest to his or her 10th or 20th should have been an uphill climb (many of those studied had 30 or more arrests). There should have been a number of positive actions that would have deterred or prevented the youth from continuing their delinquency. As depicted in the chart, this was not the case. The children’s first arrests were positive steps, but when “counseled and released” several times, they began to learn that no action would be taken against them for their acts. The term “counsel and release” is used by law enforcement to describe the process of talking to the juveniles and their parents for usually less than a half hour with the hope of preventing continued delinquent behavior. This process can be successful with beginning minor offenders, but to repeat the process on subsequent arrests only reinforces what the children had often learned at home and in school—no real action is taken when they commit delinquent acts. T for petition with the probation departAfter several arrests, the police would file an application ment, hoping that this would result in stronger action. TheU probation department would then proceed to place the young offender in an “informal supervision” status, often with an overworked probation officer who could not provide any real supervision. In manyRcases, the youth would be arrested three or four more times while under “informal supervision” and then N sent on to juvenile court, again in hopes of some positive action. E Juvenile court, also overloaded, would set up another “counseling and informal supervision process.” R crime, the court would sentence them to Finally, when the then “hardcore” juveniles committed the big a detention facility for “rehabilitation.” The truth of the matter was that it was too late for rehabilitation. , The system had waited too long. Most state youth authority and probation departments have good programs, but they are ineffective with the hardcore offenders who are often sent to them. Their programs have been developed to handle young people much less set T in their delinquency. As stated previously, Open Systems administrators must realize that the criminal justice system will A be overloaded. Overloaded or not, the probably never be properly financially supported and will always responsibilities to reduce and prevent crime remain the same.M Realizing this, a program shown in Figure 9.9 should be implemented. A coordinated approach should be developed in which all the components of M causes of juvenile delinquency at the the juvenile justice systems work together to attack the common earliest point of contact. Realizing that the best chance for Y reducing delinquency is with beginning offenders, the police should institute policies to restrict “counseling and releasing” and require juvenile officers to take positive steps for first-time arrestees. For example, to help with the “no one at home when they 1 came home from school” issues, the police may instigate a “big brother and sister” program. They might enlist the aid of the local fire departments 5 to become part of the program. In Los Angeles, first-time offenders were assigned to report to a local fire station after school where a fireman or firewoman became their 2 big brother or sister. “Counsel and release” and “informal supervision” should be replaced with the juvenile offender 1 and their parents selecting a community program of interest. Arrangements should then be made that would ensure that the juvenile will become actively involved T in the selected program. The youth and their parents should be required to periodically report back for assessment to the police, probation, or court S officer who establishes these requirements. If there are indications that positive progress is not being made, then the youth can be sent to the next step in the system. Additionally, the assistance of medical and psychological professionals should be enlisted to provide treatment for those in need. The Federal Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention has announced that a proper juvenile justice system for the 21st century must ensure that effective juvenile justice interventions are swift, certain, consistent, and appropriate. To meet these objectives, an effective juvenile justice system must: • Include a mechanism for comprehensively assessing a juvenile when he or she enters the system, in order to determine both the risk to the community and appropriate interventions and sanctions Reducing Youth Crime as an Open Systems Approach 41344_CH09_FINAL.indd 209 209 2/8/12 10:07:41 AM © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR RESALE OR DISTRIBUTION Steps to prevent hardcores* Law enforcement Declare unfit for juvenile court Juvenile court Probation department CYA institution County camp Major offenses and most offenses committed by hardcores Severe offenses and habitual minor offenses Selected first time serious offenses and continuous minor offenses *Violation of provisions of probation results in return to court T U first time minor offenses Selected *Guidelines provided and any violation results in return to court R Refer to social Selected first time minor Noffenses agency *Failure to cooperate in program results in petition request E R Only on minor offenses and only once , Informal supervision 654 WIC Counsel and release Probation Major offenses committed by older juveniles * 10 or more arrests, at least 5 arrests for felony offenses Figure 9.9 • • Juvenile Justice System PositiveT Actions A Have the capacity to provide a range of treatment services, from family counseling to outpatient drug treatment to out-of-homeM care Incorporate increasingly severe sanctions M and enhanced treatment services when a juvenile fails to respond to interventions (Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention 2000) Y The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) statistics were headlined in a recent USA Today headline (January 2009), “Burgeoning Gangs Behind up to 80% of U.S. Crime.” The U.S. Justice Department National Gang Threat Assessment was the source of another recent USA Today headline (November 1 2010) that announced: “As Violent Crime Drops, Gang Ranks Swell 25%.” Since a major percentage of 5 gang membership is juveniles, the approaches reviewed here are particularly important in carrying out the missions of criminal justice agencies. 2 1 Biochemistry, Nutrition, and Genetic T Factors in Reducing Crime as an Open Systems Approach S Historically, there has been debate regarding the effectiveness of criminal rehabilitation. Support for the genetic and psychological causes of crime was popular for periods in the past. However, in recent times, “warehousing” and “just desserts” for criminals have been the themes of the criminal justice system. With current (and hopefully future) advancements in biochemistry, genetics, and nutrition, it may be time for criminal justice administrators to consider a more Open Systems view of these fields. As mentioned in the previous discussion of youthful offenders, one of the factors common to delinquents is “contributing mental, physical, or physiological ailments.” Research also has found evidence of these conditions in adult offenders. Therefore, any manner of treating ailments that may reduce crime 210 41344_CH09_FINAL.indd 210 CHAPTER 9 Applying Open Systems Concepts to the Administration 2/8/12 10:07:41 AM © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR RESALE OR DISTRIBUTION should be of interest to Open Systems criminal justice administrators. The police should be alert to these conditions and see that treatment is provided at the earliest possible point of contact. The courts should consider treatment as part of probation and parole. Corrections personnel, perhaps, have the best opportunity to apply appropriate treatment as they deal with a “captive audience.” Treatment may have to be voluntary for inmates, but early release rewards may be a viable incentive. Research into factors that may contribute to criminal behavior reveals some promising results, suggesting that treatment for biochemical and genetic deficiencies could be an effective approach to controlling criminal behavior. A number of research findings are included here, as most criminal justice administrators are seldom provided with such information. Hopefully, some of these findings will promote more criminal justice administrators to see this approach as yet another approach of facilitating their goals. Even if criminal justice administrators do not become directly involved in the treatment approach, they can be instrumental in promoting additional efforts in this area. Vitamin deficiencies have been linked to delinquent behavior. It has been found that disruptive children consume insufficient levels of vitamins B3 and B6 compared to nonproblem youths. Adding T behavior and improves school perforthese vitamins to the deficient diets of children reduces unruly mances (Hoffer 1975, 229). U Allergic reactions to common foods are reported as a cause of violent behavior in some cases. R produce allergic reactions in sensitive Foods such as citrus fruit, milk, chocolate, corn, eggs, and wheat individuals, leading to a swelling of the brain. Such allergiesNcan reduce the functioning of the learning process during childhood and may contribute to delinquency. Brain swelling also can impede one’s E higher faculties, reduce one’s sense of morality, and contribute to impulsive behavior (Hoffer 1975, 8). R Food additives, such as monosodium glutamate (a flavor enhancer), artificial flavorings, and dyes are hypothesized to be related to violent behavior (Schauss 1980, 72). , A number of scientists believe that neurotransmitted serotonin is important in controlling impulses. They have found that abnormal levels of serotonin caused an inability to control desires and led to aggression and violence (Moffitt 1998; New 1997; Touchette 1994; T Unis, Cook, Vincent, Gjerde, and Perry 1997). A Dr. Forest Tennant (1992) has conducted extensive research into the relationship between selfesteem and biochemical balance. People with high self-esteem have a better level of serotonin, a phenolic M amine neurotransmitter found in the brain, blood serum, and gastric mucosa. Tennant states that people M He also suggests that children with are more motivated when their serotonin function is stimulated. abnormal levels of serotonin are more inclined to take drugs Yand become gang members. Among those who used illegal drugs such as heroin and cocaine, an abnormal change in serotonin levels was found. This causes the brain to recognize some drugs as a replacement for serotonin, causing the body to cease manufacturing serotonin. This becomes an important factor 1 in addiction. Dr. Paul Boccumini (1992) provided clinical evidence that linked nutritional and neurochemical 5 deficiencies to juvenile alcohol and drug use. He focused on the relationship of nutrition/diet, allergic responses, and heavy metals intake to deviate behavior. These2diet deficiencies result in “self-medication” through the use of drugs and alcohol, which deadens and inhibits the neurochemicals/neurotransmit1 ters. A balanced diet enriched with a vitamin/mineral supplement can bring body chemistry back into T balance, thereby reducing deviate behavior, according to Boccumini. Studies indicate that up to 75% of young offenders have S some sort of learning disability. In 1991, males represented 80 to 90% of the cases that came to the attention of the youth justice system in the United States. Boys with severe learning disabilities were more than twice as likely to engage in delinquent activities as boys not so affected (Henteleff 1998). Ellis and Walsh (1997) provide a summary of gene research and criminal behavior. They point out that explanations for criminal behavior are likely to involve complex interactions between learning and genetic, hormonal, and neurochemical factors. They state that evolutionary theories of criminal behavior propose that people vary in their genetic dispositions toward criminality and that it does appear that genes contribute to variations in criminal behavior. Biochemistry, Nutrition, and Genetic Factors in Reducing Crime as an Open Systems Approach 41344_CH09_FINAL.indd 211 211 2/8/12 10:07:41 AM © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR RESALE OR DISTRIBUTION It is not being suggested here that these research findings should be used to mitigate criminal sentences. Rather, these research discoveries should be used as approaches to prevent recidivism. Certainly, they should be considered a part of the Open Systems approach to preventing and reducing crime. Coordinating Community Interaction as an Open Systems Approach The Related Publication at the end of this chapter describes another Open Systems approach that criminal justice administrators should consider. The community partnership approach discussed here involves not only the neighborhood members but also other elements of a criminal justice agency’s environment. The publication outlines how criminal justice administrators, elected officials, academicians, and concerned citizens may be united in a partnership that can result in enhancing community quality of life (domestic tranquility) and reducing crime. In this example, committee members meet periodically and use a set of 22 “Community Wellness Indicators” to assess crime and quality of life issues in their community. When an assessment indicates the development of a possible problem, a task force is created to find solutions. T the committee can implement to counteract situations These task forces recommended solutions that before they become major problems. U At the end of the 20th century and continuing into the second decade of the 21st century, crime rates R public demand to “get hard on crime,” and many other decreased. The economy, changing demographics, factors are thought to have contributed to this Ndecline. Some think these factors are outside the purview of a criminal justice agency. However, if criminal justice administrators are to see this decline continue, E having a positive impact on these factors. they must support the efforts of those who are R Current Status of Applying Open Systems , to Contemporary Criminal Justice Agencies This chapter has included a number of current examples of Open Systems approaches, such as Intervention Crime Triangle Approaches (FigureT9.5), and the importance of the described juvenile justice tactics because of the recent increase in gangA crimes. Another Open Systems area relates to social media technical advances. “Technology is facilitating closer and more collaborative relationships between law M enforcement and the community,” stated David Roberts in a recent article (Roberts 2011). The article M is and how it is being used by law enforcement today. goes on to provide insight into what social media In a survey by the International Chiefs of Police Center for Social Media, 81% of 728 respondents use Y social media. Two-thirds (66.8%) use Facebook (Figure 9.10). The police reported using social media for a variety of functions, including crime investigations (62.3%); notifying the public of crime problems (44.0%) or emergency situations (40.3%); crime 1 prevention activities (40.5%); and soliciting tips on crime (40.0%; Figure 9.11). 5 (PERF) article titled “Police Experts Describe Advantages In a 2010 Police Executive Research Forum of Using Social Media” (Subject to Debate 2010), 2 the term “social media” was defined as follows: On-line services and media that are designed to be disseminated through social interaction. Social media sites and services allow users to communicate 1 and to share images, links to other websites, videos, and other content over the Internet. Facebook, MySpace, T LinkedIn, Twitter and You Tube are some of the better-known social media platforms. While these sites were once seen a hobby of the young, the power of social media in Snow has more than 400 million active users worldwide. (4) today’s world cannot be denied. Facebook alone The PERF article cited a number of agencies using social media to improve communications within their own agencies. For example the Sacramento Police Department in California (as well as a growing number of other departments) has created chiefs blog. Here the chief posts his thoughts on recent events and administrative matters. The blog format gives all agency employees an opportunity to receive this information, but it provides a site for the public to post comments and opinions. (4) 212 41344_CH09_FINAL.indd 212 CHAPTER 9 Applying Open Systems Concepts to the Administration 2/8/12 10:07:41 AM © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR RESALE OR DISTRIBUTION What social media tools does your agency currently maintain? (Select all that apply) Facebook 66.8% MySpace 21.6% YouTube Flickr 17.6% 0.6% Nixle 29.8% Twitter 29.8% Other text- or email-based notification 28.7% T U Blog 5.1% R LinkedIn 7.1% N Other (please specify) 12.4% E 0% 20% 60% 80% R40% , Figure 9.10 Results from the International Chiefs of Police Center for Social Media Survey Regarding Podcasts 2.1% Social Media Tools Used by Respondents’ Agencies Source: IACP Center for Social Media survey, September 2010. T A M 40.0% M 44.0% Y Crimic investigations Soliciting tips on crime Notifying the public of crime problems Notifying the public of emergency or.... Crime prevention activities Community outreach/ citizen enagement Public relations/ reputation management Inservice training 40.3% 40.5% 5.6% 23.2% Vetting/background investigations.... My agency does not use social media tools 0% Figure 9.11 1 5 37.4% 2 1 T 37.0% S 40.6% Recruitment Other (please specify) 62.3% 18.9% 4% 20% 40% 60% 80% Results from the International Chiefs of Police Center for Social Media Survey Regarding Activities for Which Respondents’ Agencies Use Social Media Source: IACP Center for Social Media at www.socialmedia.org under Topic, “Community Outreach Citizen Engagement.” Current Status of Applying Open Systems to Contemporary Criminal Justice Agencies 41344_CH09_FINAL.indd 213 213 2/8/12 10:07:41 AM © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR RESALE OR DISTRIBUTION Most criminal justice agencies that employ social media do so to improve communications with the public. This strategy can improve community relations by providing an opportunity for administrators to determine whether their messages are received by their intended audience. Traditionally, getting the word out was accomplished through television and radio news releases in hopes that they would be broadcast and those needing the information would receive them. Social media allow criminal justice agencies to better understand whether they are getting their messages out by reviewing feedback comments made by the public. Social media sites can provide information about people with whom the agencies are connecting. Facebook, for example, provides a demographic breakdown of the users who visit a given site. A growing number of police agencies are using social media sites as an investigative tool. Photographs and videos often limited to Crime Stoppers media sites can now be put on the Internet as more young people are getting their news online rather than through traditional broadcasts. Additionally, social media can provide mass information on suspects. Some agencies have found that people have used Twitter to quickly organize gatherings in public locations, which in some cases end with the need for police action. Some gangs have even photographed their criminal exploits and T U R Eclectic Perspective N E Client-Oriented R , T A M M Y 1 5 2 1 T S Social Equity Open Systems Employee Relations Organization Functions Figure 9.12 214 41344_CH09_FINAL.indd 214 Filing Cabinet of the Five Contextual Themes CHAPTER 9 Applying Open Systems Concepts to the Administration 2/8/12 10:07:41 AM © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR RESALE OR DISTRIBUTION uploaded them to YouTube. A growing number of criminal justice agencies are using social media sites for background checks on employee applicants as well as in criminal investigations. A useful website for those interested in this subject is C.O.P.P.S. “Top 10 Social Networking Tips for Cops” (www.policeone .com/police-technology/articles/1877554-Top-10social-network?=p=1634). The threat of terrorism and the current responsibility of law enforcement for homeland security have spotlighted the need for a more Open Systems method of communication among emergency responders during major disasters, as well as a commitment to sharing information with other agencies. In a March 19, 2010, conference convened by the Police Executive Research Forum in Washington, DC, public officials focused on how critical the need is for a dedicated nationwide public safety communication frequency. The dedication of such a frequency is essential to the future of public safety. At issue is whether a band of the broadband spectrum known as the “D Block” should be assigned to public safety agencies (Subject to Debate 2010). The gathered officials called for the dedication of D Block to public service so they can use it for an ever-increasing number of technologies that require wireless communications service. They gave T and the transmission of information examples such as live video from major crime or disaster scenes, from hundreds of databases that can provide critical real-time U information to police officers, fire fighters, and medics. Currently, the FCC has placed this band up for auction to the highest bidder. Under R the FCC recommendation, the winner of the auction, presumably a commercial carrier, could use it for commercial applications, but also would be required to give public safety agencies priority access N to the airwaves, particularly when they need it most to facilitate their response to major disasters and E terrorism incidents. Promises of “priority access” to airwaves controlled by commercial carriers have R been unenforceable, public safety officials point out. This certainly is an Open System challenge for the immediate future. , Key Concepts and Terms • • • • • T Principles of Open Systems A • Homeostasis M • Negative entropy Requisite variety • M • Equifinality Y • System evolution Example of Open Systems concepts • Nonrational Open Systems view can be related to the organic organization and the “ratio1 nal” closed systems with the mechanistic organization Total Quality Management (TQM) • 5 • Deming’s Fourteen Points for the Transformation of Management • Consensus Model versus Conflict Process Model 2 • Crime-Control Model versus Due Process Model1 Constitution requirement to “establish justice and insure domestic tranquility” requires an T Open Systems approach Crime prevention as an Open Systems approach S • Media to convey crime prevention suggestions to the public • Preventing victim from becoming victim again • A crime prevention specialist program composed of volunteer citizens • Local legislation and review of building permits to ensure that new construction includes building designs that prevent crime • Crime Triangle Other Open Systems approaches • Coordination with private police • Reducing youth crime Key Concepts and Terms 41344_CH09_FINAL.indd 215 215 2/8/12 10:07:42 AM © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR RESALE OR DISTRIBUTION • • Biochemistry, nutrition, and genetic factors in reducing crime Coordinating community efforts • Social media technology Chapter Activity Interview an employee in the criminal justice system. Ask him or her which entities outside the organization he or she has to consider and coordinate with when performing duties. Review Questions 1. Early in this chapter, it was stated that all things might be considered systems. The traditional 2. 3. 4. 5. air-conditioning system was given as an example of the concepts of input, processing, output, and feedback. Can you think of other examples of Open Systems? Describe how the conflict and consensusTmodels discussed in this chapter apply to viewing criminal justice as a system. In this chapter, lack of adequate public U financing for the criminal justice system was discussed as a factor in criminal justice administratorsR not being able to achieve their goals. Do you think that this situation will change in the future? N Crime prevention, juvenile justice approaches, research into biochemical links to crime, and community outreach programs were discussed E as Open Systems concepts to be considered by criminal justice administrators. Can you think of others? R Imagine that you are a criminal justice administrator and have been assigned to develop and imple, (for example, a crime prevention program). What Open ment a criminal justice entity of your choice Systems concepts would you consider in fulfilling this assignment? T A References M Barnard, C. 1938. The Functions of the Executive. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. M Biech, W., and D. Kessler. 1977. Response Time Analysis. WashY ington, DC: Police Executive Research Forum. Boccumini, P. 1992. “The Relationship of Diet/Nutrition Metal Toxicity to Juvenile Substance Abuse.” In Effective Prevention and Intervention Approaches for Youth Substance Abuse, by C. Cronkhite, p. 7. Los Angeles: Center for the Administration of Justice, University of Southern California. Bureau of Justice Assistance. 1993. Comprehensive Gang Initiative: Operations Manual for Implementing Local Gang Prevention and Control Programs. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice. Bureau of Justice Statistics. 2003. The Prosecution of Felony Arrest. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Chicago Tribune. 2006. 3. Cronkhite, C. 2005. “Fostering Community Partnerships That Prevent Crime and Promote Quality of Life.” FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin (May): 7–10. Deming, W. E. (1986). Out of the Crisis. Cambridge, MA: MIT. Ellis, L., and A. Walsh. 1997. “Gene-Based Evolutionary Theories in Criminology.” Criminology 25: 229–261. Greebler-Schepper, C. 1990. Total Quality Management: The Road to Continuous Improvement. Lucerne, CA: TQM Plus. Henteleff, J. 1998. “Special Needs Children and the Youth Justice System.” Crime Times 4: 3. 1 5 2 1 T S 216 41344_CH09_FINAL.indd 216 Hoffer, A. 1975. “The Relation of Crime to Nutrition.” Humanist in Canada (July): 8. Katz, D., and R. L. Kahn. 1966. The Social Psychology of Organizations. New York: Wiley. Kelling, G., and A. Pate. 1980. The Kansas City Preventative Patrol Experiment: A Summary Report. Washington, DC: Police Foundation. Lenhardt, A. E. 2006. “The Economics of Prevention: Reducing Costs and Crime.” The Police Chief: The Professional Voice of Law Enforcement. (July): 1–13. Moffitt, T. 1998. “Whole Blood Serotonin Relates to Violence in an Epidemiological Study.” Biological Psychiatry 43: 465–467. Morgan, G. 1997. Images of Organization. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Munro, J. L. 1977. “Towards a Theory of Criminal Justice Administration: A General Systems Perspective.” Public Administration Review (November/December): 621–631. New, A. S. 1997. “Serotonergic Functions and Self-Injurious Behavior in Personality Disorder Patients.” Psychiatry Research 69(1): 17–26. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. 2000. Juvenile Justice in the 21st Century. Washington, DC: Department of Justice. Packer, H. 1968. The Limits of Criminal Sanction. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Rivero, D. A. 2010. “Proactive Patrolling through the Use of Patrol Scripts.” The Police Chief (September): 66–68. CHAPTER 9 Applying Open Systems Concepts to the Administration 2/8/12 10:07:42 AM © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR RESALE OR DISTRIBUTION Roberts, D. 2011. “Technology’s Impact on Law Enforcement– Community Interaction.” The Police Chief (February): 80–81. Schauss, A. 1980. Diet, Crime & Delinquency. Berkeley, CA: Parker House. Stout, P. 2010. “Macomb Gets A Textbook Write-Up.” The Voice (May 7): Good to Great in Policing—A Conversation with Jim Collins. Parts I, II, and III. Subject of Debate: A Newsletter of the Police Executive Research Forum. 2006. Vol.20, No 7 (August). Subject to Debate: A Newsletter of the Police Executive Research Forum. 2010. Washington, DC. Vol. 24, no. 3 (March): 1–9. Subject to Debate: A Newsletter of the Police Executive Research Forum. 2010. Washington DC. Vol. 24, no. 4 (April/May): 4–5. Tennant, F. 1992. “Identifying the Teenage Drug User: Essence of Prevention.” In Effective Prevention and Intervention Approaches for Youth Substance Abuse, by C. Cronkhite, p. 15. Los Angeles: Center for the Administration of Justice, University of Southern California. Touchette, N. 1994. “Key Factors in Violent Behavior.” Journal of NIH Research (February): 7. Unis, A. S., J. H. Cook, D. K. Vincent, B. Gjerde, and B. D. Perry. 1997. “Neurotransmitted Serotonin and Abnormal Impulses.” Biological Psychiatry 42: 553–559. USA Today. 2009. “Burgeoning Gangs Behind up to 80% of U.S. Crime.” (January 30): 1. USA Today. 2010. “As Violent Crime Drops, Gang Ranks Swell 25%.” (November 3): 1. T Relevant Publication U This publication is a prime example of an Open Systems project R that unites the public with criminal justice agencies as well as other professionals in a common goal of providing “domestic tranquility” and N Partnerships That Prevent Crime and reducing crime (Cronkhite, C. (2005). “Fostering Community Promote Quality of Life.” FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, E May, pp. 7–10). In 2010, the subject of this Relevant Publication, the Community Quality of Life Advisory Committee, was selected as a national R 2010). exemplary cutting-edge program for preventing crime (Stout , T PREVENT CRIME “FOSTERING COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS THAT A AND PROMOTE QUALITY OF LIFE” BY CLYDE CRONKHITE M M During the past decade, crime has decreased in urban areas, Ybut, subsequently, some rural communi- ties have experienced an increase because offenders have been forced away from large cities.1 This trend threatens the quality of life in many suburban and rural areas. Therefore, a growing number of townships are taking a proactive posture against this movement by focusing 1 on community-based crime prevention programs, which unite communities in the fight to thwart the spread of crime. 5 The Challenge 2 McDonough County, Illinois, is in the western part of the state with a population of approximately 40,000 1plus 12,000 college students. and includes Macomb, a university town of 20,000 residents Although Macomb offers a family friendly atmosphere Twith a low crime rate, harbingers of gang and drug activities surfaced, perhaps from an influx of individuals seeking a haven from the increased S law enforcement efforts in larger cities. Drug arrests began to occur and evidence of graffiti appeared. Therefore, citizens of Macomb decided to handle these problems by drawing from their communitybased, crime prevention program experiences. Macomb’s results may serve as a model for other cities confronting similar trends. The Concept Many of today’s crime prevention approaches are based on an experiment conducted in a New Jersey community years ago, which spotlighted the importance of maintaining neighborhoods to keep communities relatively crime free.2 The broken windows theory holds that such issues as street maintenance “Fostering Community Partnerships that Prevent Crime and Promote Quality of Life” by Clyde Cronkhite 41344_CH09_FINAL.indd 217 217 2/8/12 10:55:14 PM © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR RESALE OR DISTRIBUTION and lighting, limits on the number of families living in a single dwelling, and control of absentee landlord rentals reduce crime. Additionally, attention to minor infractions that erode well-kept, safe environments, such as loud music, abandoned cars, and graffiti, can prevent the spread of gang violence, drug abuse, and other criminal conduct. Macomb applied the broken windows concept in a rural environment by forming community partnerships that result in a continuous focus on quality-of-life issues. The Approach In early 1994, Macomb formed a Crime and Quality of Life Advisory Committee, changing the name in 1996 to Community Quality of Life Committee and expanding the purview to include all of McDonough County. The committee seeks “to support efforts that contribute to the excellence of our community and to monitor and give advice regarding maintaining and enhancing community quality of life, including the prevention and reduction of crimes that adversely impact our neighborhoods.”3 Community Wellness Indicators • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • T Population size, density, age, ethnicity, and education U Single parent families Births by mothers under 18 years of age R Poverty, welfare, unemployment, and rental and unoccupied property rates N Per capita income Retail and wholesale sales E Property tax assessment R Tax revenues Ratio of police officers and firefighters , per 1,000 residents Index crimes Arrest index Traffic accidents T Emergency room admissions A Calls for emergency services Reports of school confrontation andM truancy The committee recruited concerned citizens M who have a responsibility for quality of life and criminal justice academicians from the local university, as well as other community leaders. Several committee Y members, such as the fire chief, sheriff, mayor, school superintendent, executive director of the housing authority, and the local state senator, were selected because their positions have the responsibility and authority to provide a prospering neighborhood. 1 The major responsibility of the advisory committee involves developing a method for measuring the quality of life in the community, setting a5baseline, and monitoring its status. To complete this task, a criminal justice research specialist (a member 2 of the committee) and graduate assistants from the local university’s department of law enforcement and justice administration analyzed 26 years of crime trends 1 in Macomb and McDonough County, comparing them with eight contiguous counties and totals for the state of Illinois. They selected “community wellness” indicators (e.g., poverty and welfare rates, per T capita income, single parent families, births by mothers under 18 years of age, truancy violations, and S emergency room admissions) from their research. The committee meets at least four times a year, and members review these indicators. Then, they publish a community “report card” or “wellness report.” Any indication that the community is adversely affected requires recommendations for combating the negative factors before they become substantial problems. As a result of the crime trend analysis, committee members noted early signs of substance abuse and gang involvement in the crime trends. As a result, the committee formed a youth task force that meets monthly. The task force determines the extent of the problem, confirms what is being done about the issue, recognizes any unnecessary duplication of services, decides the need for additional action and what it should be, and recommends steps that advisory committee members should take. 218 41344_CH09_FINAL.indd 218 CHAPTER 9 Applying Open Systems Concepts to the Administration 2/8/12 10:07:42 AM © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR RESALE OR DISTRIBUTION The school superintendent and a local religious leader oversee the youth task force. Several of the advisory committee members, such as the police chief and director of the housing authority, serve on the task force as well. Additionally, persons who deal daily with youth problems comprise part of the task force, along with an individual from the university who is an expert in substance abuse problems. Task force members have made several recommendations, such as school dress codes, truancy enforcement, a youth teen center, and ordinances to restrict alcohol and tobacco use by minors to combat the growing crime trend. At the youth center, teens socialize in a nonalcoholic environment and participate in an annual film festival. Also, the task force uses the local cable television channel and area newspapers to alert parents about gangs and substance abuse among teens. Task force members collected information about nearly 100 community activities available to youths and conveyed it to parents and teens through the local media and a Web site. They also made the information available to practitioners who deal with young people in trouble. Members encouraged police officers to divert underage offenders to these community activities, rather than counseling T and releasing them. Additionally, when rental property inhabited by students U around the local university began to deteriorate, the task force recommended an adopt-a-street program, which made various university student organizations responsible for preserving quality of life R in their own neighborhoods. This program, implemented throughout the police department, has proven Nsuccessful. E The advisory committee recommended spotlighting people R who and activities that enhance wellmaintained communities. This evolved into a yearly event held each September and includes exhibits , Local schools bring students to the event and demonstrations by most county public safety agencies. Recognition Days where thousands of community members meet police, fire, emergency, and rescue officers. Community members have the opportunity to thank these public employees and have their pictures taken with them, T pet the police dogs, climb the fire equipment, sound the police siren, and perform other such activities. Athat commends and provides photographs The celebration includes a supplement in the local newspaper of members of the county public safety agencies. The committee gives awards to individual agencies, as M well as to citizens who contribute to a safe community. This yearly event fosters communication and trust between the public safety agencies and the communityM and promotes awareness of the relationship between public safety and community quality of life. During Y the past 10 years, nearly 100 citizens and organizations have been honored for their contributions to local quality of life. 1 5 smaller communities, some townships As crime, particularly drug use and gang violence, seeps into are implementing procedures to deter its spreading. The crime prevention and quality-of-life effort 2 in McDonough County, Illinois, seeks to prevent this ever-increasing threat. An advisory committee 1 oversees the program and promotes cooperation and coordination among the various entities that have a responsibility for ensuring a flourishing community. T The committee established and continually monitors community wellness indicators. When these S will impact quality of life, committee indicators disclose the beginning signs of activities that adversely Conclusion members create task forces to recommend remedies. Then, these solutions are implemented through the committee and aim to prevent community infections before they become serious. When this project began in the early 1990s, crime had begun its downward trend across the country.4 However, in Macomb, Illinois, as in many smaller communities, crime was on the rise. After the implementation of this program, crime has decreased and quality of life has become a hallmark of the community. Anyone involved in resolving social problems realizes that no perfect solutions exist. However, insightful, preventative activities can inhibit and even preclude many adverse conditions that result in Conclusion 41344_CH09_FINAL.indd 219 219 2/8/12 10:07:42 AM © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR RESALE OR DISTRIBUTION the deterioration of community quality of life and the increase of crime. The approach taken by McDonough County may serve as a useful model to other localities working to prevent crime and preserve a nurturing community. 1. Dr. Michael Hazlett, Western Illinois University, Department of Law Enforcement and Justice Administration, “Community Quality of Life 1993–1994,” Community Wellness Factor Report. 2. For more information on this topic, see Frank Perry, “Repairing Broken Windows: Preventing Corruption Within Our Ranks,” FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, February 2001, 23–26; and J.Q. Wilson and G. Kelling, “The Police and Neighborhood Safety: Broken Windows,” The Atlantic Monthly, March 1982, 29–38. 3. The mission statement is restated in the minutes of the first Crime and Quality of Life Advisory Committee (CQLAC) meeting each year. These minutes are kept by the current CQLAC chair, Mr. Bill Jacob, Executive Director, McDonough County Housing Authority, 322 West Piper Street, Macomb, Illinois 61455. 4. U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau T of Investigation, Crime in the United States, 1992 (Washington, DC, 1993). U R N E R , T A M M Y 1 5 2 1 T S 220 41344_CH09_FINAL.indd 220 CHAPTER 9 Applying Open Systems Concepts to the Administration 2/8/12 10:07:42 AM © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR RESALE OR DISTRIBUTION CHAPTER Applying Social Equity Theme Concepts to the Administration of Contemporary Criminal Justice Agencies 10 T U R N E R , T A Introduction M The theme of Social Equity is the only theme that is unique to the public sector. This is not to say that M action guidelines and equal employment social equity is not of concern in the private sector. Affirmative opportunity legislation have made it of concern to all enterprises. However, when it comes to which Y entities are responsible for ensuring and enforcing social equity, it now rests squarely with the public sector. Until the 1970s, the public sector had a history of following the will of the public and their elected officials regardless of social rights guaranteed by the U.S. Constitution. Slavery, and later segregation, 1 was enforced by the criminal justice system—under the same U.S. Constitution that exists today. Even as the public sector struggled to become “professional” and5follow sound business practices, administrators continued to follow Woodrow Wilson’s directions2 from 1887. However, as the Open Systems concepts gradually took hold, a different view began to emerge. The key historic Social Equity concepts 1 that began the theme shift are: • • T Refocusing on Organization Functions 1977, “The Zero-Based Approach to Government Budgeting,” Peter Pyhrr S Public sector’s responsibility for individual rights (even at the cost of efficiency) 1971, Toward a New Public Administration: The Minnowbrook Perspective, H. George Frederickson Peter Pyhrr reminded us that even though the main focus of the period may be on one theme, administrators must be mindful of concepts created in previous periods. In the late 1970s, the economy took a downward turn, and with it so did public funding. Public administrators were forced to review their Organization Functions approaches (mainly budgeting) and find ways to continue public services with less funding. 221 41344_CH10_FINAL.indd 221 2/8/12 10:09:57 AM © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR RESALE OR DISTRIBUTION Eclectic Perspective Client-Oriented Social Equity T U R N E R , Figure 10.1 Open Systems Employee Relations T Organization Functions A M M Y Filing Cabinet of the Five Contextual Themes for “Mentally” Retrieving Historic Key Concepts and Terms Relating to Social Equity 1 However, the pivotal milestone publication 5 during this period was H. George Frederickson’s recording of the results of the Minnowbrook Conference. Dwight Waldo, who promoted the conference in 1968, 2 of revolution and that there was a need to define the role noted that public administration was in a time of public administration. The result was a “new 1 public administration” that called on proactive administrators to become the guardians of individual rights for the citizens they served and for their employees. H. George Frederickson went so far as to sayTthat he saw the day coming “when public administration and the courts would represent the disadvantaged S and minorities, while the elected officials would stand for the majority” (Frederickson 1971). Even though it can now be seen that public administration has not gone as far as Frederickson forecasted, his milestone publication did promote a move toward more independence from elected officials and more concern for social equity. Norton Long signaled the move for more political independence back in 1949 when he wrote: The theory that agencies should confine themselves to communicating policy suggestions to executive and legislature, and refrain from appealing to their clientele and the public, neglects that failure of the parties to provide either a clear-cut decision as to what they should do or an adequately mobilized political support for a course of action. (1949, 259) 222 41344_CH10_FINAL.indd 222 CHAPTER 10 Applying Social Equity Theme Concepts to the Administration 2/8/12 10:09:58 AM © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR RESALE OR DISTRIBUTION This does not mean that public service is not influenced by politics. In 1974, Vincent Ostrom, although supporting the Social Equity theme, proposed a more democratic administration and said public administration could not be separated from politics since most decisions were “not a matter of political indifference” (Ostrom 1974). Politics, as differentiated from partisan politics, embodies the concept of public government, and as Woodrow Wilson said, elected officials are the best representatives of the people. In fact, most chief public administrators are appointed and terminated by elected officials. Social Equity—At What Cost? During the early development of public administration, the emphasis had been on efficiently and effectively carrying out the directions of elected officials. The Open Systems and the Social Equity periods provided public administrators more freedom to carry out their public missions without as much direction from elected officials. The new Social Equity theme produced an additional element—that even if it cost more, individual T rights must be protected. The author can recall, as a police administrator, having public pressure to rid communities of street drug deals that were interfering with “domestic tranquility.” There were even sugU gestions of “strong arming” the dealers by members of the community. Violating the rights of the drug dealers might have been the most expedient and economicalRway to rid the community of this problem. However, the duty to protect individual rights, even for the Nworst of criminals, is very much a public administration responsibility. It may take longer and cost more to accomplish the mission by ensuring E employees. Social Equity, but that is an important responsibility of all public The responsibility to protect individual rights did not R begin to become a part of the oath of office for most public employees until the 1970s. Now, when criminal justice employees swear to the oath upon , public safety and protecting individual employment, they take on the equal responsibility of providing rights. For example, the FBI Core Values Statement reads: Rigorous obedience to constitutional principles ensures thatT individually and institutionally we alw...
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