HIST 1102 Yale University How Does an Absolutist Ruler Maintain Power Questions

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HIST 1102

Yale University

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These are the questions and there are power-points that i will send to you it has all the topics about these questions

  • What were the reasons for the development of overseas expansion in the late fifteenth century? What was the impact of overseas expansion for Portugal and Spain?
  • Compare and contrast the tenets of the Protestant and Catholic faith.
  • Describe the impact of the Protestant Reformation.
  • Define Absolutism. How does an Absolutist ruler maintain power? (Use Louis XIV as an example.)
  • Define the Scientific Revolution. What were the outcomes / consequences of the Scientific Revolution?
  • What was the definition of a witch in Early Modern Europe? What were typically the characteristics of a person accused of witchcraft? Why were women considered more likely to be witches?

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The Seventeenth Century ABSOLUTISM AND CONSTITUTIONALISM Terms / Questions  Constitutional Monarchy  The (English) Bill of Rights  Define Absolutism. How does an Absolutist ruler maintain power? (Use Louis XIV as an example) The Age of Absolutism (1660-1789) Why would people support Absolutism?  Warfare  Requires a centralized bureaucratic state to run the military and collect taxes   Around half of all the revenue of the western powers went to financing war Also unrest / warfare of 17th C led to desire for stability Absolutism (1660-1789)  When the monarch has ultimate authority and total power over the government and the lives of the people  Realm is viewed as the property of the monarch  The monarch’s power is not limited by a constitution or the law  Examples: France, Spain, Russia, Prussia and Austria The Absolutist State  Centralized government  Unprecedented concentration of power  Large standing army (professional)  State bureaucracies run by middle class government officials - forced the nobles to give up their former political influence Powers of Absolutist Monarch  Control the nation’s bureaucracy / administration  Command over the military  The right to tax  The authority to make laws  The administration of justice  Determine foreign policy Timeline  Sept 5, 1638  May 14, 1643  1648 – 1653  1660  1661 Louis XIV is born Inherits the throne at 4 years old The Fronde Rebellion Married Marie-Thérèse of Austria Takes direct control of France The Fronde (1648-1653)  Civil War in France / series of uncoordinated uprisings  Reaction of the nobility to policies started by Cardinal      Richelieu (Chief Minister of Louis XIII) that lessened their power Protest against the power of the crown Nobility wanted constitutional reforms such as the right to control taxation Developed into opposition to Mazarin (Chief Minister to the young Louis XIV)and the King’s mother, Anne of Austria Young Louis XIV was forced to flee Paris Reentered Paris in October 1652 French Absolutism  Louis XIV (r. 1643-1715)  The “Sun King”  “I am the state”  Believed in the divine right of kings Maria Theresa (Queen of France)  Control the Nobility  Did not give members of the ancient noble families important positions in the government    Choose ministers for his councils from families long in royal service or just beginning to rise in the social structure  People without independent power bases But made sure nobles benefitted from the growth of his own authority And distracted them:  Rituals, processions, banquets, duties at court Absolute Power  Controlled the church – Impose religious unity  Revoked the Edict of Nantes No more religious toleration  Catholicism is the state religion   Gave the good tax arrangements as long as they promoted the divine right of Kings  Placate the upper middle class by making them part of the government administration  Made “nobles of the robe” - who bought their noble titles v. “nobles of the sword” – demonstrates he will not share power with the old nobility  Massive standing army  200,ooo in peacetime, 400,000 during war  Crushed attempts at rebellion by the peasants Louis XIV  Effective Bureaucracy  Supervised the local law courts  Oversaw the collection of taxes  Regulated the marketplaces  Recruited soldiers  These new aristocrats owed their power, authority and status to the King Louis XIV  Increase power through conquest and display  Made it clear that he could outspend the nobles  Image as Sun King  Built Palace at Versailles Versailles  The royal residence  The seat of government  The royal court  Brought King and social elites together – noble prestige based on closeness to the King  Nobles were required to live there for part of the year  Nobility came to seek favors and offices  Rigid rules of etiquette  Strict rules of precedence Versailles  Grand spectacle designed to demonstrate the King’s power and inspire awe  Center of the arts  Model for the rest of Europe  French language and culture become fashionable at courts across Europe Versailles  Built between 1669-1688  Cost ½ year of royal revenue to build  Front façade around 1/3 mile long  17,000 landscaped parks enclosed by a 40 mile wall  1400 fountains  2000 statues  Rooms decorated with marble columns, painted ceilings, costly draperies, mirrored walls, handcrafted furniture  Cost of maintaining it was 60 percent of revenue  Around 10,000 people lived there  Stable could hold 12,000 horses Problems? Financial Problems  Tax revenues usually fell fall short of the government’s needs.  In Louis XIV’s France, tax exemptions for elites placed the greatest tax burden on the peasantry. Aggressive Foreign Policy  1667  1672-79  1688  1701-14 The War of Devolution (Spanish Netherlands) Franco-Dutch War Nine Years War against the Grand Alliance The War of the Spanish Succession Aggressive Foreign Policy  Aggressive foreign policy led to four wars during his reign    Destroyed the French Economy Huge debt placed on the Third Estate Financial and social tensions help lead to the French Rev Reign of Louis XIV  Most powerful ruler in Europe  Desire for military glory  Huge drain on revenue  Made France the center for arts and literature  French became the international language for over two centuries Constitutional Monarchy Constitutional Monarchy  (Limited Monarchy)  Form of government in which the monarch (King or Queen) acts as head of state, but is legally limited in his/her powers by a constitution  A representative assembly votes and creates laws Background  James I / James VI of Scotland  Charles I (r. 1625-1649)  Married a Catholic  Tried to reign without Parliament  Civil War (1642-1649)  Cavaliers (support King) vs. Roundheads (support Parliament) Charles I Oliver Cromwell Background  1649-1653: The Commonwealth  King Charles I executed on the order of Parliament for: Raising taxes  Dissolving Parliament  Starting Civil War   1650-1653: The Protectorate  Cromwell rules as military dictator  Dissolves Parliament  1958: Cromwell dies England  1660-1668: The Restoration  Charles II (r. 1660-1685) Restoration of the Monarchy  James II (r. 1685-1688) Tried to act as Absolutist monarch  Had son and announced he would be raised as a Catholic  Fled to France following the invasion of William and Mary  William and Mary  1688 Glorious Revolution  1689 William & Mary become King and Queen and accept the Bill of Rights Bill of Rights  Viewed as the start of constitutional monarchy  Model for the US Bill of Rights Bill of Rights  Limited the power of the monarch  Cannot suspend or eliminate laws passed by Parliament  Cannot impose taxes without consent of Parliament  Cannot have a standing army in peacetime without consent of Parliament  Cannot establish his own courts or act as a judge Bill of Rights  Rights of the Monarch  Serves as Head of State  Can summon and dissolve Parliament  Dismiss Ministers  Veto legislation  Declare War Bill of Rights  Established supremacy of Parliament  Right to petition the King  Freedom to elect members of Parliament without interference from the King  Freedom of speech for members of Parliament  Parliament should be held frequently Bill of Rights  Reaffirmed civil liberties:  Trial by Jury  Habeas Corpus - cannot be imprisoned unless charges with a crime  English subjects will be free from excessive bail, fines or “cruel and unusual punishments” Bill of Rights  Religious policies:  Catholics were banned from the throne  Kings and Queens had to swear oath of loyalty to maintain Protestantism as the official religion in England The French Revolution (Part I) Terms / Questions  The Estate System  The Declaration of the Rights of Man  The Civil Constitution of the Clergy  What were the causes of the French Revolution? Long Term Causes of the French Revolution  Spread of Enlightenment ideals  Equal rights for all under the law  Separation of powers  Representative Assemblies (Limited Monarchy) Long Term: Social Tensions  The Estate System:  Clergy (100,000) Higher  Lower    Nobility (400,000) Third Estate (26 million) – the commoners Bourgeoisie / Middle class  City Workers (servants, apprentices, laborers)  Peasants (21 million)  Long Term: Social Tensions  The Peasants (21 million)  Lived in poverty  Had to pay numerous rents, taxes and dues Taxes to King and Lord  Rent  Tithe (tax to church)  Labor obligation  Dues on salt, cloth, bread, wine  Dues to use mills, granaries, presses and ovens  Long Term: Social Tensions  The Bourgeoisie (The Middle Class) Merchants, manufacturers, lawyers, doctors  Had wealth but not status  Wanted reform:  Careers in the government and army open to men of talent and merit  Wanted fair trials and a single legal code  Wanted a limited monarchy with a written constitution  Long Term: Economic Issues  Massive state debt  Expensive of foreign wars and extravagance of the royal court  Inefficient system of taxation and inadequate banking structure  Nobles and clergy are exempt from paying taxes Long Term: Weak Leadership  Louis XVI lacked the resolution and political skills to resolve dispute with the nobility over taxation.  Lack of public support for the monarchy  Unpopularity of Marie Antoinette Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette Causes:  Affect of the American Revolution  Example of a successful revolution  Drove France deeper into debt  Almost ¾ of state revenue went to maintaining the army and navy and paying off war debt Financial Crisis!  Economic hardship  Series of Bad harvests (worst in 1775; also 1787 and 1788)  Rising prices and rents  In 1788, peasants paid more the 50% of their income on bread. By 1789, some paid as much as 80%.  Poverty and hardship for peasants  Loss of customary rights  As peasants entered cities looking for work, unemployment rate rose as high as 50 percent  Bread Riots across France Financial Crisis!  Bankruptcy!!!!  Driven deeper into debt through support of the American Revolution and through maintaining the army and navy The Initial Events The Noble Revolt  King Louis XVI calls an Assembly of Notables (Feb 1787)  Asks them to agree to pay a land tax  They refuse  Demand that Louis call the Estates General The Estates General Traditional national assembly Had not been called since 1614 Meets May 5, 1789 Each Estate gets one vote Clergy – 300 people – one vote - 2-3 percent of pop. Nobility – 300 people – one vote – 2-3 percent of pop. Third Estate – 600 people – one vote – 95 percent of pop. 3rd Estate wants to change the voting system so that each member has one vote  The King refuses  The 3rd Estate forms the National Assembly (June 17, 1789)         Phases of the Revolution  The Moderate Phase (July 1789 -August 1792)  The Radical Phase (August 1792 - July 1794)  The Directory (1794-1799)  Napoleon (1799-1815) The Moderate Phase Storming the Bastille (July 14, 1789) The Moderate Phase (1789-1792)  Storming of the Bastille (July 14, 1789)   More than 200 killed or wounded Commander decapitated and his head is carried on a pike through the streets  The Great Fear (July 19-Aug 3)     Rumors spread that the peasants will be attacked Peasants attack the homes of the Lords Burn tax rolls Reoccupy enclosed lands  Abolishment of Feudal Privileges (Aug 4, 1789)   Official end of serfdom and paying of dues to the Lords No more special rights and privileges for the Lords The Moderate Phase  The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (Aug, 1789)         Men are born free and equal in rights Rights are liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression Sovereignity resides in the people Equality before the law Freedom of speech Religious toleration Freedom of the Press Limitations: Only tax paying men could vote or hold office – about half the men in France (Active Citizens)  No women could vote or hold office (Passive Citizens)  Does not free the slaves in the colonies  The March on Versailles (Oct 4, 1789) Louis XVI returned to Paris (Oct 5-6, 1789) The Moderate Phase  Confiscated the property of the Church  Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790)  Clergy elected by the people and paid by the state  Had to swear an oath of allegiance to the state  Clergy serves France not Rome  Extremely divisive issue – polarized France Only about half of the clergy would swear loyalty to France  Many rural areas were very religious and peasants supported the clergy  “Patience Monsignor Your Turn Will Come” The Moderate Phase  Flight to Varennes (June 20, 1791)  Constitution established (Oct 1791)  New Assembly meets – The Legislative Assembly – with all new members Achievements of the National Assembly  Created a Constitutional Monarchy with a legislative      assembly Abolishment of special privileges of the nobility Statement of human rights with the Declaration Subordinated the church to the state New system of taxation Initiated economic reforms    End of guild restrictions Uniform system of weights and measures Eliminate internal customs The Radical Phase Question:  What developments characterized the radical phase of the French Revolution? Terms  Sans-culottes The Legislative Assembly Girondins Jacobins  Moderates  Radicals  Keep Constitutional  Establish republic Monarchy The Jacobins Jean-Paul Marat Georges Danton Maximilien Robespierre Why did the Revolution Become More Radical?     Actions of Louis XVI – Attempted Escape Warfare with Austria, Prussia and England Counterrevolution / Civil War Pressure from the sans-culottes (linked with the Jacobins) Radical Developments  Creation of Republic (Execution of King)  Universal Manhood Suffrage  Centralized power under the Jacobins  The Committee of Public Safety  Robespierre  Warfare!  Reign of Terror  Republic of Virtue The Sans-culottes  “Without breeches”  shopkeepers, artisans, wageworkers  Want further changes:     Increased wages Fixed prices End of food shortages Democratic republic The Radical Phase  France declared a Republic (Sept 21, 1792)  The King is executed (Jan 21, 1793) The Radical Phase  Civil War in the Vendee (March 1793)  Committee of Public Safety established (April 1793)  Jacobins take control of the Committee (June 1793)  Maximilien Robespierre (The Incorruptible) elected to Committee (July 1793)  Levée on Masse - conscription introduced (Aug 1793) Maximilien Robespierre The Reign of Terror (Sept 1793- July 1794)  The organized use of state coercive power to ensure compliance with the demands of the government.  The Constitution is suspended  Those who do not comply faced a revolutionary tribunal which tried “suspects” for treason and sentences those it convicted to the guillotine. (1:10:14)  “We must smother the internal and external enemies of the Republic or perish with them. Now, in this situation, the first maxim of your policy ought to be to lead the people by reason and the people’s enemies by terror. If the mainspring of popular government in peacetime is virtue, amid revolution it is at the same time virtue and terror: virtue, without which terror is fatal; terror, without which virtue is impotent. Terror is nothing but prompt, severe, inflexible justice, it is therefore an emanation of virtue. - Robespierre  Execute Marie Antoinette (Oct 16, 1793) The Reign of Terror  Results  Around 500,000 people were arrested  Execution of approx. 40,000 people / mainly commoners  Created effective government bureaucracy  Conscription creates army of 800,000 men and turns the tide in the war  By end of 1793, foreign armies were forced out of France  People become tired of the killing and fear they will be next Republic of Virtue  Belief in the upholding of the public good over individual interests  Transformed French Society  Attack on Christianity Close down churches  Pull down crosses in public places    New calendar starting on Sept 22, 1792 when the Republic was created Citizen and Citizeness not Mr. and Mrs. The Execution of Robespierre  July 28, 1794 Robespierre is executed   What were the reasons for the development of overseas expansion in the 15th century? What was the impact of overseas expansion for Portugal and Spain?  The Columbian Exchange    Religious fervor – crusading zeal Pursuit of Wealth Imperial Rivalry / Personal Ambition   Printing press and increased literacy New maritime technology    Ships – Caravel with lateen sails Navigation techniques – compass and astrolabe (measure latitude) Cannons Exploration supported by Prince Henry “The Navigator”      Ensured sailors had access to the latest charts and navigational instruments Inspired by the legend of Prester John – a mythical Christian King Extend Portuguese power and trade links into the Atlantic – avoiding expensive tariffs (taxes) from other routes Pioneered the Portuguese slave trade   Bartolomeu Dias makes it around the southern tip of Africa (1487-1488) Vasco de Gama continues across the Indian ocean (1497-1499)  Results: The creation of mixed-race communities along the coast of Africa  Start of the Atlantic Slave Trade  Trade links   Exports from Africa  Gold, Pepper, Ivory, Ebony  From India / Asia  Spices – cinnamon, cloves, ginger, nutmeg  Drugs – opium, cannabis  Dyes – indigo, vermillion, saffron  Silk, cotton and velvet  Porcelain, amber, ebony, sandalwood, bamboo  Precious jewels  Spread of Portuguese power and influence   Ferdinand and Isabella The Voyage of Christopher Columbus (1492)   3 ships and 90 men Made three more voyages  Columbus lands on:     Bahamas Cuba Hispaniola (present day Haiti and the Dominican Republic) Scholars estimate there were 50 million Native Americans in the Americans in 1492 (perhaps as many as 100 million)  The linking of the continents of Europe, America and Africa by the ships arriving from Europe, which fostered the transfers of people, animals, plants and germs and transformed both hemispheres. • • • • • • • • Horses Cattle Sheep Pigs Chickens Honey bees Rats (unintentionally) And from America to Europe: turkeys   From Europe to America: wheat, oats, barley, rye, numerous fruits and garden vegetables, weeds From America to Europe: corn, beans, white and sweet potatoes, tomatoes, squash, pumpkins, peanuts, vanilla, cacao (chocolate), avocados, pineapples, chilis, tobacco  From Europe to the Americas:  Smallpox  Measles  Typhus  Chicken pox  pneumonia  From the Americas to Europe:  Syphilis  Drastically changes the American Environment (Ecological Imperialism):  Animals destroy crops and native plants.  Weeds take over  Leads to the death of 50 - 90 percent of the Native American population  The Taino Indians (Bahamas) decreased from  1492: 300,000  1510: 33,000  1548: 500  Enriched Europe  Gold and silver Between 1500 and 1650, The Spanish shipped from America to Europe about 181 tons of gold and 16,000 tons of silver.  Expanded  European food supply nations became global powers The Protestant Reformation (Part I) Terms Indulgences Question Compare and contrast the major tenets of the Protestant and Catholic faith. Issues within the Church Ignorance and corruption of Parish Priests Focus on power, status, and money rather than religion Highest positions in the church go to the wealth and the nobility High church officials hold multiple offices Sale of Indulgences The bureaucratization of religion made the church powerful and brought unity to Europe, but at the cost of losing the power of true religious experience People wanted a more personal and individual relationship with Christ Rituals were not satisfying this desire Devoid of meaning Predecessors to Protestantism John Wycliffe 1330-1384 Jan Hus 1373-1415 Martin Luther (1483-1546) Why Martin Luther is the answer to Playmobil's prayers Timeline 1483 Luther is born in Southeast Germany 1505 Studying to become lawyer/ Thunderstorm experience / Becomes Augustinian monk 1513 Professor of Theology at University of Wittenburg 1515 Develops doctrine of “justification through faith alone” 1517 Posts the ninety-five theses 1521 Luther is excommunicated / Diet of Worms Martin Luther as an Augustinian Monk Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1520 The Issue of Indulgences Indulgences A remission before God of the temporal punishment due to sins of a person whose guilt has already been forgiven, which the faithful Christian who is duly disposed gains under certain prescribed conditions through the action of the Church which, as the minister of redemption, dispenses and applies with authority the treasury of satisfactions of Christ and the saints.” – Catechism of the Catholic Church Indulgences Provide full or partial remission of the punishment of a sin (to a person who is truly penitent) Could be granted to reduce the time spent in purgatory for a living or dead person. (price related to the number of years subtracted from time in purgatory) Granted by the Pope from a “treasury of merits” – inherited amount of good works by Jesus and the saints that could be distributed to other people Why was Martin Luther against the sale of indulgences? Pope Leo X Collecting indulgences to rebuild St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome / share profits with Bishop Albert of Hohenzollern Johann Tetzel As soon as the gold in the casket rings The rescued soul to heaven springs Martin Luther and Indulgences Luther argued: People thought they could buy they way out of sins rather than confessing their sins to their priest and being truly repentant. (Salvation cannot be bought!) The church was misinforming people by telling them they could just by an indulgence and were putting people’s souls in danger. And corrupting the Catholic church Oct 31, 1517 Martin Luther posted The 95 Theses on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences on the door of Wittenberg Cathedral sparking the Protestant Reformation Protestant Beliefs I. Salvation Through Faith Alone NOT faith and good works like Catholicism Based on the Bible verse Romans 1:17 “The just shall live by faith” God grace is something freely given not earned II. The Authority of Scripture People could get everything they needed to know about religion from the Bible. They did not need to know the conclusions of church councils or the pronouncements of priests and scholars III. The Priesthood of All Believers No one needed an intermediary ( Priest, Bishop, Archbishop, Cardinal, Pope) to connect with God Rejection of Non-Biblical Teachings Protestants do NOT believe in / support (Catholics do believe in): Indulgences Clerical celibacy The veneration of relics The Sacraments: - rituals seen as signs of God’s presence and channels to receive God’s grace Confirmation Penance (Contrition, Confession, Absolution, Penance) Anointing of the Sick / Extreme Unction / Last Rites Holy Orders Matrimony (Do support Baptism and Eucharist) Monasteries of Nunneries Pilgrimages Transubstantiation – the belief in the conversion of the substance of the Eucharistic elements (bread and wine of Holy Communion) into the body and blood of Christ at consecration, Spread of the Reformation Greatest successes in Northern Europe German states Switzerland Scandinavia England – creation of a national Church under Henry VIII South remains primarily Catholic Spain Portugal Italy France and Holland are divided Why did the Reformation Spread so Successfully? Reformation Spreads Resentment against clerical privilege Spread by preachers The printing press (1450) Anti-Catholic propaganda Translation of the Bible into the vernacular Supported by political rulers Could stop sending money to Rome Confiscate wealth from Catholic properties The Seven Headed Papal Beast Around 1530 a Lutheran cartoon was circulated in Germany which turned the papacy into the "seven-headed beast" of the Book of Revelation. The papacy's "seven heads" consist of pope, cardinals, bishops, and priests; the sign on the cross reads "for money, a sack full of indulgences"; and a devil is seen emerging from an indulgence chest below. The Seven Headed Martin Luther In response, a German Catholic propagandist showed Luther as Revelation's "beast." In the Catholic conception Luther's seven heads show him by turn to be a hypocrite, a fanatic, and "Barabbas"--the thief who should have been crucified instead of Jesus. Passion of Christ and the AntiChrist Jesus washes the feet of his disciples. The Pope makes others kiss his feet. Christ and Anti-Christ A crown of thorns is prepared for Christ. The Pope wears three crowns of gold. “The Origin of the Monks” Terms  The Counter Reformation / Catholic Reformation  The Peasants’ Revolt (1524-1525) Question  Describe the impact of the Protestant Reformation. Impact of the Reformation  I. Shattered the religious unity of Europe   Catholic faith Numerous Protestant faiths  Lutheranism  Switzerland:  Calvinism    John Calvin (1509-1564) Geneva Predestination: the belief that all events have been predetermined by God and cannot be changed. Includes the belief that God willed salvation for some and eternal damnation for others. God has predetermined who will go to heaven (the elect) and who will not. Good conduct is a sign that a person is one of the elect.  Zwinglianism  Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)  Zürich  Anabaptists (Rebaptism) Believed in baptism to willing adults Radical Anabaptists executed in Münster Included Mennonites    Impact of the Reformation  II. Led to an age of religious warfare  Charles V vs. German Princes   French Wars of Religion    Peace of Augsburg (1598) – “as the ruler, so religion” Edict of Nantes – granted religious liberty and civil rights to Protestants Revolt in the Netherlands The Thirty Years War (1618-1648)  Peace of Westphalia (1648:  Confirmed religious tolerance for Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism, and Calvinsim.  Member states were bound to allow private worship, liberty of conscience, and the right of emigration to these groups. For an overview of the links between the Reformation and European warfare go to: http://www.learner.org/resources/series58.html?pop=yes&vodid=629577&pid=867# And watch Episode 29: The Wars of Religion Impact of the Reformation III. Shifted power from religious to political leaders   Opportunity for princes to confiscate the wealth of the Church. Princes and independent towns consolidate their power by:  Naming their own religious officials  Cutting of money to Rome  Reduce the power of Church courts Impact of the Reformation IV. Encouraged the Catholic Reformation  (see additional slides for details) The Council of Trent  1545-1563  Series of meetings that set the agenda for revitalizing the Catholic Faith The Council of Trent  Reaffirmed Catholic Dogma:  Salvation through Faith and Good works  All seven sacraments necessary for salvation Reaffirmed Belief in:   Purgatory  Celibacy for the clergy  Spiritual value of indulgences  Transubstantiation The Council of Trent  Clerical reform (End corruption):    Bishops and priests forbidden to hold more than one position Theological seminary opened in every diocese Formation of new orders  The Jesuits (Society of Jesus)  Founded by Ignatius Loyola  Focused on teaching and preaching  Made Christianity more emotional, dramatic and sentimental  Led to creation of the Baroque style of art. Ecstasy of Saint Teresa By Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1647-1652) Describing an angel piercing her heart repeatedly with a fire-tipped spear, St Teresa (1515-1582) wrote “The pain was so severe it made me utter several moans. The sweetness caused by the intense pain is so extreme that one cannot possibly wish it to cease, nor is one’s soul then content with anything but God” The Taking of Christ Caravaggio 1602 Lamentation By Scipione Pulzone The Council of Trent  Censorship of Dangerous Books:  Index of Prohibited Books (1564 - 1966)  Listed 583 heretical text including works by Luther and Calvin Impact: V. Created social changes / new ideas  The Domestication of Reform The Domestication of Reform  Family is the center of human life (more praiseworthy than becoming a monk or nun)  Creating godly Protestant Families   Reinforced patriarchal authority Tried to end ungodly behavior including:       Drunkenness Domestic violence Illicit sexual relations Swearing Discipline of children / Focus on schooling and education Model woman is the good wife and mother (women remain subordinate to men) Impact: VI. Fostered modern ideals and movements  The Peasants’ Rebellion Modern?  Challenge to traditional authority   Idea of spiritual equality Led to other challenges to traditional belief like the Scientific Revolution  Contributed to the establishment of an ethic of individualism / Empowered the individual  Contributing factor to the rise of democracy? The Peasants’ Revolt  1524-1525  Rebellion of peasants in central and southern German states  Built on Luther’s idea of spiritual equality to promote social justice  Demanded a return to their customary rights to:    Hunting Use of common land Wanted freedom from oppressive taxes and poor treatment by nobles and landlords The Peasants’ Revolt  Results:    Peasants organized armies Burned castles and monasteries Luther publishes “Against the Murdering Thieving Hordes of Peasants”     http://www.historyguide.org/earlymod/peasants1525.html Peasants are dispersed by disciplined armies of the nobles Around 100,000 peasants died Significance: The Reformation helped to create new ideas about equality but would not be a social revolution or challenge the existing social hierarchy in the short run. Statistics • Estimates of the number of trials and executions have varied greatly, reaching as high as 9 million • The best estimates for Early Modern Europe are: – – 110,000 trials 60,000 executed • About half the people tried and executed were in the German lands of the Holy Roman Empire • The other heavy concentrations were in the lands surrounding Germany – • Switzerland, Poland, France There was a dramatic increase in prosecutions in the late 16th / early 17th C The Role of the Reformation  Fear of the Devil.  Greater emphasis on personal piety and increased guilt.  Attack upon superstition, paganism and magic.  Emphasis on the Bible.   Religious Conflict   “Though shalt not suffer a witch to live” (Exodus 22:18) Protestants and Catholics use propaganda to attack each other and portray each side as in league with the devil. Also related to other forms of social unrest The Scientific Revolution  The Copernican Revolution  Galileo  Sir Isaac Newton  Define the Scientific Revolution. What were the outcomes / consequences of the Scientific Revolution? 1543-1727  Medieval Universities  Renaissance scholarship  The discovery of the new world   Encouraged new ideas and beliefs Created demand for new instruments and precise measures of navigation  Encouraged research in astronomy and mathematics  The Printing press  Reformation  An intellectual revolution in the way people saw the world  A revolution in human knowledge  An attempt to understand and explain how the natural world functioned  Study of “natural philosophy” – SCIENCE   Mathematics Astronomy  A new method of inquiry based on observation, experimentation and testing of hypotheses  Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626) was the first to outline the process of designing and carrying out an experiment in order to reach a factual conclusion Medieval (Ptolemaic)  Earth-centered  Earth-stationary  Hierarchical  Ladder-like  Heavenly bodies are perfect  Geocentric Copernican  On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543)  Sun-centered  Earth rotates around the sun and on its axis  Heavenly bodies are not perfect  Heliocentric  Nicholas Copernicus  On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres (1543)  Initiates the modern study of astronomy  Johannes  Kepler Three Laws of Planetary Motion    Planets move in ellipses around the sun Planets velocity varied according to their distance from the sun Physical relationship between the planets could be determined mathematically  Video: Empires of the Medici, episode 4 (30:00)  https://www.amazon.com/Medici-Birth- Dynasty/dp/B002S2BZWU?crid=1EUC5SJVBUO J0&keywords=empires+medici&qid=15366381 79&sprefix=empire+of+the+medici,aps,264&s r=8-1&ref=sr_1_1  Studied  the skies through a telescope Heavenly bodies are imperfect • • • • • Moon surface is rugged with craters and mountains The sun had spots Earth and the heavens are all made of the same matter Sun is the center of the universe Jupiter had its own moons  1610 – published The Starry Messenger – showing that the heavens were filled with previously unknown objects  1632 – Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World System: Ptolemaic and Copernican – Argument between two imaginary men, one in favor of heliocentrism and one for geocentrism  1633 – Tried by the Inquisition and forced to recant his beliefs about heliocentrism   English physicist and mathematician Fields of Study: Optics – branch of physics which involves the behavior and properties of light  Mathematics    Calculus Laws of Gravitation  Law of Universal Gravitation - Objects with mass feel an attractive force that is proportional to their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance. Three Laws of Motion: 1. A body at rest will remain at rest, and a body in motion will remain in motion 2. For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction unless it is acted upon by an external force 3. The force acting on an object is equal to the mass of that object times its acceleration  Belgian Physician Revolutionized the study of biology and medicine through his careful study of human anatomy  Author of One The Fabric of the Human Body (1543) – demonstrating the importance of observation for understanding the human body  Used the bodies of executed criminals to study anatomy  Found out that the heart had two chambers and two atria  Corrected errors about women’s anatomy   Men do not have more teeth than women Men don’t have one less rib than women  English Physician  Discovered that the heart not the liver pumps blood through the body Science became a separate discipline from philosophy or theology  Challenge to traditional authority  New view of the universe    Humans and earth are not the center of existence New language of Mathematics  New approach to finding answers:  The Scientific Method     Creation of a scientific community   Observation Experimentation Then make general conclusions Ex. England’s royal academy The Enlightenment – use of reason to improve the human condition 1650-1700  Anthony Johnson The Terrible Transformation  From the video:  Africans in America: Part I –The Terrible Transformation    Virginia Maryland (1634) ▪ “Proprietary Colony” – belonging to private interests ▪ Given to Cecelius Calvert, Lord Baltimore ▪ Intended as a haven (safe place) for Catholics but most settlers were Protestants ▪ Cash crop - tobacco  Native Americans presence and power dwindled on the coastal plain. ▪ Disease and war reduce their numbers from 24,000 in 1607 to 2000 by 1669. ▪ Enabled colonists to expand into new territory  English population increased. ▪ 130,000 migrants from Britain to VA and MD by 1700 ▪ 90,000 as indentured servants ▪ Tobacco becomes profitable crop ▪ Tobacco Boom 1620s-1650s  Skewed sex ratio: ▪ In 1625, men composed 74 % of the population, only 10% were women and 16% children.   1650s – small free black population By 1660, English pop., was around 30,000 and the number of people of African birth or descent was fewer than 1500  High mortality rate due to disease and overwork ▪ Before 1650, nearly 2/3 died before their indenture was over  But health circumstances were improving slowly: ▪ People are “seasoned” by surviving local diseases and pass greater immunity on to their children ▪ Apple orchards provide cider which is safer to drink than water  Brutal labor conditions ▪ Workers can not take masters to court for mistreatment or breach of contract ▪ Could be fined, branded, whipped or have their length of servitude extended if accused of insubordination ▪ Runaways had their length of service doubled ▪ Servants could be bought and sold ▪ Unmarried women who became pregnant were punished with two extra years of service  In 1624, Elizabeth Abbott succumbed to beatings inflicted by her master. A witness saw Abbott’s “body full of sores and holes very dangerously raunckled and putrified both above her waist and uppon her hips and thighs.”  The case against the master was dismissed even though he had previously killed another servant with a rake. Slaves were generally treated like indentured servants and were freed after a few years of hard labor (not a permanent condition)  Slaves could acquire and manage their own property  ▪ Could earn money to purchase their freedom  Black Freedmen had the same rights as white men: ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ Vote Buy and sell property Testify in court Marry white women Own slaves and indentured servants Own firearms        From Angola Arrived as a slave Treated as an indentured servant Married an African woman named Mary and had four children Acquired his own 25o acre plantation Owned at least one slave By 1650 Anthony was one of 400 Africans in a colony of around 19,000 settlers           Shipment of 20 slaves arrived on a Dutch ship (1619) Anthony Johnson John Punch sentenced to lifelong servitude for running away (1640) Children of enslaved women will be slaves (1662) Baptism does not alter the condition of a person as to his bondage or freedom (1667) Bacon’s Rebellion (1676) Slaves forbidden to carry arms (1680) Owners forbidden to free slaves (1691) Killing your slave not a crime (1699) Interracial marriage criminalized (1705)  Slavery becomes: ▪ 1. ▪ 2. ▪ 3. Race-based Permanent Hereditary (inherited through the mother)  By the 1660s the tobacco boom was fading. ▪ Tobacco prices fell ▪ The Navigation Acts permitted colonists to trade only with Britain  Social structure increasingly hierarchical  By 1700, 90 percent of VA burgesses linked by ties of blood or marriage  Life of indentured servants became harder ▪ Time added to service for a variety of offense ▪ Courts upheld the master’s rights to treat his servants however he pleased.  “Freedom dues” no longer include land, creating a class of tenants. ▪ Freed servants - Only between 9 and 17 percent gained land ▪ By 1675 tenants represent around 1/3 of the population Good land became scarce Only available land was near the border with Native Americans  Exploitative tax system   ▪ Tax revenue based not on price of tobacco but amount shipped ▪ Overproduction drove prices down NATHANIEL BACON SIR WILLIAM BERKELEY  Governor Berkeley angers other elite planters (like Nathaniel Bacon) by giving his favorites: ▪ Good public offices ▪ Grants for frontier lands ▪ Licenses to trade with the Native ▪ lower tax rates  Stopped calling the colonial assembly in 1661    Settlers begin to seize frontier land and start fighting with Native Americans Settlers want Gov. Berkeley to grant them permission to exterminate all Native Americans on Virginia’s frontier – he refuses At this point both many wealthy planters and poor freemen, servants and slaves are all unhappy with the administration of Governor Berkeley    Led by Nathaniel Bacon against Governor Berkeley and his supporters. Represented a split within the planter elite Bacon gained support from small planters, tenants, and servants ▪ Promised to end indentured servitude for people who joined his rebellion ▪ Hinted that he would provide people with land and lower taxes          Recruited support from small planters, tenants, servants and slaves Led attacks on the Native Americans in defiance of the Governor Declared guilty of treason (1676) Attacked Jamestown with his followers and burnt it to the ground (Sept 1676) Dies of dysentery (Oct 1676) Rebellion collapses (Dec/Jan 1676) 23 rebel leaders are hung by Governor Berkeley Crown sends 6 warships and 8 transports with 1100 troops English Commander Sir Hubert Jeffreys becomes Governor (1677)   Great planters fear both another uprising and an reassertion of crown power within Virginia Introduce a more popular mode of politics ▪ Reduced taxes ▪ Permitted organized attacks on Native Americans in order to gain more land ▪ Reintroduced the Head right system ▪ The great planters worked to make themselves popular especially during election times ▪ Treating ▪ Providing favors  This alliance became easier and more essential, by the turn of the century as the labor force switched from white indentured servants to enslaved Africans. ▪ Fewer servants meant fewer men eventually demanding land and political rights ▪ By providing more rights, opportunities and just treatment to poorer white men, the planter elite sought to forge a community of white men, preventing poor white and black men from uniting together (like during Bacon’s Rebellion)   Starts to develop when there is a marketable commodity that requires labor (tobacco) Full develops when there is a planter class able to: ▪ Command the regions resources ▪ Mobilize the power of the state ▪ Vanquish competitors    Slavery is the central mode of economic production Master-slave relationship provides the model for all social relations Slaveholders are the ruling class    Elite Rule Popular Politics White Racial Supremacy   1. Mounting fears amongst colonial leaders about cooperation between free and non-free laborers. Wanted to divide the workforce in order to control it.   2. English servants demanded shorter indentures, better working conditions, and suitable farmland when their contracts expires. Not giving them these things would create bad publicity in England.  3. Labor Shortage ▪ Economy improved in England so less people are willing to come as indentured servants. ▪ There was a labor shortage in England due to Civil War, plague and the London fire ▪ Stiff penalties were placed on sea captains who abducted people to bring to America (kidnapping) ▪ English people have heard about the mistreatment of indentured servants and don’ t want to come ▪ Native American numbers have diminished due to disease, warfare, and mistreatment ▪ Also easier for Native Americans to hide in the familiar wilderness.  4. There is already an existing slave trade and slave merchants and captains are looking for new markets.  Captive Africans became increasingly easy to obtain as England becomes involved in the trade. ▪ British Parliament chartered the Royal African Company in 1672  4. As life expectancy increased in Virginia it became cost-effective to purchase a slave rather than a temporary servant  5. Western perceptions of Africans led them to ask few questions about enslavement ▪ Heathens (non-Christians) ▪ Savage, uncivilized ▪ False science of race develops     Edmund Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom Peter H. Wood, Strange New Lands, Africans in Colonial America Ira Berlin, Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America Alan Taylor, The Settling of North America, Vol. 1 The Enlightenment  The Enlightenment • • • An intellectual movement Centered in France and spread throughout W. Europe Developed amongst the intellectual elite known as the Philosophes: • French intellectuals who shared a common culture through literature, correspondence and private gatherings – “Republic of Letters”  Progress can be achieved through human actions  The power of reason to improve society   Faith in Science Focus on Education  Support   for Freedom and Liberty Political Equality Against censorship  Skepticism   about traditional beliefs Attack superstition Against religious intolerance    The Renaissance The Reformation The Scientific Revolution (16th and 17th C)    The popularization of science Development of the scientific method The printing press spread new ideas and discoveries  The Legacy of John Locke  Essay on Human Understanding (1690)   Tabula rasa (blank slate) – people do not have inherited abilities Two Treatises of Government:    Man has natural right to life, liberty and property People have the right to oppose the government is their rights are not being protected People make a contract with the government to protect their rights – relinquishing some of their freedom in exchange for security • Voltaire – – – – • Montesquieu • • • • • Philosophical Letters on the English (1734) Candide (1758) Promoted free speech, civil rights and religious toleration Spoke out against the Catholic church The Spirit of the Laws (1758) Admired the British government Separation of Powers Checks and Balances in government Diderot – The Encyclopédie (1751-1772) – • Compilation of Enlightenment thought Spread Enlightenment ideals throughout Europe  An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776)  Our self-interest results in prosperity  Doctrine of “laissez faire” – “leave alone”    If “left alone” the economy would thrive naturally – economic regulations like tariffs are a bad idea – free trade is good (The government should not interfere in the economy) The “Invisible hand” of the economy would, over time, cause supply and demand to meet, thus determining the price of goods And the “virtue of the marketplace” would enhance social happiness and civic virtue  Reason  Progress  Optimism  Individualism  Tolerance  Secularism  Confidence in man and his achievements  The abolition of slavery.  The end of torture and executions.  Improvement of living conditions  Educational reform  Government change  Encourages    American French Haitian  New     Revolution: forms of government and society Democratic ideals Liberty Equality Abolition movement  The Declaration of Independence (July 4, 1776)  “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. – That to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, --That whenever any form of government becomes destructive to these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new government” ⬧ ⬧ Based on concept of natural rights Assumptions of Republicanism Political system where all power came from the people, rather than from supreme authority (such as a King) ⬧ Authority rested on the consent of the governed ⬧ ⬧ Equality of Opportunity (not condition) ⬧ ⬧ ⬧ ⬧ ⬧ People talents and abilities would determine their status, not their positions at birth Constitutions should be written down (Unlike in Great Britain) Need to curb executive power No nobility / hereditary titles Broader franchise than England – white men with property can vote  The first ten amendments to the Constitution  Adopted in 1791  Intended to preserve the rights and liberties of individuals  Includes:     Freedom of assembly, speech, religion and the press Guaranteed a speedy trial by an impartial jury Preserved the right to bear arms Prohibited unreasonable searches  Ideas  The Atlantic Slave Trade  Not   not actions: inclusive of all people. Women Lower classes  Limited   immediate impact on daily life Prevalence of Death and Disease Superstition Early Modern Europe: The Renaissance Terms  The Renaissance Question to Consider  What are the characteristics of the “modern world?”  What do modern people care about?  What do they believe in?  What do they focus on?  What is valued in modern society? Renaissance  Late 14th to early 16th Century  “rebirth” of the culture of classical antiquity (Ancient Greece and Rome)  A profound and enduring transformation in culture, politics, art, and society in Europe  Starts in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe Characteristics of the Renaissance  Celebrated humans and their achievements  Optimistic faith in human potential  Secularism  Individualism  Why do people major in the Humanities today? Humanism  Intellectual movement  Emphasis on study and self-improvement  Intended to create a successful, cultivated, civilized individual who used these skills to succeed within the everyday world of politics, trade, and religion Humanism  Study of the classical texts of Greek and Roman language, culture, politics, and philosophy  Study the Liberal Arts     Grammar Logic Rhetoric Arithmetic, Music, Geometry and Astronomy What Made the Renaissance Possible? Europe in 1500 Italy in 1500 Urbanization  Large city-states  By 1300, northern Italy boasted twenty-three city-states with populations of 20,000 or more  Among those cities were also several that boasted populations of over 100,000 by the fifteenth century, including Florence and Milan, which served as centers of banking, trade, and craftsmanship.  By 1200, most Italian cities were politically independent of lords and came to dominate their respective hinterlands, serving as lords to “vassal” towns and villages for miles around. (from reading) West Meets East  East-West trade (increased after the Crusades)  Impact of trade and commerce  Growing wealth and status of merchant bankers  Knowledge from Arab world including double-entry bookkeeping and the use of Arabic numerals  International exchange and competition stimulates thinkers, writers and artists St. Mark Preaching in Alexandria (1507) Prosperity and Patronage  Economic Prosperity  The Patronage System  Cosimo de Medici (13891464) The Medici Family  Dominated Florentine politics and culture throughout the 15th Century  Started as merchant bankers  Cosimo was a noted sponsor of poets, philosophers, orators, and artists, spending vast sums of money as a patron of art and thought.  The Medici family includes four popes (Leo X, Clement VII, Pius IV and Leo XI The Printing Press  The invention of movable type (circa 1450)  It has been estimated that by 1500 printing presses had printed between 6 and 50 million books, more books than had been produced since the Fall of the Roman Empire.  Revolution in knowledge and communication that affected all levels of society Medieval vs. Renaissance Art Duccio di Buenisegna (1255-1319) Raphael Sanzio (1520) Medieval vs. Renaissance Art Giotto (1266-1337) Raphael, The Small Cowper Madonna Medieval vs. Renaissance Art Madonna and Child on a Curved Throne (1200s) Madonna del Cardelino (1506) The Development of Linear Perspective Medieval Art Medieval Art Giotto, Jesus Before the Caif (1305) Masolino, Herod’s Feast (1436) Raphael, The School of Athens (1510) Realism  Michelangelo’s David  Glorification of the human body  Realism Architecture  Return to Roman styles of architecture  Brunelleschi’s Dome for the Cathedral of Florence New Subjects The Birth of Venus (Sandro Botticelli)  Portraiture  The Arnolfini Portrait  By Jan van Eyck  1434 The Last Supper House Future Developments  Religious Change  Political Change  Overseas Exploration  Scientific Revolution Timeline            1397 Medici Bank established in Florence 1420 Portuguese colonize Madeira 1450 Gutenburg invents moveable type 1453 Fall of Constantinople 1488 Bartolomeu Dias sails around the Cape of Good Hope 1492 Columbus’ first voyage 1505 Leonardo da Vinci paints the Mona Lisa 1509 Henry VIII ascends to the British throne 1512 Michelangelo completes the Sistine Chapel 1513 Machiavelli writes The Prince 1517 Luther prints his 95 Theses (starts the Protestant Reformation Africa and the Transatlantic Slave Trade Terms  Triangular trade  The transatlantic slave trade  Anthony Johnson (Colonial Virginia)  The Terrible Transformation (of American slavery)  Olaudah Equiano Africa (European Perspective)  Not just a stop off on route to Asia  Trade  Resources – Gold, ivory, the slave trade  Markets  Prime land for growing sugar cane / plantation agriculture / slavery  Madeira  Canary Islands  Cape Verde Triangular Trade  Europeans bring textiles, guns, rum and manufactured goods to Africa and trade for slaves  Slaves are brought to the New World and traded for crops  Sugar / Molasses, coffee, tobacco, indigo, rice are sold in Europe The Transatlantic Slave Trade Slavery  Widespread human practice throughout history  Origins in the earliest human civilizations  Prevalent in Ancient Greece and Rome  Before the Atlantic slave trade, Africa had a system of slave trading Africa: Enslavement prior to contact with Europeans  Punishment for a crime  As payment for a family debt  Capture in warfare – MOST COMMON The Transatlantic Slave Trade  Encouraged by demand for labor in the New World first in South America and by the 17th C in the English North American settlements.  Took off in the 17th C with growth of cash crops on plantations (sugar, tobacco, indigo, rice) Transatlantic Slave Trade  Britain, France, Spain and Holland were major participants  10-12 million slaves were brought from Africa to the New World The majority of the slaves went to Brazil and the West Indies  Less than 10 percent went to North America  From Columbus through 1820 five times as many Africans as Europeans came to the Americas Africa and the Transatlantic Slave Trade  African coastal leaders cooperated with the European traders - benefitted rulers or wealthy and powerful merchants (Other leaders resisted the slave trade)  Led to increased warfare  Slaves become a valuable commodity  Loss of millions of people, esp. young men and women  Mostly aged 15 to 35 years  Estimated 2 to 1 male –female ratio  Hurts agricultural production  Led to a massive African Diaspora – 12 to 15 million people African Resistance  1526, King Afonso of Kongo, who had previously enjoyed good relations with the Portuguese, complained to the king of Portugal that Portuguese slave traders were kidnapping his subjects and depopulating his kingdom.  In 1630, Queen Njingha Mbandi of Ndongo (in modern Angola) attempted to drive the Portuguese out of her realm, but was finally forced to compromise with them.  In 1720, King Agaja Trudo of Dahomey not only opposed the trade, but even went as far as to attack the forts that the European powers had constructed on the coast. But his need for firearms forced him to reach an agreement with the European slave traders.  Other African leaders such as Donna Beatriz Kimpa Vita in Kongo and Abd alQadir, in what is now northern Senegal, also urged resistance against the forced export of Africans.  People also revolted on the slave ships The Middle Passage  The forced transatlantic voyage of slaves from Africa to the Americas  4-10 weeks  1 in 6 slaves die / 1 in 15 by end of 18th C  Primarily end up in diamond and gold mines in Brazil or sugar and coffee plantations in the Caribbean American Slavery  1. Race-based  2. Permanent  3. Hereditary (Inherited through the mother) American Slavery  Primarily based on plantation agriculture  Treated slaves as a form of dehumanized property – chattel slavery  Enforced through a culture of violence and fear Witch Trials in Early Modern Europe 1450-1650 ❖ Term: ❖ Malleus Maleficarum ❖ Witches Sabbat ❖ Question: ❖ What was the definition of a witch in Early Modern Europe? What were typically the characteristics of people accused of witchcraft? Why were women considered more likely to be witches? The Witch Hunt ❖ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-HggxcuHAnU The Witch of Newbury (1643) What can we learn about accusations of witchcraft from this document? Why do you think there might be accusations during a time of war? The Trial of Suzanne Gaudry (1652) ❖ One of the few sources that contains the dialogue of the inquisition and confession ❖ What do these documents tell us about witchcraft beliefs? ❖ And about the investigations of witchcraft? ❖ Why do you think witchtrials often led to multiple trials and executions? (chain reaction witch hunts)? Statistics • • The best estimates for Early Modern Europe are: – 90,000 - 110,000 trials – 40,000 - 60,000 executed There was a dramatic increase in prosecutions in the late 16th / early 17th C Statistics • • About half the people tried and executed were in the German lands of the Holy Roman Empire • Trier – 368 deaths • Bamberg • Würzburg The other heavy concentrations were in the lands surrounding Germany – Switzerland, Poland, France Photo by EJP Photo - Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike License https://www.flickr.com/photos/29498428@N00 Created with Haiku Deck Photo by Kaley Dykstra - Creative Commons No known copyright restrictions https://unsplash.com/@kaleyloved?utm_source=haikudeck&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=api-credit Created with Haiku Deck Photo by Kaley Dykstra - Creative Commons No known copyright restrictions https://unsplash.com/@kaleyloved?utm_source=haikudeck&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=api-credit Created with Haiku Deck ❖ Würzburg ❖ 1616-1618 - 300 executions ❖ 1626-1630 – over 900 executions ❖ Cologne ❖ 1626-1634 – over 2000 victims Beliefs • Witches were both harmful magicians and worshippers of the Devil • Witches made a pact with the Devil • Devils would provide wealth or some other form of reward in return for allegiance and the witch’s soul after death • Witches could fly • Witches worshipped the Devil collectively and in engaged in blasphemous, amoral and obscene rituals (the witch’s sabbat) The Witch’s Sabbat • Naked dancing • Cannibalistic infanticide • Ritual sex with the Devil • Orgies • Parodies of the Catholic Mass (The Black Mass) – Say the Nicene Creed backwards while standing on your head – Consecration of a host made of offal, turnip or some black substance Who was Accused? • 75-80 percent women • Majority older than 50 years old (past child bearing) • Generally from lower levels of society • Unpopular – viewed as quarrelsome or argumentative • Related to an accused witch • However, there were men (including elite men) and children executed to – varied by region? • Most of the accusers are women • Why Women? Why women? – Believed to be morally weaker than men – Believed to be more carnal – Role as cooks, healers and midwives – Older women may have been senile Witches: A Century of Murder ❖ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gB2DeAzCBi4 ❖ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MBBHfZwjxYY The Malleus Maleficarum • Treatise on witchcraft • First published in 1486, reprinted 13 times before 1520 • Work of two Dominican Inquisitors – Heinrich Kramer (Inquisitor for S. Germany) – Jacob Sprenger (may not actually have done any writing) • They had conducted 50 witch trials, 48 with women defendants • Referred to witches as “She” Malleus Maleficarum • Significance: – Synthesized different witchcraft beliefs into a single wellorganized work (encyclopedia of witchcraft) – Provided theological support for its ideas – Gave legal advice on how to bring witches to trial – Emphasis on the susceptibility of women to the crime – Argued that those that did not believe in witches were heretics – Along with other treatises, it made literate members of society aware of witchcraft and convinced of its reality Malleus Maleficarum ❖ John Chrysostom (Archbishop of Constantinople / earch church father) says: "What else is woman but a foe to friendship, an unescapable punishment, a necessary evil, a natural temptation, a desirable calamity, a domestic danger, a delectable detriment, an evil of nature, painted with fair colours! Therefore if it be a sin to divorce her when she ought to be kept, it is indeed a necessary torture; for either we commit adultery by divorcing her, or we must endure daily strife." Cicero in his second book of The Rhetorics says: "The many lusts of men lead them into one sin, but the lust of women leads them into all sins; for the root of all woman's vices is avarice. And Seneca says in his Tragedies: A woman either loves or hates; there is no third grade. And the tears of woman are a deception, for they may spring from true grief, or they may be a snare. When a woman thinks alone, she thinks evil." Malleus Maleficarum ❖ “Others again have propounded other reasons why there are more superstitious women found than men. And the first is, that they are more credulous; and since the chief aim of the devil is to corrupt faith, therefore he rather attacks them. See Ecclesiasticus xix: He that is quick to believe is light-minded, and shall be diminished. The second reason is, that women are naturally more impressionable, and more ready to receive the influence of a disembodied spirit; and that when they use this quality well they are very good, but when they use it ill they are very evil. The third reason is that they have slippery tongues, and are unable to conceal from the fellow-women those things which by evil arts they know; and, since they are weak, they find an easy and secret manner of vindicating themselves by witchcraft.” Malleus Maleficarum ❖ “…we may add to what has already been said the following: that since they are feebler both in mind and body, it is not surprising that they should come more under the spell of witchcraft. For as regards intellect, or the understanding of spiritual things, they seem to be of a different nature from men; a fact which is vouched for by the logic of the authorities, backed by various examples from the Scriptures. Terence says: Women are intellectually like children.” Malleus Maleficarum ❖ “But the natural reason is that she is more carnal than a man, as is clear from her many carnal abominations. And it should be noted that there was a defect in the formation of the first woman, since she was formed from a bent rib, that is, a rib of the breast, which is bent as it were in a contrary direction to a man. And since through this defect she is an imperfect animal, she always deceives. For Cato says: When a woman weeps she weaves snares. And again: When a woman weeps, she labours to deceive a man.” The Malleus Maleficarum ❖ The Malleus contained a lengthy discussion on why women were especially prone to witchcraft ❖ Women are more credulous and more impressionable than men ❖ Women have “slippery tongues and cannot conceal from other women anything they have learned by the evil arts.” The Malleus Maleficarum • Women had greater sexual appetites than men, so their lust leads them to accept even the Devil as a lover • Women are defective and cannot control their affections or passions and so they “search for, brood over, and inflict various vengeances, either by witchcraft or by some other means.” Why did witchcraft trials and executions increase in the 16th C? The Role of the Reformation • Fear of the Devil • Greater emphasis on personal piety and increased guilt • Attack upon superstition, paganism and magic • Emphasis on the Bible • “Though shalt not suffer a witch to live” (Exodus 22:18) • Religious Conflict (warfare) • Also related to other forms of social and economic unrest • • • Bad weather Poor harvests Weak government oversight / lack of central administration ❖ Why would people accuse others of witchcraft? Why would they act as inquisitors, torturers and judges? The Pendle Witch Child ❖ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MATKIhrDZSc
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Reasons for the Development of Overseas Expansion in the Late Fifteenth Century.
The Impact of Overseas Expansion for Portugal and Spain.
Development of overseas expansion was fueled by religious fervor, the country’s pursuit
of wealth, and imperial rivalry. There were new developments like the printing press and the
increase of literacy skills that encouraged expansion. With new maritime technology like ships,
navigation techniques like compasses, and cannons, explorers could travel farther. Moreover,
expansion was supported by leaders like Prince Henry who guaranteed that sailors had access to
technology, extended Portugal’s power to avoid expensive tariffs. The expansion for Portugal
resulted in mixed-race communities along Africa’s coast. It created the basis for the Atlantic
Slave Trade. Expansion created trade links for exports from Africa and Asia. Portuguese power
and influence spread across regions. For Spain, expansion resulted in the Columbian exchange
that enriched Europe from gold and silver. European nations grew into global powers.

Tenets of the Protestant and Catholic Faith

The protestant belief was based on salvation through faith alone. Catholicism was based
on salvation through faith and ...


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