University of West Georgia Public Management Discussion

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1. Review the issues in designing effective organizations. What are the decisions that must be made?

2.What are the pitfalls of leadership in public organizations? How do you think leaders can avoid those?

3. How is human resources management different in the public sector as opposed to the private sector? what are the problems and how can those be addressed?

4.What are the issues of technology that must be addressed in public organizations? What is e-Government? What are the primary issues in management of effective e-Government? 

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Understanding and Managing Public Organizations Chapter 1 The Challenge of Effective Public Organization and Management  Government organizations and the people in them perform crucial functions.  We expect government to “protect us.”  Public organizations have many similarities with private business firms and nonprofit organizations, but they also differ in important ways. Toward Improved Understanding and Management of Public Organizations  All nations face decisions about the roles of government and private institutions in their society.  To assess government practices, we need to understand the similarities and differences among public, private, and nonprofit organizations.  Researchers and writers of public management and public organizations agree that we need more careful analyses of organizational and managerial issues in government.  Advancing public management requires reconciling legitimate skepticism about public organizations with the recognition that they are necessary with the recognition that public organizations play an indispensible role in society. Toward Improved Understanding and Management of Public Organizations  Evidence indicates that we can profit from general knowledge about management and organizations, but the governmental context sharply constrains performance.  Understanding and improving management of public organizations is possible with a study of the literature integrated with a review of the research on public organizations. Ambivalence Toward Government  The increase in privatization and contracting out policies suggest an antigovernment sentiment.  Presidential policies and statements usually reflect the assumption that government performs less effectively and efficiently than private firms.  In reality, Americans regard government with more ambivalence than hostility. General Management and Public Management  Understanding and improving management of public organizations is possible with a study of the literature integrated with a review of the research on public organizations.  Public management can benefit from diverse and interdisciplinary literature. • Organizational behavior, organization theory, and management • Important to advancing public management but mostly reflect the “generic tradition” • Public administration, economics, and political science • Also important, but not much attention to internal management • Tend to oversimplify such topics as motivation and organization structure for public bureaucracies Generic Tradition  Treats private and public management as similar in most important respects  Recognizes merit in both sides of the debate • Generic tradition offers valuable insights, but there is a need for a body • • of knowledge specific to public organizations. Managers in public agencies can effectively apply generic management procedures, but they must also skillfully negotiate the external political environment. Political science and economics tend to oversimplify topics such as motivation, structure, and so on. Issues in Education and Research  There is an elaborate body of knowledge on management and organizations, but too little analysis of differences.  Graduate programs in M.P.A.s now emphasize management skills but also recognize sectoral differences in applying those skills. The Dilemmas of Improving Public Management  Concerns about ineffective government have led to continuous reform efforts.  Carter and Reagan both attacked federal bureaucracy in their campaigns.  Carter instituted the Civil Service Reform Act of 1978 as a management improvement initiative. This made it easier • To discipline and fire federal employees • To base pay on performance • For politically appointed heads to transfer career civil servants under them The Dilemmas of Improving Public Management  Reagan reforms were even more aggressive than those of Carter. These • Worked for cuts in authority, funding, and staffing • Sought to increase presidential authority over agencies • Increased the number of political appointees to high levels in agencies but cut staff • Decentralized The Dilemmas of Improving Public Management  The aftermath of Reagan reforms • There was an increase in indictments. • There were reports of employee morale problems. • Cutbacks provided a reason to escape previously set goals. • Paul Volker of the Federal Reserve Board also chaired a commission to analyze crisis and recommended steps to improve pay and performance and relationships between appointees and civil servants. The Dilemmas of Improving Public Management  The pattern of reforms continued under the NPR • • The system—not the people—caused the problem. There was a major cutback in federal employees (approximately 325,000).  George W. Bush • Rejected Clinton reforms • Initiated the President’s Management Agenda • Instituted agency scorecards • red = failure • green = success • yellow = mixed results The Dilemmas of Improving Public Management  Obama has continued the pattern. • On the bright side • “Human Capital” now receives attention. • Researchers recognize the complexity of the problem. • Concerns about a lack of knowledge have led to numerous books and scholarly articles since the 1990s. • There is a movement under way to recognize that governments can perform well and continuing inquiry is needed. • Continuous efforts underscore the political context of public management. It’s not a matter of straightforward science. Effective Public Management  There is plenty of help available for improving public management practice and research.  There is more evidence of excellence in public service. • The field includes the use of sources outside typical academic research: government reports and observations, and practices of managers.  Texts focused on management may include such topics as inventory and information systems. The Challenge of Sustained Attention and Analyses  Public management involves complex objectives.  Public managers balance conflicting objectives and priorities.  The debate over government performance and the uniqueness of the public sector will continue.  There is merit to both sides of the debate. Organizations: A Definition and Conceptual Framework  An organization consists of a group of people working together to pursue a goal.  They obtain resources from their environment.  They transform resources by accomplishing tasks and applying technologies to achieve performance of goals.  They deal with uncertainties of the processes by organizing activities and establishing structures and processes.  Organizing involves leadership and strategy.  Structures are relatively stable observable assignments and divisions achieved through hierarchies, rules, and so on. Organizations: A Definition and Conceptual Framework  The division of responsibilities determined by the organization structure divides the organization’s goals into components on which the individual groups can concentrate—hence the term organization referring to the set of organs that make up the whole.  Processes are not as physically observable as structures.  Processes are more dynamic and play an important role in coordination. They include such matters as decision making, communication, and determining power relationships.  Within processes, groups and individuals respond to incentives, resulting in performance. A Framework for Organizational Analysis Goals / Values (Chapters 6, 11) Leadership / Strategy (Chapters 7, 11) Culture (Chapter 11) Environments (Chapters 4, 5) Structures (Chapter 8) Processes (Chapters 7, 12, 13) Tasks / Technology (Chapters 8) Incentives (Chapters 9, 10) Groups (Chapter 12) People Individuals (Chapters 9, 10) Organizational Performance / Effectiveness (Chapters 6, 14) A Framework for Organizational Analysis ( Elaboration of Figure 1.1) Goals / Values (Chapters 6, 11) Auspices : Public or Private Nonprofit, Hybrid (Chapter 3) Leadership / Strategy (Chapters 7, 11) Culture (Chapter 11) Structures Environments (Chapters 4, 5) Processes Specialization/Division of Responsibility Departmentalization/Subunits Hierarchy/Centralization Formalization/Rules and Regulations (Chapter 8) Power Relationships Decision Making Communications Change/Innovation (Chapters 7, 12, 13) Incentives (Chapters 9, 10) Tasks / Technology (Chapters 8) GROUPS Cohesion Teamwork (Chapter 12) PEOPLE INDIVIDUAL Values/Motives Perception/Attributions Motivation Job Satisfaction Organizational Commitment (Chapters 9, 10) Organizational Performance / Effectiveness (Chapters 6, 14) Understanding and Managing Public Organizations Chapter 2 Understanding the Study of Organizations: A Historical Overview Historical Review  Major developments in research, theory, and thinking about organizations and management have taken place over the past century.  Theories about motives, values, and capacities have evolved.  Theories are not impractical abstractions but frameworks of ideas that play a key role in trends, practices, and so on.  Historical overview illustrates generic themes and also sets up controversy for debate about distinctiveness.  Managers need to be aware of key terms used in classic literature (Theory X, Theory Y, span of control). Systems Metaphor  Early classical approaches emphasized single form and one best way.  Recent perspectives emphasize a variety of forms that can be effective under different conditions or contingencies. There is not one best way.  Trend borrows from system theory. • Systems in nature have commonalities, which provide avenues for learning and common language. Classical Approaches to Understanding Organizations  Frederick Taylor and Scientific Management • Time motion studies • Increase in workers’ well-being through productivity • Highly impersonal Classical Approaches to Understanding Organizations • Max Weber: Bureaucracy as an Ideal Construct • Advanced organizations are grounded in rational-legal form of authority and are superior. • Weber defined the basic characteristics of a good bureaucracy. • Bureaucracies can develop problems of accountability. The Administrative Management School: Principles of Administration  Sought to develop principles of administration for all organization form  Ideas reflected in Gulick’s POSDCORB and Mooney’s “Scalar Principle”  Emphasis on hierarchy and specialization • Division of work based on task, geographic location, interdependency of work processes • Coordination of work o o o o Span of control One master Technical efficiency Scalar principle Reactions, Critiques, and New Developments  The Hawthorne Studies • These are widely regarded as the most significant demonstration of the importance of social and psychological factors in the workplace. • An experiment on the physical conditions (lighting) altered the social situation. • Employee output is also a function of attention being part of the experiment. • This is called the “Hawthorne Effect.” Chester Barnard and Herbert Simon • Chester Barnard • Barnard wrote The Functions of the Executive (1938) • He studied the inducements-contributions equilibrium. • Incentives include more than money. Employees are also motivated by such factors as power, prestige, and selffulfillment. • The “executive” or manager has a key role in inducing behavior through communication and persuasion. Chester Barnard and Herbert Simon • Herbert Simon • Simon made many contributions to the field, but his 1947 PAR article typifies his reaction to management thinking of the time. • “The Proverbs of Administration” critiques four then-accepted principles of public administration that lead to efficiency: • • • • Specialization Hierarchy of command Limited span of control Group workers according to purpose, process, clientele, and place • Simon was also concerned with complex decision making and the assumption that humans are fully rational. He contended that administrators “satisfice” rather than maximize. Social Psychology, Group Dynamics, and Human Relationships • Kurt Lewin’s Force Field Analysis • Humans maintain a quasi-stationary equilibrium in their attitudes and behaviors that results from a balance of forces pressing for change. • Change occurs in phases: • Unfreezing • Changing • Refreezing  (1951) Social Psychology and Group Dynamics • Lewin’s model becomes the conceptual frame for organizational development. The Human Relations School • Maslow’s “Needs Hierarchy” • Five major categories of needs (bottom to top) Physiological Safety Love Self-esteem Self-actualization The Human Relations School • Douglas McGregor • (1957) “The Human Side of the Enterprise” • Distills the contending traditional (authoritarian) managerial philosophies into Theory X and Theory Y • “X” employees basically lazy and resistant to change • “Y” employees capable of self-motivation • What implications do these two views have for management? Open Systems Approaches and Contingency Theory • Joan Woodward • She conducted research on the classical principles of management in England between 1955 and 1964. • In her survey of one hundred firms in south Essex, she was able to link organizational structure to technology. • She found that bureaucracy was the best form of organizational structure for routine operations. • On the other hand, temporary work groups, decentralization, and emphasis on interpersonal processes worked best for nonroutine operations. Open Systems Approaches and Contingency Theory • Burns and Stalker • • • • “The Management of Innovation” (1961) One of the first instances in which the environment is considered an important variable of the organization equation Distinguishes mechanistic and organic systems Found that mechanistic organization was appropriate for stable conditions while the organic type was better suited to changing conditions Open Systems Approaches and Contingency Theory • Lawrence and Lorsch • In 1967 recognized the importance of the environment in organizations—introduced the concepts of differentiation and integration • Found that firms performed best when the differences between units were maximized, as long as the integrating mechanisms were neither strongly bureaucratic nor laissez-faire Open Systems Approaches and Contingency Theory • James Thompson • “Organizations in Action” (1967) • Thompson sought to close the gap between open and closed systems theories by suggesting that organizations deal with uncertainties in their environment by creating specific elements to cope with the outside world, while other elements are able to focus on the rational nature of technical operations. • Dominant coalitions tend to set up closed systems, conditional and rational decision processes. • As complexities and uncertainties increase, organizations adapt by adopting more flexible and decentralized structures and procedures. Open Systems Approaches and Contingency Theory • Peter Blau and colleagues • (1971) Conducted a series of studies showing that organizational size has an important relationship to structure • New Topics • • • • TQM (Demming and Juran) Organization behavior Organization culture Diversity in organizations The Quiet Controversy over Distinctions  The analysts in the historical review either concentrated on industrial organizations or sought to develop generic concepts and theories that applied to all organizations.  There are still gaps in the literature, and the issues still tend to be oversimplified.  The next chapter turns to the challenge of formulating definitions and drawing distinctions. Understanding and Managing Public Organizations Chapter 3 What Makes Public Organizations Distinctive Public Versus Private: A Dangerous Distinction? • The generic tradition in organization theory • Findings from research • The blurring of the sectors – – – – Mixed, intermediate, and hybrid forms Functional analogies—doing the same things Complex interrelations Analogies from social roles and contexts • The importance of avoiding oversimplifications Findings from Research • Many major studies sought to develop typologies and taxonomies. • These studies mostly failed to produce evidence of a strict division between public and private organizations.  Pugh, Hickson, and Hinings (1969)—classification of fifty-eight organizations into categories, only eight of which were government. • Predicted government was more bureaucratic—more rules and procedures— • • but the prediction was not confirmed. They did find that government organizations had more outside influence. Overall, studies are inconclusive. Blurring of the Sectors  Mixed, Intermediate, and Hybrid Forms • Perform business functions but owned and operated by government  U.S. Postal Service  National Service • Government-Sponsored Enterprises  Fannie Mae  Freddie Mac Functional Analogies • Hospital and schools can perform the same functions whether labeled private or public. • NPM calls for the use of business procedures in government. Complex Interrelations • Government arranges for some services by private organizations – – – – Vouchers Franchises Grants Private corps that handle some aspects of Medicare Analogies from Social Roles and Contexts • Governments use laws, regulations, and fiscal policies to influence private organizations. • At what point do private organizations become an extension of government? The Importance of Avoiding Oversimplifications • If clear demarcations are impossible, what does that say of critics who claim public organizations are less efficient? • Be careful what you label – Reporting – Interest group access applies in different ways to the different labels An Essential Distinction  The purpose of public organizations  Market failures or incapacities • Public goods and free riders • Individual incompetence • Externalities or spillovers  Political rationales for government Mixed Intermediate, Politics, and Markets • Dahl and Lindblom (1953) provide a useful analysis of the reason for public organizations. • There are two fundamental vehicles—political authority and economic markets. • All nations use a combination of both. • There are advantages and disadvantages to both. Mixed Intermediate, Politics, and Markets Political Hierarchy Economic Markets • A complex array of contending groups and institutions • Produces a complex hydra-headed hierarchy—“a polyarchy” • Can direct economic activities • An alternative price system in free economic markets • Can control economic production and allocation decisions Concept of Public Values  Parallel to market failures.  Focus on political and institutional processes by which public values are identified, and furthered or damaged.  Moore implicitly defined public values by discussing differences between production processes and circumstances justifying public production.  Public value consists of what governmental entities produce with due authorization form the public, considering efficiency and effectiveness. Mark Moore and Public Values  Public managers “must produce something whose benefits to specific clients outweigh the costs of production.”  Moore envisions a proactive public manager.  It’s not all about efficiency.  The Accenture Public Sector Value Model builds on Moore • Cole and Parston (2006): value emerges from the production of governmental activities considered together with the costeffectiveness of producing those outcomes. Recent Models on Public Values  The Accenture Public Sector Value Model builds on Moore • Cole and Parston (2006): value emerges from the production of governmental activities considered together with the costeffectiveness of producing those outcomes.  Bozeman—a society’s public values. There can’t be a disconnect between value as agency sees its mission and the public preferences. • Core public values can fail because of flaws in the policy making system. For example, core public values are skirted if the public favors gun control but no such policy is enacted. The Meaning and Nature of Public Organizations and Public Management • Approaches to defining public organizations and public managers • Agencies and enterprises as points on a continuum  Ownership and funding • Economic authority, public authority, and “publicness” Agencies, Enterprises, and Hybrid Organizations The continuum between government ownership and private enterprise. Below the line are arrangements colloquially referred to as public, government-owned, or nationalized. Above the line are organizational forms usually referred to as private enterprise or free enterprise. On the line are arrangements popularly considered neither public nor private. Private nonprofit organizations totally reliant on government contracts and grants (Atomic Energy Commission, Manpower Development Research Corporation). Private corporations reliant on government contracts for most revenues (some defense contractors, such as General Dynamics Crummen). Heavily regulated private firms (heavily regulated privately owned utilities). Private corporations with significant funding from government contracts but majority of revenues from private sources. Private corporations subject to general government regulations such as affirmative action, Occupational Safety and Health Administration regulations. Government ownership of part of a private corporation Government agency State-owned enterprise or public corporation (Postal Service, TVA, Port Authority of NV) Government sponsored enterprise, established by government but with shares traded on stock market (Federal National Mortgage Association). Government program or agency operated largely through purchase from private vendors or producers (Medicare, public housing) Private enterprise Public and Private Ownership and Funding Public Ownership Department of Defense Public Funding Social Security (taxes, Administration government Police departments contracts) Private Funding (sales, private donations) U.S. Postal Service Government-owned utilities Federal Home Loan Bank Board Private Ownership Defense Contractors Rand Corporation Manpower Development Research Corporation Oak Ridge National Laboratories General Motors* IBM General Electric Grocery store chains YMCA *These large corporations have large government contracts and sales but attain most of their revenues from private sales and have relative autonomy to withdraw from dealing with government. Source: Adapted and revised from Wamsley and Zald (1973). “Publicness”: Political and Economic Authority Economic Authority Private firm managed by owner Closely held private firm, professionally managed Corporation with shares traded publicly on stock market Private nonprofit organizatio n Professional association Small voluntary association Governmentindustry research cooperative Corporation heavily reliant on government contracts Research university Governmentsponsored enterprise Government corporation or government organization funded through user fees Government agency (funded from taxes) Political Authority Source: Adapted from Bozeman (1987). Typology of Organizations Created By Cross-Classifying Ownership, Funding, and Mode of Social Control Ownership Funding Mode of Social Control Representative Study Example Bureau Public Public Polyarchy Meier (1993) Bureau of Labor Statistics Government corporation Public Private Polyarchy Walsh (1978) Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation Governmentsponsored enterprise Private Public Polyarchy Musolf and Seidman (1980) Corporation for Public Broadcasting Regulated enterprise Private Private Polyarchy Mitnick (1980) Private electric utilities Governmental enterprise Public Public Market Barzelay (1992) Government printing office that must sell services to government agencies State-owned enterprise Public Private Market Aharoni (1986) Airbus Government contractor Private Public Market Bozeman (1987) Grumann Private enterprise Private Private Market Williamson (1975) IBM Source: Adapted and revised from Perry and Rainey (1988). Problems and Approaches in Public-Private Comparisons • Problems and challenges - Need to control for size, task, other factors - Difficulty in obtaining the very large samples needed to represent the “sectors”  Research approaches - - Some theorize from assumptions, past literature, and their own experiences. Interviews with executives and managers who have served in both public agencies and private business firms Comparisons of public and private organizations within functional categories (hospitals, schools, refuse collection) Problems and Approaches in Public-Private Comparisons • Comparisons of managers in small sets of government and business organizations • Comparisons of public and private samples from census data, large-scale social surveys, or national studies – The National Organizations Survey Problems and Approaches in Public-Private Comparisons  Other issues • Accountability differs by labeled type. • Commercialization of nonprofits. • Is a defense contractor private if all revenues come from government? • Is a government enterprise “public” if you can buy stock in it? • Is an independent agency less governmental than a traditional agency? Distinctive Characteristics of Public Management and Public Organizations: A Summary of Common Assertions and Research Findings I. Environmental factors I.1. Absence of economic markets for outputs; reliance on governmental appropriations for financial resources I.1.a. Less incentive to achieve cost reduction, operating efficiency, and effective performance I.1.b. Lower efficiency in allocating resources (weaker reflection of consumer preferences, less proportioning of supply to demand) I.1.c. Less availability of relatively clear market indicators and information (prices, profits, market share) for use in managerial decisions I.2. Presence of particularly elaborate and intensive formal legal constraints as a result of oversight by legislative branch, executive branch hierarchy and oversight agencies, and courts 1.2.a. More constraints on domains of operation and on procedures (less autonomy for managers in making such choices) 1.2.b. Greater tendency for proliferation of formal administrative controls 1.2.c. Larger number of external sources of formal authority and influence, with greater fragmentation among them Distinctive Characteristics of Public Management and Public Organizations: A Summary of Common Assertions and Research Findings I.3. Presence of more intensive external political influences 1.3.a. Greater diversity and intensity of external informal political influences on decisions (political bargaining and lobbying; public opinion; interest-group, client, and constituent pressures) 1.3.b. Greater need for political support from client groups, constituencies, and formal authorities in order to obtain appropriations and authorization for actions Distinctive Characteristics of Public Management and Public Organizations: A Summary of Common Assertions and Research Findings II. Organization-Environment Transactions II.1. Public organizations and managers are often involved in production of public goods or handling of significant externalities. Outputs are not readily transferable to economic markets at a market price. II.2. Government activities are often coercive, monopolistic, or unavoidable. Government has unique sanctioning and coercion power and is often the sole provider. Participation in consumption and financing of activities is often mandatory. II.3. Government activities often have a broader impact and greater symbolic significance. There is a broader scope of concern, such as for general public interest criteria. II.4. There is greater public scrutiny of public managers. II.5. There are unique expectations for fairness, responsiveness, honesty, openness, and accountability. Distinctive Characteristics of Public Management and Public Organizations: A Summary of Common Assertions and Research Findings III. Organizational roles, structures, and processes III.1. Greater goal ambiguity, multiplicity, and conflict III.1.a. Greater vagueness, intangibility, or difficulty in measuring goals and performance criteria; the goals are more debatable and value-laden (for example, defense readiness, public safety, a clean environment, better living standards for the poor and unemployed) III.1.b. Greater multiplicity of goals and criteria (efficiency, public accountability and openness, political responsiveness, fairness and due process, social equity and distributional criteria, moral correctness of behavior) III.1.c. Greater tendency of the goals to be conflicting, to involve more tradeoffs (efficiency versus openness to public scrutiny, efficiency versus due process and social equity, conflicting demands of diverse constituencies and political authorities) Distinctive Characteristics of Public Management and Public Organizations: A Summary of Common Assertions and Research Findings III.2. Distinctive features of general managerial roles III.2.a. Recent studies have found that public managers’ general roles involve many of the same functions and role categories as those of managers in other settings but with some distinctive features: a more political, expository role, involving more meetings with and interventions by external interest groups and political authorities; more crisis management and “fire drills”; greater challenge to balance external political relations with internal management functions. Distinctive Characteristics of Public Management and Public Organizations: A Summary of Common Assertions and Research Findings III.3. Administrative authority and leadership practices III.3.a. Public managers have less decision-making autonomy and flexibility because of elaborate institutional constraints and external political influences. There are more external interventions, interruptions, and constraints. III.3.b. Public managers have weaker authority over subordinates and lower levels as a result of institutional constraints (for example, civil service personnel systems, purchasing and procurement systems) and external political alliances of subunits and subordinates (with interest groups, legislators). III.3.c. Higher-level public managers show greater reluctance to delegate authority and a tendency to establish more levels of review and approval and to make greater use of formal regulations to control lower levels. III.3.d. More frequent turnover of top leaders due to elections and political appointments causes more difficulty in implementing plans and innovations. III.3.e. Recent counterpoint studies describe entrepreneurial behaviors and managerial excellence by public managers. Distinctive Characteristics of Public Management and Public Organizations: A Summary of Common Assertions and Research Findings III.4. Organizational structure III.4.a. Numerous assertions that public organizations are subject to more red tape, more elaborate bureaucratic structures. II.4.b. Empirical studies report mixed results, some supporting the assertions about red tape, some not supporting them. Numerous studies find some structural distinctions for public forms of organizations, although not necessarily more bureaucratic structuring. III.5. Strategic decision-making processes III.5.a. Recent studies show that strategic decision-making processes in public organizations can be generally similar to those in other settings but are more likely to be subject to interventions, interruptions, and greater involvement of external authorities and interest groups. Distinctive Characteristics of Public Management and Public Organizations: A Summary of Common Assertions and Research Findings III.6. Incentives and incentive structures III.6.a. Numerous studies show that public managers and employees perceive greater administrative constraints on the administration of extrinsic incentives such as pay, promotion, and disciplinary action than do their counterparts in private organizations. III.6.b. Recent studies indicate that public managers and employees perceive weaker relations between performance and extrinsic rewards such as pay, promotion, and job security. The studies indicate that there may be some compensating effect of service and other intrinsic incentives for public employees and show no clear relationship between employee performance and perceived differences in the relationship between rewards and performance. Distinctive Characteristics of Public Management and Public Organizations: A Summary of Common Assertions and Research Findings III.7. Individual characteristics, work-related attitudes and behaviors III.7.a. A number of studies have found different work-related values on the part of public managers and employees, such as lower valuation of monetary incentives and higher levels of public service motivation. III.7.b. Numerous highly diverse studies have found lower levels of work satisfaction and organizational commitment among public than among private managers and employees. The level of satisfaction among public sector samples is generally high but tends consistently to be somewhat lower than that among private comparison groups. Distinctive Characteristics of Public Management and Public Organizations: A Summary of Common Assertions and Research Findings III.8. Organizational and individual performance III.8.a. There are numerous assertions that public organizations and employees are cautious and not innovative. The evidence for this is mixed. III.8.b. Numerous studies indicate that public forms of various types of organizations tend to be less efficient in providing services than their private counterparts, although results tend to be mixed for hospitals and utilities. (Public utilities have been found to be efficient somewhat more often.) Yet other authors strongly defend the efficiency and general performance of public organizations, citing various forms of evidence. Understanding and Managing Public Organizations Chapter 4 Analyzing the Environment of Public Organizations General Environmental Conditions • Technological conditions • Legal conditions • Political conditions • Economic conditions • Demographic conditions • Ecological conditions cultural conditions General Environmental Conditions • Technological conditions: the general level of knowledge and capability in science, engineering, medicine, and other substantive areas; general capacities for communication, transportation, information processing, medical services, military weaponry, environmental analysis, production and manufacturing processes, and agricultural production. • Legal conditions: laws, regulations, legal procedures, court decisions; characteristics of legal institutions and values, such as provisions for individual rights and jury trials as well as the general institutionalizations and stability of legal processes. • Political conditions: characteristics of the political processes and institutions in a society, such as the general form of government (socialism, communism, capitalism, and so on; degree of centralization, fragmentation, or federalism) and the degree of political stability (Carroll, Delacroix, and Goodstein, 1988). More direct and specific conditions include electoral outcomes, political party alignments and success, and policy initiatives within regimes. • Economic conditions: levels of prosperity, inflation, interest rates, and tax rates; characteristics of labor, capital, and economic markets within and between nations. • Demographic conditions: characteristics of the population such as age, gender, race, religion, and ethnic categories. • Ecological conditions: characteristics of the physical environment, including climate, geographical characteristics, pollution, natural resources, and the nature and density of organizational populations. • Cultural conditions: predominant values, attitudes, beliefs, social customs, and socialization processes concerning such things as sex roles, family structure, work orientation, and religious and political practices. Research on Environmental Variations • Notable contributions to this line of research include Selznick, Lawrence, and Lorsch; Burns and Stalker; and James Thompson Research on Environmental Variations • Phillip Selznick • TVA and the Grass Roots (1966) • Environmental influences play a crucial role in the institutionalization of processes. • Values, goals, and rules become firmly established not so much because of efficiency but because of environmental influences. Phillip Selznick (1966) • Co-optation is “the process of absorbing new elements into the leadership or policy-determining structure of an organization as a means of averting threats to its stability or existence.” • Basically, it can mean either shared power and authority or sharing of responsibility and participation without actual redistribution of power. It usually happens when an organization is “out of synch” with its environment (lack of legitimacy, lack of mobilizing power). • Often the goal of co-optation is “the sharing of public symbols or administrative burdens of authority and public responsibility, but without an actual transfer of power.” The organization needs to make sure the co-optation doesn't get out of hand. The organization needs participation, but too much participation may threaten leadership (hence the inherent dilemma and tensions). Significance of Co-optation • Co-optation is significant to organizational analysis because it represents a change or broadening of leadership. It also tells us that every adaptive structure evolves to meet its basic needs for survival and develops methods of self-defense. • One can explain organizational behavior by examining the function or structure of the organization in relation to these needs. The organization strives for security and stability of formal and informal relations. Lawrence and Lorsch (1967) • They define differentiation as “the state of segmentation of the organizational systems into subsystems, each of which tends to develop particular attributes in relation to the requirements posed by its relevant external environment.” • They define integration as “the process of achieving unity of effort among the various subsystems in the accomplishment of the organization's task.“ Lawrence and Lorsch • Organizations must balance differentiation and integration to be successful. Those companies who manage to achieve high sub-unit differentiation and yet still maintain high integration between sub-units seem to be best equipped to adapt to environmental changes. • Groups that are organized to perform simpler, more certain tasks (such as production groups) usually have more formal structures than groups focusing on more uncertain tasks (for example, research and development). Burns and Stalker • Through their theory of mechanistic and organic systems, Tom Burns and G. M. Stalker have provided a way to understand which organization forms fit to specific circumstances of change or stability. • In their highly influential work “The Management of Innovation” (1961) they provide the characteristics of mechanistic versus organic systems. • Stable conditions suggest the use of a mechanistic form with traditional patterns of hierarchy, reliance on formal rules and regulations, vertical communication, and structured decision making. • More dynamic conditions—situations with a rapidly changing environment—require an organic form that is less rigid, is more participative, and relies on workers to redefine their positions and relationships. Mechanistic Versus Organic • Tasks are separated. • Tasks are narrowly defined. • Has a hierarchy with centralized top-down control. • Rules are pervasive. • Communication is vertical. • Employees contribute to shared tasks. • Teamwork redefines tasks. • Is flatter with less hierarchy. • There are fewer rules. • Knowledge and control of tasks are located anywhere in the organization. • Communication is horizontal. Why Is This Important? • Essential organization goals or tasks require certain organizational environments. • The impact of these organizational forms on individuals is different. • Managers find the mechanistic form provides a greater sense of security when dealing with their environment than the organic form. • Either form may be appropriate in particular situations. Contingency Theory • An organization’s structure must be adapted to contingencies. • In simple, homogenous, and stable environments, organizations can successfully adopt mechanistic and centralized structures. • In more complex environments, successful organizations must be organic and less decentralized. Contingency Theory • Capacity • Domain consensus and choice • Turbulence and interconnectedness • Stability, dynamism, change rates Descriptive and Analytic Dimensions of Organizational Environments • Capacity • Homogeneity-heterogeneity • Stability-instability • Domain consensus-dissensus • Turbulence Recent Trends in Research on Organizational Environments • Population ecology—a deterministic viewpoint. Populations vary because of their environments. • Resource-dependence: Organizations depend on their environment for critical resources. Organizations exchange to gain resources, which in turn alters the power-dependence dynamic. • Transaction costs: Make-buy decisions can be examined in terms of the cost of the exchange. All governance forms have unique competencies. • Studies of institutionalization o Isomorphism o Coercive isomorphism o Normative isomorphism Descriptive and Analytical Dimensions of Organizational Environments • • • • • • Aldrich (1979) Capacity: the extent to which the environment affords a rich or lean supply of necessary resources Homogeneity-heterogeneity: the degree to which important components of the environment are similar or dissimilar Stability-instability: the degree and rapidity of change in the important components or processes in the environment Concentration-dispersion: the degree to which important components of the environment are separated or close together, geographically or in terms of communication or logistics Domain consensus-dissensus: the degree to which the organization’s domain (its operating locations, major functions and activities, and clients and customers served) is generally accepted or disputed and contested Turbulence: the degree to which changes in one part or aspect of the environment in turn create changes in another; the tendency of changes to reverberate and spread Major Environmental Components for Public Organizations General Values and Institutions of the Political Economy Political and economic traditions Constitutional provisions and their legislative and judicial development Due process Equal protection of the laws Democratic elections and representation (republican form) Federal system Separation of powers Free-enterprise system (economic markets relatively free of government controls) Values and performance criteria for government organizations Competence Efficiency Effectiveness Timeliness Reliability Reasonableness Responsiveness Accountability, legality, responsiveness to rule of law and governmental authorities, responsiveness to public demands Adherence to ethical standards Fairness, equal treatment, impartiality Openness to external scrutiny and criticism Major Environmental Components for Public Organizations Institutions, Entities, and Actors with Political Authority and Influence Chief executives Executive staff and staff offices Legislatures Legislative committees Individual legislators Legislative staff Courts Other government agencies Oversight and management agencies (GAO, OMB, OPM, GSA) Competitors Allies Agencies or governmental units with joint programs Other levels of government “Higher” and “lower” levels Intergovernmental agreements and districts Interest groups Client groups Constituency groups Professional associations Policy subsystems Issue networks Inter-organizational policy networks Implementation structure News media General public opinion Individual citizens with requests for services, complaints, and other contacts Major Environmental Components for Public Organizations • General values and institutions of the political economy • Values and performance criteria for government organizations • Institutions, entities, and actors with political authority and influence General Values and Institutions of the Political Economy • Political and economic traditions • Constitutional provisions and their legislative and judicial development – – – – Due process Equal protection of the laws Federal system Separation of powers Values and Performance Criteria for Government Organizations • Competence – – – – – Efficiency Effectiveness Timeliness Reliability Reasonableness • Responsiveness – Accountability, legality, responsiveness to rule of law and governmental authorities – Adherence to ethical standards – Fairness, equal treatment, impartiality – Openness to external scrutiny and criticism Institutions, Entities, and Actors with Political Authority and Influence • Chief executives – Executive staff and offices • Legislatures – Legislative committees – Individual legislators – Legislative staff • Courts Institutions, Entities, and Actors with Political Authority and Influence • Other governmental agencies – – – – Oversight and management agencies Competitors Allies Agencies or governmental units with joint programs • Other levels of government – “Higher” and “lower” levels – Intergovernmental agreements and districts Understanding and Managing Public Organizations Chapter 5 The Impact of Political Power and Public Policy Public Organizations and the Public • Public managers are influenced by public opinion, including the following: • The public’s general attitude about government • The public’s attitudes toward specific policies • Public organizations need support from – Mass publics—broad diffuse populations – Attentive publics—more organized groups that are interested in specific agencies • The public manager’s concern is to maintain enough authority and discretion to meet organizational goals. • Bureaucratic power is essential to the fundamental organizational process of gaining financial resources, grants, and other resources from the environment. Sources of Political Authority and Influence • Chief executives • Legislative bodies • Courts • Government agencies • Other levels of government • Interest groups • Policy subsystems and policy communities • News media • Public opinion • Individual citizens Two Views • Discussion falls into two camps. • Bureaus and bureaucrats are seen as independent and influential. • Bureaus and bureaucrats are impotent. • Both views have some merit. Bureaucratic power is a dynamic mixture of both conditions. • There are numerous cases showing agencies’ responsiveness to president, courts, and Congress. • There is also evidence of “bottom up” processes with agencies independently initiating policy. • Proactive behavior of public mangers is a common theme in leadership literature. Sources of Political Authority and Influence of Institutions, Entities, and Actors in the Political System Chief Executives • Appointment of agency heads and other officials • Executive staff and staff offices (for example, budget office) • Initiating legislation and policy directions • Vetoing legislation • Executive orders and directives Legislative Bodies • Power of the purse: final approval of the budget • Authorizing legislation for agency formation and operations • Approval of executive appointments of officials • Oversight activities: hearings, investigations • Authority of legislative committees • Initiating legislation Courts • Review of agency decisions • Authority to render decisions that strongly influence agency operations • Direct orders to agencies Government Agencies • Oversight and management authority (GAO, OMB, OPM, GSA) • Competitors • Allies • Agencies or government units with joint programs Sources of Political Authority and Influence of Institutions, Entities, and Actors in the Political System Other Levels of Government • “Higher” and “lower” levels • Intergovernmental agreements and districts Interest Groups • Client groups • Constituency groups • Professional associations Policy Subsystems and Policy Communities • Issue networks • Inter-organizational policy networks News Media • Constitutional protections of freedom of the press • Open meetings laws, sunshine laws General Public Opinion • Providing (or refusing to provide) popular support Individual Citizens • Requests for services, complaints, other contacts Chief Executives • The executive office rivals the legislative branch for strongest influence. • This includes presidents, governors, and mayors. • Chief executives presumably have the greatest formal power over bureaucracies in their jurisdictions. • Influence powers are complex and dynamic. • Methods of influence include the following: – Chief executives can appoint agency heads. – Resources of executive offices can enhance influence. – The executive branch proposes the initial budget, although legislature approval is necessary. – Chief executives can issue executive orders. Legislative Bodies • Formal legal authority over agencies comes in many forms. Examples include – Legislatures – Councils – Commissions • Legislative bodies have substantial authority over agencies. – – – – Enabling statutes detail agency authority but can be amended. Statutory authority can be vague or specific. Legislative branch controls budgets. Oversight includes hearings, reports, and investigations. • Formal authority always operates in a political context. • Formal authority can weaken or bolster agency. Limits on Legislative Power • Agencies are typically the experts. • Implementation is a source of power. • Close scrutiny over an agency often has minimal political payoff. – Could jeopardize relationships – Eliminate potential sources of favors for constituents Courts • Some experts claim courts exert powerful controls over bureaucracy, while others see them as ineffectual. • Courts confine agencies to statutory authority. • Courts require agencies to follow due process in rulemaking. Government Agencies and Other Levels of Government • Relationship of bureaucracy to other bureaucracies and different levels of government can be complex. • Interdependencies require cooperation. • Grants sometimes require coordination between agencies. • Federal system fragments authority. • Agencies sometimes compete for resources and control over programs. Interest Groups • Support of organized groups is essential to the well-being of an agency. • The role of interest groups is controversial. • Following are some criticisms: – There is a danger that special interest politics will further fragment the system, complicating communication and coordination. – The system favors some powerful private interests over public interest. – Agencies can become “captive.” Interest Groups • Support from constituent groups can • Bolster and legitimize agency work • Defend an agency against budget cuts • Provide an agency with important information and expert reports • Give rise to various viewpoints through competition News Media • Media attention varies by administration and agency. • Media attention can shift unpredictably. • Media tend to take an adversarial stance. • Bad press can damage budgets, programs, and careers. • Agencies value good coverage and spend a least five hours per week on matters pertaining to media (Graber, 2003). • Media serve as watchdogs, reporting government waste and abuses. Guidelines for Managing Relations with the News Media Experts on managing relations between government agencies and the news media propose the following: • Understand the perspective of the media—their skepticism, their need for information and interesting stories, their time pressures. • Organize media relations carefully—spend time and resources on them and link them with agency operations. • Get out readable press releases providing good news about the agency; be patient if the media respond slowly. Source: Adapted from Cohen and Eimicke, 1995; Chase and Reveal, 1983; and Garnett, 1992. Guidelines for Managing Relations with the News Media • Respond to bad news and embarrassing incidents rapidly, with clear statements of the agency’s side of the story. • Seek corrections of inaccurate reporting. • Use the media to help boost the agency’s image, to implement programs, and to communicate with employees. • To carry all this off effectively, make sure that the agency performs well, and be honest. Source: Adapted from Cohen and Eimicke, 1995; Chase and Reveal, 1983; and Garnett, 1992. Guidelines for Managing Relations with the News Media The community relations office of the city of Claremont, California, published the following guidelines for managing relations with reporters: • Prepare an agenda on each subject the media may be interested in. Include a list of three to five points you want to “sell” the reporter. • Write or verbally deliver “quotable quotes” of ten words or less. • Listen carefully to the question. The reporter may have made incorrect assumptions, and you will need to give clearer background information before answering the question. • Avoid an argument with the reporter. Source: Adapted from Larkin, 1992. Guidelines for Managing Relations with the News Media • If interrupted in mid-thought, proceed with your original answer before answering the next question. • Challenge any effort to put words into your mouth. • Don’t just answer the question; use the question as a springboard to “sell” your agenda. • If you do not know the answer, say so. Do not speculate. • If you cannot divulge information, state why in a matter-of-fact way. • Be positive, not defensive. • Always tell the truth. Public Opinion • It’s often difficult to gauge what the public really wants. • The public regards some agencies as more important than others (for example, police, defense). • Public sentiment can help or hinder public management. • Hargrove and Glidewell (1990) propose an agency classification in relation to public opinion. • How does the public perceive the agency’s clientele? • Is the agency respected? • How important is the agency? Public Opinion • A general level of support affects an agency’s ability to maintain a base of political support. – Praise for New York fire fighters after 9/11 is an example. – Periods of antigovernment sentiment often prompt reforms. New institutions and structures can upset the organization and present numerous challenges. – Changes might include • New lines of authority • New reporting requirements Different Ways to Describe the Main Actors in the Policy Process • Iron Triangle – This is an old name to describe the relationship between bureaucracy, congressional committees, and interest groups. – It is relatively stable. – Entry into the triangle is rare. • Issue Network – Businesses, organizations, bureaucracies, individuals, legislative committees and subcommittees all have interests in policy. All attempt to influence the development and execution of public policy. • Barriers to entering the network are rather low. • Those actively involved in the network at any one time will fluctuate, and levels of activity will fluctuate. Iron Triangle Congress Low regulation Can lobby for agency support Kingdon’s Streams Metaphor Problem Stream Window of Opportunity Policy Stream Political Stream Time Kingdon’s Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies: Basic Theory • Three separate and independent streams come together in an evolutionary manner. • This presents windows of opportunity. • The interactions of the streams are highly fluid: – Coupling of problems and policies – The role of entrepreneurs Kingdon’s Streams Metaphor • An adaptation of the “garbage can” model • The streams: – The state of politics and public opinion (the politics stream) – The potential solutions to a problem (policy stream) – Attributes of problems and the attention to them (problem stream) Kingdon’s Streams Metaphor • Streams are parallel and somewhat independent of each other. • Policy entrepreneurs try to join the streams in a “window of opportunity.” • Window of opportunity is the possibility of policy change. Understanding and Managing Public Organizations Chapter 9 Understanding People in Public Organizations: Motivation and Motivation Theory Overview • This chapter and the next chapter are concerned with the people in organizations. This chapter provides • A discussion of motivation in the context of public organizations • A review of the most prominent theories of work motivation Motivation and Public Management • Motivation is a fundamental topic in social science. • The basic research and theory show no conclusive evidence of a “science of motivation.” Motivation is more of a craft; leaders draw on techniques, ideas, and insights. • The constraining character of government and the political environment present challenges for motivating in the public sector. • A trend focusing on human capital is evidence of a consensus of the topic’s importance. The Context of Motivation in Public Organizations • The relatively complex and constraining structures in many public organizations, including constraints on the administration of incentives (Rainey, Facer, and Bozeman, 1995; Thompson, 1989) • Vague goals, both for individual jobs and for the organization; a weak sense of personal significance within the organization on the part of employees; unstable expectations; and noncohesive collegial and work groups—all the result of preceding factors (Buchanan, 1974, 1975; Perry and Porter, 1982) • People at the lower and middle levels of public organizations often becoming lost in the elaborate bureaucratic and public policy system, as argued by many people The Concept of Work Motivation • In general, work motivation refers to a person’s desire to work hard and work well, and to the arousal, direction, and persistence of effort in work settings. • Motivation techniques are commonly used in all sectors. Items Used to Measure Motivation Questionnaire Items Used to Measure Work Motivation 1. Job Motivation Scale (Patchen, Pelz, and Allen, 1965) This questionnaire, one of the few direct measures of job motivation, poses the following questions: On most days on your job, how often does time seem to drag for you? Some people are completely involved in their job—they are absorbed in it night and day. For other people, their job is simply one of several interests. How involved do you feel in your job? How often do you do some extra work for your job that isn’t really required of you? Would you say that you work harder, less hard, or about the same as other people doing your type of work at [name of organization]? 2. Work Motivation Scale (Wright, forthcoming) I put forth my best effort to get the job done regardless of the difficulties. I am willing to start work early or stay late to finish a job. It has been hard for me to get very involved in my current job. (Reversed) I do extra work for my job that isn’t really expected of me. Time seems to drag while I am on the job. (Reversed) 3. Intrinsic Motivation Scale (Lawler and Hall, 1970) Intrinsic motivation refers to the motivating effects of the work itself. Researchers have measured it with items such as these: When I do my work well, it gives me a feeling of accomplishment. When I perform my job well, it contributes to my personal growth and development. I feel a great sense of personal satisfaction when I do my job well. Doing my job well increases my self-esteem. Questionnaire Items Used to Measure Work Motivation 4. Reward Expectancies (Rainey, 1983) Some surveys, such as the Federal Employee Attitude Survey, use questions about reward expectations, such as the true-false statements that follow, to assess reward systems but also as indicators of motivation: Producing a high quality of work increases my chances for higher pay. Producing a high quality of work increases my chances for a promotion. 5. Peer Evaluations of an Individual’s Work Motivation (Guion and Landy, 1972; Landy and Guion, 1970) For this method of measuring motivation, fellow employees evaluate an individual’s work motivation on the following dimensions: Team attitude Task concentration Independence / self-starter Organizational identification Job curiosity Persistence Professional identification Rival Influences on Performance • Motivation alone does not determine performance. • Other factors have an impact on performance. – – – – Ability Training Preparation Perceptions about ability to perform • Can you think of other factors that influence performance? Motivation as an Umbrella Concept • Complexities in conceptualizing give rise to status of umbrella concept—motivation as a general idea rather than a precisely defined research target. • In the literature, motivation appears as an overarching theme of a variety of related topics. – – – – Organizational commitment Job involvement Organizational climate Leadership practices Theories of Work Motivation • One way to classify theories of work motivation is to distinguish between content and process theories. • Content theories of motivation are concerned with analyzing the particular needs, motives, and rewards that affect motivation. • Process theories of motivation concentrate on psychological and behavioral processes behind motivation. • Distinctions can overlap and need not be taken as confining. • Classification is best thought of as a tool to organize characteristics of the theories. Content Theories • Maslow: Hierarchy of Needs • McGregor: Theory X and Theory Y • Herzberg: Two-Factor Theory • McClelland: Needs-Based Model Maslow: Hierarchy of Needs • A theory in psychology proposed in his 1943 paper A Theory of Human Motivation. • It is often depicted as a pyramid consisting of five levels. The first lower level is associated with the most basic needs, physiological needs. • Higher needs only motivate behavior when the lower needs in the pyramid are met. • Once an individual has moved upward to the next level, needs in the lower level will no longer be prioritized and no longer motivate behavior. McGregor: Theory X and Theory Y • Theory X is the traditional theory that assumes workers lack the capacity for self-motivation and direction and therefore the organization must control and direct them. • Theory Y is based on Maslow’s higher-order needs and emphasizes considering those needs when designing organizations to make jobs more interesting and responsible. Herzberg: Two-Factor Theory • Two types of factors influence motivation: – Motivators (intrinsic incentives such as interest in work, achievement, and other higher-order needs) – Hygiene factors (extrinsic incentives such as organizational conditions and rewards) • Hygiene factors can only prevent dissatisfaction, but motivators are essential to increasing motivation. McClelland: Needs-Based Model • McClelland describes three types of motivational needs in his 1988 book Human Motivation: • Achievement motivation (n Ach) • Authority/power motivation (n Pow) • Affiliation motivation (n Affil) • The main focus is on achievement motivation (n Ach) “A dynamic restlessness to achieve mastery over one’s environment through success at achieving goals by using one’s own cunning, ability, and effort.” Needs-Based Model: Finding n Ach Characteristics • A TAT card shows a picture of a boy reading. An n Ach person may describe a boy studying hard to do well on a test; others may see the boy as a daydreamer. • McClelland conducted an experiment that involved asking students to choose a strategy for a ring toss game and contends that n Ach people choose to stand at an intermediate distance from the peg (to both minimize the risk of failure and also provide a high probability of accuracy through their own skill). Others chose a distance associated with a riskier or less rewarding outcome. • McClelland analyzed stories in folk tales and concluded that cultures high in n Ach had higher levels of development. Comparing Content Theories of Motivation Maslow: McGregor: Herzberg: McClelland: Hierarchy of Theories X Two-Factor n Ach Needs and Y Selfactualization Theory Y Motivators Self-esteem Love Safety Psychological Theory X Hygiene Factors N Ach Achievement Power (influencing others) Affiliation (exchange of warm feelings) Equity Theory Scale Job Inputs Job Outputs Job, time, effort, ability flexible, commitment honest, collegiality, heart, integrity, respecting Paycheck, benefits, vacation time, security, recognition, responsibility, respect, sense of purpose, sense of achievement Perceived Balance Input and motivation are reduced when perception of fairness or equity (outputs) is tipped, that is, when an employee perceives that effort is greater than reward. What Happens When an Employee Perceives That More Is Given Than Received? Perception that pay and other rewards do not match effort Reduced input: some effort, some commitment, little flexibility Equity and Organizational Justice • There are two types of justice in organizations: – Distributive Justice (fairness and equity in distribution of rewards and resources) – Procedural Justice (fairness with which people feel employees are treated with organizational processes such as decision making) • Research has shown that perceptions of higher levels of justice in organizations are correlated with positive work-related attitudes. Process Theories • Vroom: Expectancy Theory – Expectancies and dependent variables – Expectancy theory in public organizations • Skinner: Operant Conditioning and Reinforcement • Bandura: Social Learning (cognitive) Theory • Locke: Goal-Setting Theory Vroom: Expectancy Theory • The main claim: An individual considering an outcome sums up the values of all outcomes that will result from the action, with each outcome weighted by the probability of its occurrence. – The theory draws on the classic utilitarian ideas (maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain). – It integrates elements of needs, equity, and reinforcement theories. Vroom: Expectancy Theory • Based on three main ideas or concepts: • Valence refers to the emotional orientations people hold with respect to outcomes or rewards. (For example, how important are pay, flexibility, challenge?) • Expectancy: Employees have different expectations and levels of confidence about their capabilities. • Instrumentality refers to the perception of employees with respect to whether outcomes or rewards will actually result. Expectancy Theory: Formulations Fi= ∑(EijVj) F = The force acting under individual to perform act i. E = The expectancy or perceived probability that any effort will lead to an outcome (act i will lead to outcome j) V = The valence of outcome j Vj = ∑(Vk Ijk ) V = The valence of outcome j I = The instrumentality of the outcome j for attainment of the outcome k V = The valence of outcome k Expectancy Theory: More Implications for Managers • Valence: Managers must understand what individuals value (extrinsic and intrinsic). • Expectancy: If expectations are based on confidence and ability, it is important to accurately assess skills and weaknesses. • Instrumentality: Performance requires that managers come through on promises. Expectancy Theory: Where We Stand • Expectancies as Dependent Variables • Expectancy type questions about relationships between performance and pay, job security, promotion, and incentives often show an association with reported work satisfaction and effort. • Use in Public Organizations • The underlying principles still underpin many civil service reforms and government pay systems. B. F. Skinner: Operant Conditioning • Skinner (1953) pointed out that • Animals develop behaviors in response to more than just stimuli. • Behaviors are also produced, and operate on our environment and generate consequences. • We repeat or drop (extinguish) behavior in response to the consequences. • The theory focuses on • Operant conditioning, that is, the use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of behavior • The relationship between observable behavior and contingencies of reinforcements Operant Conditioning: Selected Principles of Reinforcement • Positive reinforcement provides the most efficient means of influencing behavior. Punishment is less efficient and effective in shaping behavior. • Low ratio reinforcement schedule produces rapid acquisition of the behavior but more rapid extinction when the reinforcement stops. • Intermittent reinforcement, especially in highly variable intervals or according to a variable ratio schedule (reinforcement after long varying periods or after varying numbers of occurrences), requires more time for behavior acquisition, but extinction occurs more slowly when the reinforcement seasons. Bandura: Social Learning Theory • Theory is developed by Albert Bandura (1978) and others. • Theory reflects value and limitations of operant conditioning and behavior modification. • Theory draws from behavior modification, but puts greater emphasis on internal cognitive processes, like goals and a sense of self-efficacy. • Theory gives attention to forms of learning and behavior change that may not be tied to external environment. Social Learning Theory • A main claim is that individuals learn in ways other than through extra reinforcement, including • • • • Modeling the behavior of others Vicarious experiences Mental rehearsal and imagery Self-management through setting goals for oneself Edwin Locke and Colleagues: Goal-Setting Theory • Theory simply states that difficult goals lead to higher performance than easy goals, no goals, or vague goals. • Once established, goals focus behavior and motivate individuals to achieve desired end states. • Commitment to the goals and feedback are also necessary to performance. • As the value of a goal increases the commitment to the goal increases. How Do Goals Affect Behavior? • Goals may • • • • Direct attention Intensify effort Intensify persistence Spark creativity in problem solving • Assignment of difficult goals enhances performance because goals appeal to motive and desire to achieve (Locke and Latham, 1990a). • Goals provide a sense of purpose and create standards for evaluating performance. • Participation in goal setting is not clearly linked to higher levels of motivation. Recommendations for Goal Setting • Goal setting works best with management support. • The greater the success, the greater the satisfaction. – Paradox: More difficult goals are less likely to be achieved, leaving people unsatisfied; this, in turn, fosters ambition, pushing people to strive to achieve further. • Mix qualitative and quantitative goals. • Assign responsibility for achievement of goals. Recommendations for Goal Setting • Empower employees to develop strategies and tactics for achieving goals. • Goal setting requires effective leadership. • Feedback stimulates the accomplishment of goals. • People should be committed to goals. The manager should stress that the goals are important (have personal value) and are attainable. • Beware of goal overload. • Mix qualitative and quantitative goals. Recent Directions in Motivation Theory • No theory has provided a conclusive explanation of motivation. • Researchers agree that theory development is in a disorderly state. • • • • Calls for separate theories to apply to different settings Some saying universal theories are fruitless Calls for “middle range” theory Calls for development of taxonomies (motivational types, settings) • Although disjointed, the literature on motivation remains useful for attempting to understand the complexities of motivation. Motivation Practice and Techniques • The theories on motivation discussed in this chapter all make some contribution. For example: • Content theories remind us of the importance of intrinsic incentives and equity. • Expectancy theory and operant conditioning emphasize an analysis of what is rewarded and punished in work settings. • Many general techniques have come out of the literature. Incentive Structures and Reward Expectancies in Public Organizations • Linking rewards (especially extrinsic) to performance is even more challenging in the public sector. • More highly structured imposed personnel procedures- civil service . . . • But all government agencies are not the same • Some pay-for-performance plans have met with success while others have not. • Findings are conflicting as to whether government employees perceive the connection between extrinsic rewards and performance. Are Public Sector Employees Less Motivated? • Some argue that the different incentive structures in the public sector diminish motivation. • Research has not shown significant differences between the sectors for self-reported motivation. • In surveys, public employees have high levels on measures related to motivation. • Despite the constraints and frustrations found in the public sector, public employees appear to be highly motivated. Understanding and Managing Public Organizations Chapter 10 Understanding People in Public Organizations: Values, Incentives, and Work-Related Attitudes Overview • Like the last chapter, this chapter is also concerned with the people in organizations. Chapter 10 • Describes concepts important to the analysis of motivation and work attitudes • Discusses the values, motives, and incentives that are particularly important in public organizations Attempts to Specify Needs, Values, and Incentives • Several lists and typologies are available. Some of the more prominent are as follows: • • • • Murray’s List of Basic Needs (1938) Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1954) Alderfer’s ERG (1972) Rokeach’s Value Survey (1973) • Terminal values • Instrumental values Attempts to Specify Needs, Values, and Incentives • The literature also includes prominent work on incentives, including, among others, the following: – – – – Barnard (1938) Simon (1948) Clark and Wilson (1961) Wilson (1973) • These scholars focus on various incentive types. The Complexity of Human Needs and Values Murray’s List of Maslow’s Basic Needs (1938) Need Hierarchy (1954) Abasement Achievement Affiliation Aggression Autonomy Counteraction Defendance Dominance Exhibition Harm avoidance Nurturance Order Play Rejection Sentience Sex Succorance Understanding Self-actualization needs Esteem needs Belongingness social needs Safety needs Physiological needs Alderfer’s ERG Model (1972) Growth needs Relatedness needs Existence needs Rokeach’s Value Survey (1973) Terminal Values A comfortable (prosperous) life An exciting (stimulating) life A sense of accomplishment (lasting contribution) A world at peace (free of war and conflict) A world of beauty (of nature and the arts) Equality (brotherhood, equal opportunity for all) Family security (taking care of loved ones) Freedom (independence, free choice) Happiness (contentedness) Inner harmony (freedom from inner conflict) Mature love (sexual and spiritual intimacy) National security (protection from attack) Pleasure (an enjoyable, leisurely life) Salvation (eternal life) Self-respect (self-esteem) Social recognition (respect, admiration) True friendship (close companionship) Wisdom (a mature understanding of life) Instrumental Values Ambitious (hard working, aspiring) Broad-minded (open-minded) Capable (competent, effective) Cheerful (lighthearted, joyful) Clean (neat, tidy) Courageous (standing up for one’s beliefs) Forgiving (willing to pardon others) Helpful (working for the welfare of others) Honest (sincere, truthful) Imaginative (daring, creative) Independent (self-reliant, selfsufficient) Intellectual (intelligent, reflective) Logical (consistent, rational) Loving (affectionate, tender) Obedient (dutiful, respectful) Polite (courteous, well-mannered) Responsible (dependable, reliable) Self-controlled (restrained, selfdisciplined) Types of Incentives Types of Incentives Incentive Type Barnard (1938) Specific Incentives Material inducements Personal, nonmaterialistic inducements Desirable physical conditions of work Ideal benefactions General incentives Associational attractiveness Customary working conditions Opportunity for feeling of enlarged participation in course of events Condition of communion Definitions and Examples Incentives “specifically offered to an individual” Money, things, physical conditions Distinction, prestige, personal power, dominating position “Satisfaction of ideals about nonmaterial future or altruistic relations” (pride of workmanship, sense of adequacy, altruistic service for family or others, loyalty to organization, esthetic and religious feeling, satisfaction of hate and revenge) Incentives that “cannot be specifically offered to an individual” Social compatibility, freedom from hostility due to racial, religious differences Conformity to habitual practices, avoidance of strange methods and conditions Association with large, useful, effective organization Personal comfort in social relations Types of Incentives Incentive Type Simon (1948) Incentives for employee participation Incentives for elites or controlling groups Definitions and Examples Salary or wage, status and prestige, relations with working group, promotion opportunities Prestige and power Clark and Wilson (1961) and Wilson (1973) Material incentives Solidary incentives Specific solidary incentives Collective solidary incentives Purposive incentives Tangible rewards that can be easily priced (wages and salaries, fringe benefits, tax reductions, changes in tariff levels, improvement in property values, discounts, services, gifts) Intangible incentives without monetary value and not easily translated into one, deriving primarily from the act of associating Incentives that can be given to or withheld from a specific individual (offices, honors, deference) Rewards created by act of associating and enjoyed by all members if enjoyed at all (fun, conviviality, sense of membership or exclusive-collective status or esteem) Intangible rewards that derive from satisfaction of contributing to worthwhile cause (enactment of a law, elimination of government corruption) Types of Incentives Incentive Type Downs (1967) General “motives or goals” of officials Niskanen (1971) Variables that may enter the bureaucrat’s utility function Lawler (1971) Extrinsic rewards Intrinsic rewards Definitions and Examples Power (within or outside bureau), money income, prestige, convenience, security, personal loyalty to work group or organization, desire to serve public interest, commitment to a specific program of action Salary, perquisites of the office, public reputation, power, patronage, output of the bureau, ease of making changes, ease of managing the bureau, increased budget Rewards extrinsic to the individual, part of the job situation, given by others Rewards intrinsic to the individual and stemming directly from job performance itself, which satisfy higher-order needs such as self-esteem and self-actualization (feelings of accomplishment and of using and developing one’s skills and abilities) Types of Incentives Incentive Type Herzberg, Mausner, Peterson, and Capwell (1957) Job “factors” or aspects. Rated in importance by large sample of employees. Locke (1969) External incentive Definitions and Examples In order of average rated importance: security, interest, opportunity for advancement, company and management, intrinsic aspects of job, wages, supervision, social aspects, working conditions, communication, hours, ease, benefits An event or object external to the individual that can incite action (money, knowledge of score, time limits, participation, competition, praise and reproof, verbal reinforcement, instructions) Incentives in Organizations • Barnard refers to “economies of incentives” as fundamental aspects of human activity. • Work by some prominent scholars is in the generalist tradition (for example, Barnard, March and Simon). Incentives in Organizations • Clark and Wilson (1961) and Wilson (1973) developed a typology of organizations based on the primary incentive offered to participants. • The main idea is that differences in incentives lead to differences in organization behavior and processes. Incentive type Organization Behavior Organization Processes Incentives in Organizations • Clark and Wilson (1961) differentiate three types: • Material incentives: tangible rewards, often monetary— wages, fringe benefits, patronage • Solidary incentives: intangible rewards from the act of association—sociability, status • Purposive incentives: intangible rewards related to the goals of the organization—for example, working on an election of a supported candidate Incentives and Organization Type • Utilitarian organizations rely primarily on material incentives (business firms, labor unions). • Clark and Wilson predict they will have fairly precise costaccounting machinery (Scott, 2003, p. 172). • Managers will focus on obtaining necessary material incentives. • Conflicts will be about distribution. • Organizational goals will be secondary to incentives. Incentives and Organization Type • Solidary organizations (service-oriented voluntary organizations and social clubs) are places where people make contributions in return for sociability and status. • Executive efforts at securing prestige, good fellowship • Organizational goals are noncontroversial and socially acceptable. • These organizations tend to be less flexible and more public in actions and decisions. Incentives and Organization Type • Purposive organizations rely on their stated goals to attract and retain people (Clark and Wilson, 1961). • Executives need to maintain inducements, but when goals are lofty this is difficult to sustain. • Often their efforts fail initially or intermittently (don't elect candidate, don't stop hunger, and so on). • Sometimes the goals are too vague or only support a minority of interests. Incentives: Subsequent Literature • Extrinsic and intrinsic incentives—as an important distinction • The “most important” incentives—not conclusive, but well-designed pay structures are consistently effective • Research on the attitudes towards money, security and benefits, and challenging work with varying results The Motive for Public Service: In Search of the Service Ethic • So why do people want to work for government? • Researchers call this the service ethic or desire to serve the public (PSM, or public service motivation). • In general, research is consistent with the finding that public managers express a greater motivation to serve the public. The Motive for Public Service: In Search of the Service Ethic • But what do we mean by PSM, and can it be measured? – James Perry and Lois Wise (1990) define PSM as “an individual's predisposition to respond to motives grounded primarily or uniquely in public institutions and organizations.” – They separate motives into three categories: • Rational (instrumental) • Norm-based • Affective Categorizing PSM • Rational (instrumental) motives are grounded in enlightened self-interest and are present in individuals who believe that their interests coincide with those of the larger community. They personally identify with some programs and express a commitment to public policy or special interest advocacy. • Norm-based motives describe a desire to serve the public interest, a duty and loyalty to the government, and a concern for social equity. • Affective motives, such as altruism, are characterized by a willingness or desire to help others. Dimensions and Questionnaire Measures of Public Service Motivation Dimension Attraction to Public Affairs Questionnaire Items Politics is a dirty word. (Reversed)* The give and take of public policymaking doesn’t appeal to me. (Reversed) I don’t care much for politicians. (Reversed) Commitment to the Public Interest It is hard to get me genuinely interested in what is going on in my community. (Reversed) I unselfishly contribute to my community. Meaningful public service is very important to me. I would prefer seeing public officials do what is best for the community, even if it harmed my interests. I consider public service a civic duty. Compassion I am rarely moved by the plight of the underprivileged. (Reversed) Most social programs are too vital to do without. It is so difficult for me to contain my feelings when I see people in distress. To me, patriotism includes seeing to the welfare of others. I seldom think about the welfare of people whom I don’t know personally. (Reversed) I am often reminded by daily events about how dependent we are on one another. I have little compassion for people in need who are unwilling to take the first step to help themselves. There are few public programs I wholeheartedly support. (Reversed) Self-Sacrifice Making a difference in society means more to me than personal achievements. I believe in putting duty before self. Doing well financially is definitely more important to me than doing good deeds. (Reversed) Much of what I do is for a cause bigger than myself. Serving citizens would give me a good feeling even if no one paid me for it. I feel people should give back to society more than they get from it. I am one of those rare people who would risk personal loss to help someone else. I am prepared to make enormous sacrifices for the good of society. * “Reversed” indicates items that express the opposite of the concept being measured, as a way of varying the pattern of questions and answers. The respondent should disagree with such statements if they are good measures of the concept. For example, a person high on the compassion dimension should disagree with the statement, “I am rarely moved by the plight of the underprivileged.” Source: Perry, 1996. More on PSM • Perry’s later research (1996) finds evidence of dimensions of the PSM concept. • Uses a twenty-four-item measurement scale and identified four factors of PSM: 1. 2. 3. 4. Public policymaking Public interest Compassion Self-sacrifice • Three factors are consistent with the original theory, a fourth (self-sacrifice) represents a common factor in the PSM literature. More on PSM • Naff and Crum (1999) used a subset of the 1996 PSM scale to analyze the data from the 1996 Merit Principles Survey. – Found a strong, positive correlation between PSM and performance. Valid concerns remain about the use of selfreported appraisals as a proxy for performance. • Alonso, Pablo, and Lewis (2001) examine the link between PSM and job performance. – Results are mixed, but notably could not replicate the Naff and Crum findings of a positive correlation between PSM and performance. More on PSM • Additional studies by Perry (2000) use the measurement scale to investigate the correlation between PSM and 5 antecedents: – – – – – Parental socialization Religious socialization Professional identification Political ideology Individual demographic characteristics • Perry also developed a process theory of PSM that focused attention on pro social behavior and the variations across institutions in the motivational process. Other Motivation-Related Work Attitudes • Work-related attitudes have been used to compare public and private managers. • Major concepts of work attitudes include • • • • • Job satisfaction Role conflict and ambiguity Job involvement Organizational commitment Professionalism Job Satisfaction • Concerns how an individual feels about his or her job – Determinants • This is one of the most intensively researched areas (approximately 3,500 studies) with no clear consensus on its meaning. • There are many ways to measure and thus to define. • One prominent approach (Hackman and Oldham, 1980) draws on Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. • Consequences – Inconsistent findings on the connection to performance – Fairly consistent (but not strong) findings that job satisfaction ties to absenteeism and turnover Job Diagnostic Survey • The model proposes that attention to five job design characteristics (skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback) indicates the potential of the job to motivate the person holding it. • Three critical psychological states (experienced meaningfulness of the work, experienced responsibility for outcomes of the work, and knowledge of the actual results of the work activities). • In turn, these factors increase the likelihood of positive personal and work outcomes, especially from employees with a high growth-need strength, including high internal work motivation, high quality performance, high satisfaction with the work, and low absenteeism and turnover. – The “Job Diagnostic Survey” is drawn from J. R. Hackman and G. R. Oldham, “Development of the Job Diagnostic Survey,” Journal of Applied Psychology, 60, 1975, pp. 159-170. Motivation Potential Score (MPS) • MPS is the summary of Hackman and Oldham's Job Characteristics Model. • MPS measures the overall motivating potential of a job, or job satisfaction. • Calculation: MPS = Meaningfulness of work X autonomy X feedback. (Take the average of skill variety + task identity + task significance, then multiply the average by autonomy and feedback.) – J. R. Hackman and G. R. Oldham. 1975. “Development of the Job Diagnostic Survey,” Journal of Applied Psychology, 60, 159-170. Role Conflict and Ambiguity • Role conflict: incompatibility of job requirements • Role ambiguity: lack of information about a position • The characteristics of an individual’s role in an organization determine the stress experienced in that job. – Role conflict and ambiguity have been measured. – Research shows the relationship between role variables and job satisfaction as well as other organizational factors such as participation in decision making in organization. – Individual characteristics, such as need for clarity, influence how much role conflict and ambiguity a person experiences. Job Involvement, Organizational Commitment, and Professionalism • Questions have been designed to measure these job characteristics. • Which characteristic do you think these questions measure? 1. Do you see the organization’s problems as your own? 2. Do you believe you should have autonomy in your work? 3. Is your work an important part of your life? Motivation-Related Variables in Public Organizations • Role ambiguity, role conflict, and organizational goal clarity • Work satisfaction • Organizational commitment and job involvement Motivation-Related Variables in Public Organizations • Research points to a somewhat lower satisfaction with various intrinsic and extrinsic aspects of work in many public organizations than exists in many private ones. • Different interpretations for findings: • Findings may reflect public organizations’ administrative constraints— personnel system and purchasing. • There may be related frustration with administrative complexities and complex political and policymaking processes, public sector realities that diminish some intrinsic rewards. • Buchanan (1974, 1975) found that groups of federal executives expressed lower organizational commitment and job involvement than executives from private firms. • Steinhaus and Perry (1996) concluded that a public versus private dichotomy is too simple a distinction for analyzing organizational commitment. Job Involvement and Job Commitment • Job involvement – The construct resembles intrinsic motivation but is distinct from general motivation and satisfaction. – It figures importantly in professional jobs. • Job commitment – Relates to a sense of pride in work • Calculative commitment is based on perceived material awards the organization offers. • Normative commitment is tied to perceived relationship to values. • Identification commitment derives from a sense of pride of association. • Affiliation commitment derives from a sense of belonging. • Exchange commitment is based on belief that the organization appreciates effort. The Challenge of Motivation in the Public Sector • Research on organizational commitment suggests frustrations, constraints, and problems associated with public sector management. • On the positive side, research reflects a strong current of motivation and constructive attitudes in public organizations. • The body of knowledge offers ideas, but little in the way of concrete scientific solutions. • The challenge this brings to leadership of public organizations is presented next. Understanding and Managing Public Organizations Chapter 11 Leadership, Managerial Roles, and Organizational Culture Leadership Definition • Leadership has been defined in various ways. • • • • • • • As the focus of group processes, as a matter of personality As a matter of inducing compliance, as the exercise of influence As particular behaviors, as a form of persuasion As a power relation, as an instrument to achieve goals As an effect of interaction, as a differentiated role As an initiation of structure As many combinations of these definitions (Bass, 1998, 17) • By leadership, most people mean the capacity of someone to direct and energize people to achieve goals. • A number of theories have attempted to answer the challenges of leaders. Trait Models of Leadership • Early investigations considered leaders as individuals endowed with certain personality leadership traits constituting their leadership capacity. • Examples: intelligence, foresight, personality characteristics (enthusiasm, persistence) • Attempts to isolate specific traits led to the conclusion that no single characteristic distinguishes leaders from nonleaders. Blake and Moulton Fiedler’s Contingency Theory • One of the best frameworks for examining relationship between leader style, organizational setting, and effectiveness. • Two types of leaders • High LPC: relationship-oriented • Low LPC: task-oriented • Three contingencies • Leader-member relations • Task structure • Position power of the leader 5 Fiedler’s Contingency Model • The least preferred coworker scale (LPC) distinguishes leadership styles. – High LPC leaders are relationship oriented. • They are rated more favorably. • High LPC leaders perform best when the contingencies are mixed in regard to favorability, that is, when conditions are relatively ordered. The emphasis on relationships helps to mitigate the negative effect of unfavorable contingencies. – Low LPC leaders are task-oriented. • They are rated more unfavorably. • Low LPC leaders perform best when the three contingencies are unfavorable (disorder) or all three are favorable (order). Path-Goal Theory • This approach is based on the expectancy theory of motivation and emphasizes the three motivational variables that leaders may influence through their behaviors or decision-making styles. • Valences • Instrumentalities • Expectancies • At the heart of this theory is the notion that the leader’s primary purpose is to motivate followers by clarifying goals and identifying the best paths to achieve those goals. 7 Path-Goal Theory • The job of the leader, according to this theory, is to manipulate these three motivational variables in desirable ways. • The theory proposes that four behavioral styles enable leaders to manipulate the three motivational variables. – – – – Directive Supportive Participative Achievement-oriented The Vroom and Yetton Model • This model describes the different ways leaders can make decisions and guides leaders in determining the extent to which subordinates should participate in decision making. • Leadership is defined in terms of the degree of subordinate participation in decision-making processes. • The decision tree model proposes that the most effective leadership style depends on the characteristics of both the situation and the followers. • The decision tree emphasizes the fact that leaders achieve success through effective decision making. Hersey and Blanchard: Life-Cycle Model • This model proposes that the effectiveness of a leader’s decision-making style depends largely on followers’ level of maturity, job experience, and emotional maturity. • The model proposes two basic dimensions on which decisionmaking style may vary. • Task orientation • Relationship orientation • The model suggests these two dimensions combine to form four distinct types of decision styles. • Telling • Selling • Participating • Delegating 10 Attribution Models • The main idea is that people actively search for explanations of the behavior that they observe, and form hypotheses as to the causes of that behavior. • The resulting causal attributions determine cognitive, affective, and behavioral responses toward the actor. • Leaders take into account • The extent to which behavior is consistent with past behaviors • The extent to which others in the same situation behave likewise Leader-Member Exchange Theory • Leader-member exchange theory maintains that the leader and each individual member of a work group have a unique “dyadic” relationship. • Each dyad is seen as a social exchange or negotiated transaction of leader-member. ...
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Running Head: PUBLIC ORGANIZATION MANAGEMENT

Strategic Management

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PUBLIC ORGANIZATION MANAGEMENT
Public Organization Management
1. Review the issues in designing effective organizations. What are the decisions that must
be made?
Designing of effective organization is faced with numerous challenges such communication
breakdown, performance measurement, delivery of services and accountability. When coming up
with an effective organization it is vital to carry out research before making decisions that will
dictate the kind of ...


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