The Seventeenth Century
ABSOLUTISM AND CONSTITUTIONALISM
Terms / Questions
Constitutional Monarchy
The (English) Bill of Rights
Define Absolutism. How does an Absolutist ruler
maintain power? (Use Louis XIV as an example)
The Age of Absolutism (1660-1789)
Why would people support Absolutism?
Warfare
Requires a centralized bureaucratic state to run the military
and collect taxes
Around half of all the revenue of the western powers went to
financing war
Also unrest / warfare of 17th C led to desire for stability
Absolutism (1660-1789)
When the monarch has ultimate authority and total
power over the government and the lives of the
people
Realm is viewed as the property of the monarch
The monarch’s power is not limited by a constitution
or the law
Examples: France, Spain, Russia, Prussia and
Austria
The Absolutist State
Centralized government
Unprecedented concentration of power
Large standing army (professional)
State bureaucracies run by middle class government
officials - forced the nobles to give up their former
political influence
Powers of Absolutist Monarch
Control the nation’s bureaucracy / administration
Command over the military
The right to tax
The authority to make laws
The administration of justice
Determine foreign policy
Timeline
Sept 5, 1638
May 14, 1643
1648 – 1653
1660
1661
Louis XIV is born
Inherits the throne at 4 years old
The Fronde Rebellion
Married Marie-Thérèse of Austria
Takes direct control of France
The Fronde (1648-1653)
Civil War in France / series of uncoordinated uprisings
Reaction of the nobility to policies started by Cardinal
Richelieu (Chief Minister of Louis XIII) that lessened
their power
Protest against the power of the crown
Nobility wanted constitutional reforms such as the right
to control taxation
Developed into opposition to Mazarin (Chief Minister to
the young Louis XIV)and the King’s mother, Anne of
Austria
Young Louis XIV was forced to flee Paris
Reentered Paris in October 1652
French Absolutism
Louis XIV (r. 1643-1715)
The “Sun King”
“I am the state”
Believed in the divine right of kings
Maria Theresa (Queen of France)
Control the Nobility
Did not give members of the ancient noble families important
positions in the government
Choose ministers for his councils from families long in royal
service or just beginning to rise in the social structure
People without independent power bases
But made sure nobles benefitted from the growth of his own
authority
And distracted them:
Rituals, processions, banquets, duties at court
Absolute Power
Controlled the church – Impose religious unity
Revoked the Edict of Nantes
No more religious toleration
Catholicism is the state religion
Gave the good tax arrangements as long as they promoted the
divine right of Kings
Placate the upper middle class by making them part
of the government administration
Made “nobles of the robe” - who bought their noble titles v.
“nobles of the sword” – demonstrates he will not share power
with the old nobility
Massive standing army
200,ooo in peacetime, 400,000 during war
Crushed attempts at rebellion by the peasants
Louis XIV
Effective Bureaucracy
Supervised the local law courts
Oversaw the collection of taxes
Regulated the marketplaces
Recruited soldiers
These new aristocrats owed their power, authority and status
to the King
Louis XIV
Increase power through conquest and display
Made it clear that he could outspend the nobles
Image as Sun King
Built Palace at Versailles
Versailles
The royal residence
The seat of government
The royal court
Brought King and social elites together – noble prestige based
on closeness to the King
Nobles were required to live there for part of the year
Nobility came to seek favors and offices
Rigid rules of etiquette
Strict rules of precedence
Versailles
Grand spectacle designed to demonstrate the King’s
power and inspire awe
Center of the arts
Model for the rest of Europe
French language and culture become fashionable at courts
across Europe
Versailles
Built between 1669-1688
Cost ½ year of royal revenue to build
Front façade around 1/3 mile long
17,000 landscaped parks enclosed by a 40 mile wall
1400 fountains
2000 statues
Rooms decorated with marble columns, painted ceilings,
costly draperies, mirrored walls, handcrafted furniture
Cost of maintaining it was 60 percent of revenue
Around 10,000 people lived there
Stable could hold 12,000 horses
Problems?
Financial Problems
Tax revenues usually fell fall short of the
government’s needs.
In Louis XIV’s France, tax exemptions for
elites placed the greatest tax burden on the
peasantry.
Aggressive Foreign Policy
1667
1672-79
1688
1701-14
The War of Devolution (Spanish
Netherlands)
Franco-Dutch War
Nine Years War against the Grand Alliance
The War of the Spanish Succession
Aggressive Foreign Policy
Aggressive foreign policy led to four wars during his
reign
Destroyed the French Economy
Huge debt placed on the Third Estate
Financial and social tensions help lead to the French Rev
Reign of Louis XIV
Most powerful ruler in Europe
Desire for military glory
Huge drain on revenue
Made France the center for arts and literature
French became the international language for over
two centuries
Constitutional Monarchy
Constitutional Monarchy
(Limited Monarchy)
Form of government in which the monarch (King or
Queen) acts as head of state, but is legally limited in
his/her powers by a constitution
A representative assembly votes and creates laws
Background
James I / James VI of Scotland
Charles I (r. 1625-1649)
Married a Catholic
Tried to reign without Parliament
Civil War (1642-1649)
Cavaliers (support King) vs. Roundheads (support
Parliament)
Charles I
Oliver Cromwell
Background
1649-1653: The Commonwealth
King Charles I executed on the order of Parliament for:
Raising taxes
Dissolving Parliament
Starting Civil War
1650-1653: The Protectorate
Cromwell rules as military dictator
Dissolves Parliament
1958: Cromwell dies
England
1660-1668: The Restoration
Charles II (r. 1660-1685) Restoration of the Monarchy
James II (r. 1685-1688)
Tried to act as Absolutist monarch
Had son and announced he would be raised as a Catholic
Fled to France following the invasion of William and Mary
William and Mary
1688 Glorious Revolution
1689 William & Mary become King and Queen and
accept the Bill of Rights
Bill of Rights
Viewed as the start of constitutional monarchy
Model for the US Bill of Rights
Bill of Rights
Limited the power of the monarch
Cannot suspend or eliminate laws passed by Parliament
Cannot impose taxes without consent of Parliament
Cannot have a standing army in peacetime without consent of
Parliament
Cannot establish his own courts or act as a judge
Bill of Rights
Rights of the Monarch
Serves as Head of State
Can summon and dissolve Parliament
Dismiss Ministers
Veto legislation
Declare War
Bill of Rights
Established supremacy of Parliament
Right to petition the King
Freedom to elect members of Parliament without interference
from the King
Freedom of speech for members of Parliament
Parliament should be held frequently
Bill of Rights
Reaffirmed civil liberties:
Trial by Jury
Habeas Corpus - cannot be imprisoned unless charges with a
crime
English subjects will be free from excessive bail, fines or “cruel
and unusual punishments”
Bill of Rights
Religious policies:
Catholics were banned from the throne
Kings and Queens had to swear oath of loyalty to maintain
Protestantism as the official religion in England
The French Revolution (Part I)
Terms / Questions
The Estate System
The Declaration of the Rights of Man
The Civil Constitution of the Clergy
What were the causes of the French Revolution?
Long Term Causes of the French Revolution
Spread of Enlightenment ideals
Equal rights for all under the law
Separation of powers
Representative Assemblies (Limited Monarchy)
Long Term: Social Tensions
The Estate System:
Clergy (100,000)
Higher
Lower
Nobility (400,000)
Third Estate (26 million) – the commoners
Bourgeoisie / Middle class
City Workers (servants, apprentices, laborers)
Peasants (21 million)
Long Term: Social Tensions
The Peasants (21 million)
Lived in poverty
Had to pay numerous
rents, taxes and dues
Taxes to King and Lord
Rent
Tithe (tax to church)
Labor obligation
Dues on salt, cloth, bread,
wine
Dues to use mills,
granaries, presses and
ovens
Long Term: Social Tensions
The Bourgeoisie (The Middle Class)
Merchants, manufacturers, lawyers, doctors
Had wealth but not status
Wanted reform:
Careers in the government and army open to men of talent and
merit
Wanted fair trials and a single legal code
Wanted a limited monarchy with a written constitution
Long Term: Economic Issues
Massive state debt
Expensive of foreign wars and extravagance of the
royal court
Inefficient system of taxation and inadequate
banking structure
Nobles and clergy are exempt from paying taxes
Long Term: Weak Leadership
Louis XVI lacked the resolution and political skills to
resolve dispute with the nobility over taxation.
Lack of public support for the monarchy
Unpopularity of Marie Antoinette
Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette
Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette
Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette
Causes:
Affect of the American Revolution
Example of a successful revolution
Drove France deeper into debt
Almost
¾ of state revenue went to maintaining the army
and navy and paying off war debt
Financial Crisis!
Economic hardship
Series of Bad harvests (worst in 1775; also 1787 and
1788)
Rising prices and rents
In
1788, peasants paid more the 50% of their income
on bread. By 1789, some paid as much as 80%.
Poverty
and hardship for peasants
Loss of customary rights
As peasants entered cities looking for work,
unemployment rate rose as high as 50 percent
Bread Riots across France
Financial Crisis!
Bankruptcy!!!!
Driven deeper into debt through support of the
American Revolution and through maintaining the
army and navy
The Initial Events
The Noble Revolt
King Louis XVI calls an Assembly of Notables (Feb
1787)
Asks them to agree to pay a land tax
They refuse
Demand that Louis call the Estates General
The Estates General
Traditional national assembly
Had not been called since 1614
Meets May 5, 1789
Each Estate gets one vote
Clergy – 300 people – one vote - 2-3 percent of pop.
Nobility – 300 people – one vote – 2-3 percent of pop.
Third Estate – 600 people – one vote – 95 percent of pop.
3rd Estate wants to change the voting system so that each
member has one vote
The King refuses
The 3rd Estate forms the National Assembly (June 17, 1789)
Phases of the Revolution
The Moderate Phase (July 1789 -August 1792)
The Radical Phase (August 1792 - July 1794)
The Directory (1794-1799)
Napoleon (1799-1815)
The Moderate Phase
Storming the Bastille (July 14, 1789)
The Moderate Phase (1789-1792)
Storming of the Bastille (July 14, 1789)
More than 200 killed or wounded
Commander decapitated and his head is carried on a pike through
the streets
The Great Fear (July 19-Aug 3)
Rumors spread that the peasants will be attacked
Peasants attack the homes of the Lords
Burn tax rolls
Reoccupy enclosed lands
Abolishment of Feudal Privileges (Aug 4, 1789)
Official end of serfdom and paying of dues to the Lords
No more special rights and privileges for the Lords
The Moderate Phase
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (Aug,
1789)
Men are born free and equal in rights
Rights are liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression
Sovereignity resides in the people
Equality before the law
Freedom of speech
Religious toleration
Freedom of the Press
Limitations:
Only tax paying men could vote or hold office – about half the men in
France (Active Citizens)
No women could vote or hold office (Passive Citizens)
Does not free the slaves in the colonies
The March on Versailles (Oct 4, 1789)
Louis XVI returned to Paris (Oct 5-6, 1789)
The Moderate Phase
Confiscated the property of the Church
Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790)
Clergy elected by the people and paid by the state
Had to swear an oath of allegiance to the state
Clergy serves France not Rome
Extremely divisive issue – polarized France
Only about half of the clergy would swear loyalty to France
Many rural areas were very religious and peasants supported the
clergy
“Patience Monsignor Your Turn Will Come”
The Moderate Phase
Flight to Varennes (June 20, 1791)
Constitution established (Oct 1791)
New Assembly meets – The Legislative Assembly –
with all new members
Achievements of the National Assembly
Created a Constitutional Monarchy with a legislative
assembly
Abolishment of special privileges of the nobility
Statement of human rights with the Declaration
Subordinated the church to the state
New system of taxation
Initiated economic reforms
End of guild restrictions
Uniform system of weights and measures
Eliminate internal customs
The Radical Phase
Question:
What developments characterized the radical phase
of the French Revolution?
Terms
Sans-culottes
The Legislative Assembly
Girondins
Jacobins
Moderates
Radicals
Keep Constitutional
Establish republic
Monarchy
The Jacobins
Jean-Paul Marat
Georges Danton
Maximilien Robespierre
Why did the Revolution Become More Radical?
Actions of Louis XVI – Attempted Escape
Warfare with Austria, Prussia and England
Counterrevolution / Civil War
Pressure from the sans-culottes (linked with the Jacobins)
Radical Developments
Creation of Republic (Execution of King)
Universal Manhood Suffrage
Centralized power under the Jacobins
The Committee of Public Safety
Robespierre
Warfare!
Reign of Terror
Republic of Virtue
The Sans-culottes
“Without breeches”
shopkeepers, artisans,
wageworkers
Want further changes:
Increased wages
Fixed prices
End of food shortages
Democratic republic
The Radical Phase
France declared a
Republic (Sept 21, 1792)
The King is executed
(Jan 21, 1793)
The Radical Phase
Civil War in the Vendee (March 1793)
Committee of Public Safety established (April 1793)
Jacobins take control of the Committee (June 1793)
Maximilien Robespierre (The Incorruptible) elected
to Committee (July 1793)
Levée on Masse - conscription introduced (Aug
1793)
Maximilien
Robespierre
The Reign of Terror (Sept 1793- July 1794)
The organized use of state coercive power to ensure
compliance with the demands of the government.
The Constitution is suspended
Those who do not comply faced a revolutionary
tribunal which tried “suspects” for treason and
sentences those it convicted to the guillotine.
(1:10:14)
“We must smother the internal and external enemies
of the Republic or perish with them. Now, in this
situation, the first maxim of your policy ought to be
to lead the people by reason and the people’s
enemies by terror. If the mainspring of popular
government in peacetime is virtue, amid revolution it
is at the same time virtue and terror: virtue, without
which terror is fatal; terror, without which virtue is
impotent. Terror is nothing but prompt, severe,
inflexible justice, it is therefore an emanation of
virtue. - Robespierre
Execute Marie Antoinette
(Oct 16, 1793)
The Reign of Terror
Results
Around 500,000 people were arrested
Execution of approx. 40,000 people / mainly commoners
Created effective government bureaucracy
Conscription creates army of 800,000 men and turns the tide
in the war
By end of 1793, foreign armies were forced out of France
People become tired of the killing and fear they will be next
Republic of Virtue
Belief in the upholding of the public good over
individual interests
Transformed French Society
Attack on Christianity
Close down churches
Pull down crosses in public places
New calendar starting on Sept 22, 1792 when the Republic was
created
Citizen and Citizeness not Mr. and Mrs.
The Execution of Robespierre
July 28, 1794 Robespierre is
executed
What were the reasons for the development of
overseas expansion in the 15th century?
What was the impact of overseas expansion for
Portugal and Spain?
The Columbian Exchange
Religious fervor – crusading zeal
Pursuit of Wealth
Imperial Rivalry / Personal Ambition
Printing press and
increased literacy
New maritime
technology
Ships – Caravel with
lateen sails
Navigation techniques
– compass and
astrolabe (measure
latitude)
Cannons
Exploration supported by Prince Henry “The
Navigator”
Ensured sailors had access to the latest charts and
navigational instruments
Inspired by the legend of Prester John – a mythical
Christian King
Extend Portuguese power and trade links into the
Atlantic – avoiding expensive tariffs (taxes) from
other routes
Pioneered the Portuguese slave trade
Bartolomeu Dias makes it around the
southern tip of Africa (1487-1488)
Vasco de Gama continues across the Indian
ocean (1497-1499)
Results:
The creation of mixed-race communities along the coast
of Africa
Start of the Atlantic Slave Trade
Trade links
Exports from Africa
Gold, Pepper, Ivory, Ebony
From India / Asia
Spices – cinnamon, cloves, ginger, nutmeg
Drugs – opium, cannabis
Dyes – indigo, vermillion, saffron
Silk, cotton and velvet
Porcelain, amber, ebony, sandalwood, bamboo
Precious jewels
Spread of Portuguese power and influence
Ferdinand and Isabella
The Voyage of Christopher Columbus (1492)
3 ships and 90 men
Made three more voyages
Columbus lands on:
Bahamas
Cuba
Hispaniola (present day Haiti and the Dominican
Republic)
Scholars estimate there were 50 million Native
Americans in the Americans in 1492 (perhaps
as many as 100 million)
The linking of the continents of Europe, America
and Africa by the ships arriving from Europe,
which fostered the transfers of people, animals,
plants and germs and transformed both
hemispheres.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Horses
Cattle
Sheep
Pigs
Chickens
Honey bees
Rats (unintentionally)
And from America to Europe: turkeys
From Europe to America: wheat, oats, barley,
rye, numerous fruits and garden vegetables,
weeds
From America to Europe: corn, beans, white and
sweet potatoes, tomatoes, squash, pumpkins,
peanuts, vanilla, cacao (chocolate), avocados,
pineapples, chilis, tobacco
From Europe to the
Americas:
Smallpox
Measles
Typhus
Chicken
pox
pneumonia
From the Americas to
Europe:
Syphilis
Drastically changes the American Environment
(Ecological Imperialism):
Animals
destroy crops and native plants.
Weeds take over
Leads to the death of 50 - 90 percent of the Native
American population
The Taino Indians (Bahamas) decreased from
1492: 300,000
1510: 33,000
1548: 500
Enriched Europe
Gold
and silver
Between 1500 and 1650, The Spanish shipped from
America to Europe about 181 tons of gold and 16,000 tons
of silver.
Expanded
European
food supply
nations became global powers
The Protestant
Reformation
(Part I)
Terms
Indulgences
Question
Compare and contrast the major tenets of the
Protestant and Catholic faith.
Issues within the Church
Ignorance and corruption of Parish Priests
Focus on power, status, and money rather than
religion
Highest positions in the church go to the wealth and
the nobility
High church officials hold multiple offices
Sale of Indulgences
The bureaucratization of religion made the church
powerful and brought unity to Europe, but at the cost
of losing the power of true religious experience
People wanted a more personal and individual
relationship with Christ
Rituals were not satisfying this desire
Devoid of meaning
Predecessors to Protestantism
John Wycliffe
1330-1384
Jan Hus
1373-1415
Martin Luther
(1483-1546)
Why Martin Luther
is the answer to
Playmobil's prayers
Timeline
1483
Luther is born in Southeast Germany
1505
Studying to become lawyer/ Thunderstorm
experience / Becomes Augustinian monk
1513
Professor of Theology at University of
Wittenburg
1515
Develops doctrine of “justification through
faith alone”
1517
Posts the ninety-five theses
1521
Luther is excommunicated / Diet of Worms
Martin Luther
as an
Augustinian
Monk
Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1520
The Issue of Indulgences
Indulgences
A remission before God of the temporal punishment
due to sins of a person whose guilt has already been
forgiven, which the faithful Christian who is duly
disposed gains under certain prescribed conditions
through the action of the Church which, as the
minister of redemption, dispenses and applies with
authority the treasury of satisfactions of Christ and
the saints.” – Catechism of the Catholic Church
Indulgences
Provide full or partial remission of the punishment of a sin
(to a person who is truly penitent)
Could be granted to reduce the time spent in purgatory for
a living or dead person. (price related to the number of
years subtracted from time in purgatory)
Granted by the Pope from a “treasury of merits” –
inherited amount of good works by Jesus and the saints
that could be distributed to other people
Why was Martin Luther against the sale of indulgences?
Pope Leo X
Collecting indulgences to rebuild St. Peter’s Basilica
in Rome / share profits with Bishop Albert of
Hohenzollern
Johann Tetzel
As soon as the gold in the casket
rings
The rescued soul to heaven
springs
Martin Luther and
Indulgences
Luther argued:
People thought they could buy they way out of sins
rather than confessing their sins to their priest and
being truly repentant. (Salvation cannot be bought!)
The church was misinforming people by telling them
they could just by an indulgence and were putting
people’s souls in danger.
And corrupting the Catholic church
Oct 31, 1517
Martin Luther posted The 95
Theses on the Power and
Efficacy of Indulgences on the
door of Wittenberg Cathedral
sparking the Protestant
Reformation
Protestant Beliefs
I.
Salvation Through Faith Alone
NOT faith and good works like Catholicism
Based on the Bible verse Romans 1:17
“The just shall live by faith”
God grace is something freely given not earned
II.
The Authority of Scripture
People could get everything they needed to know
about religion from the Bible.
They did not need to know the conclusions of church
councils or the pronouncements of priests and
scholars
III.
The Priesthood of All Believers
No one needed an intermediary ( Priest, Bishop,
Archbishop, Cardinal, Pope) to connect with God
Rejection of Non-Biblical Teachings
Protestants do NOT believe in / support (Catholics do believe in):
Indulgences
Clerical celibacy
The veneration of relics
The Sacraments: - rituals seen as signs of God’s presence and channels to receive God’s grace
Confirmation
Penance (Contrition, Confession, Absolution, Penance)
Anointing of the Sick / Extreme Unction / Last Rites
Holy Orders
Matrimony
(Do support Baptism and Eucharist)
Monasteries of Nunneries
Pilgrimages
Transubstantiation – the belief in the conversion of the substance of the Eucharistic elements (bread
and wine of Holy Communion) into the body and blood of Christ at consecration,
Spread of the Reformation
Greatest successes in Northern Europe
German states
Switzerland
Scandinavia
England – creation of a national Church under Henry VIII
South remains primarily Catholic
Spain
Portugal
Italy
France and Holland are divided
Why did the Reformation
Spread so Successfully?
Reformation Spreads
Resentment against clerical privilege
Spread by preachers
The printing press (1450)
Anti-Catholic propaganda
Translation of the Bible into the vernacular
Supported by political rulers
Could stop sending money to Rome
Confiscate wealth from Catholic properties
The Seven Headed Papal
Beast Around 1530 a Lutheran
cartoon was circulated in
Germany which
turned the papacy into
the "seven-headed
beast" of the Book of
Revelation. The papacy's
"seven heads" consist of
pope, cardinals, bishops,
and priests; the sign on
the cross reads "for
money, a sack full of
indulgences"; and a devil
is seen emerging from an
indulgence chest below.
The Seven Headed Martin
Luther In response, a German
Catholic propagandist
showed Luther as
Revelation's
"beast." In the
Catholic conception
Luther's seven heads
show him by turn to be
a hypocrite, a fanatic,
and "Barabbas"--the
thief who should have
been crucified instead
of Jesus.
Passion of Christ and the AntiChrist
Jesus washes the feet of his
disciples.
The Pope makes others kiss his
feet.
Christ and Anti-Christ
A crown of thorns is prepared for
Christ.
The Pope wears three crowns of
gold.
“The Origin of the Monks”
Terms
The Counter Reformation / Catholic Reformation
The Peasants’ Revolt (1524-1525)
Question
Describe the impact of the Protestant Reformation.
Impact of the Reformation
I. Shattered the religious unity of Europe
Catholic faith
Numerous Protestant faiths
Lutheranism
Switzerland:
Calvinism
John Calvin (1509-1564)
Geneva
Predestination: the belief that all events have been predetermined by God and cannot be
changed. Includes the belief that God willed salvation for some and eternal damnation for
others. God has predetermined who will go to heaven (the elect) and who will not. Good
conduct is a sign that a person is one of the elect.
Zwinglianism
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)
Zürich
Anabaptists (Rebaptism)
Believed in baptism to willing adults
Radical Anabaptists executed in Münster
Included Mennonites
Impact of the Reformation
II. Led to an age of religious warfare
Charles V vs. German Princes
French Wars of Religion
Peace of Augsburg (1598) – “as the ruler, so religion”
Edict of Nantes – granted religious liberty and civil rights to Protestants
Revolt in the Netherlands
The Thirty Years War (1618-1648)
Peace of Westphalia (1648:
Confirmed religious tolerance for Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism, and
Calvinsim.
Member states were bound to allow private worship, liberty of conscience, and the
right of emigration to these groups.
For an overview of the links between the Reformation and European warfare go to:
http://www.learner.org/resources/series58.html?pop=yes&vodid=629577&pid=867#
And watch Episode 29: The Wars of Religion
Impact of the Reformation
III. Shifted power from religious to political leaders
Opportunity for princes to confiscate the wealth of the
Church.
Princes and independent towns consolidate their power by:
Naming their own religious officials
Cutting of money to Rome
Reduce the power of Church courts
Impact of the Reformation
IV. Encouraged the Catholic Reformation
(see additional slides for details)
The Council of Trent
1545-1563
Series of meetings that set the agenda for revitalizing the
Catholic Faith
The Council of Trent
Reaffirmed Catholic Dogma:
Salvation through Faith and Good works
All seven sacraments necessary for salvation
Reaffirmed Belief in:
Purgatory
Celibacy for the clergy
Spiritual value of indulgences
Transubstantiation
The Council of Trent
Clerical reform (End corruption):
Bishops and priests forbidden to hold more than one position
Theological seminary opened in every diocese
Formation of new orders
The Jesuits (Society of Jesus)
Founded by Ignatius Loyola
Focused on teaching and preaching
Made Christianity more emotional, dramatic and
sentimental
Led to creation of the Baroque style of art.
Ecstasy of
Saint Teresa
By Gian Lorenzo Bernini
(1647-1652)
Describing an angel piercing her heart
repeatedly with a fire-tipped spear, St
Teresa (1515-1582) wrote “The pain
was so severe it made me utter
several moans. The sweetness caused
by the intense pain is so extreme that
one cannot possibly wish it to cease,
nor is one’s soul then content with
anything but God”
The Taking of
Christ
Caravaggio
1602
Lamentation
By Scipione Pulzone
The Council of Trent
Censorship of Dangerous Books:
Index of Prohibited Books (1564 - 1966)
Listed 583 heretical text including works by Luther and Calvin
Impact:
V. Created social changes / new ideas
The Domestication of Reform
The Domestication of
Reform
Family is the center of human life (more praiseworthy than
becoming a monk or nun)
Creating godly Protestant Families
Reinforced patriarchal authority
Tried to end ungodly behavior including:
Drunkenness
Domestic violence
Illicit sexual relations
Swearing
Discipline of children / Focus on schooling and education
Model woman is the good wife and mother (women remain
subordinate to men)
Impact:
VI. Fostered modern ideals and movements
The Peasants’ Rebellion
Modern?
Challenge to traditional authority
Idea of spiritual equality
Led to other challenges to traditional belief like the Scientific
Revolution
Contributed to the establishment of an ethic of
individualism / Empowered the individual
Contributing factor to the rise of democracy?
The Peasants’ Revolt
1524-1525
Rebellion of peasants in central and southern German states
Built on Luther’s idea of spiritual equality to promote social
justice
Demanded a return to their customary rights to:
Hunting
Use of common land
Wanted freedom from oppressive taxes and poor treatment
by nobles and landlords
The Peasants’ Revolt
Results:
Peasants organized armies
Burned castles and monasteries
Luther publishes “Against the Murdering Thieving Hordes of
Peasants”
http://www.historyguide.org/earlymod/peasants1525.html
Peasants are dispersed by disciplined armies of the nobles
Around 100,000 peasants died
Significance: The Reformation helped to create new ideas about
equality but would not be a social revolution or challenge the
existing social hierarchy in the short run.
Statistics
•
Estimates of the number of trials and executions have varied greatly,
reaching as high as 9 million
•
The best estimates for Early Modern Europe are:
–
–
110,000 trials
60,000 executed
•
About half the people tried and executed were in the German lands of
the Holy Roman Empire
•
The other heavy concentrations were in the lands surrounding
Germany
–
•
Switzerland, Poland, France
There was a dramatic increase in prosecutions in the late 16th / early
17th C
The Role of the Reformation
Fear of the Devil.
Greater emphasis on personal piety and increased guilt.
Attack upon superstition, paganism and magic.
Emphasis on the Bible.
Religious Conflict
“Though shalt not suffer a witch to live” (Exodus 22:18)
Protestants and Catholics use propaganda to attack each other
and portray each side as in league with the devil.
Also related to other forms of social unrest
The Scientific Revolution
The
Copernican Revolution
Galileo
Sir Isaac Newton
Define
the Scientific Revolution. What were
the outcomes / consequences of the
Scientific Revolution?
1543-1727
Medieval
Universities
Renaissance scholarship
The discovery of the new world
Encouraged new ideas and beliefs
Created demand for new instruments and precise
measures of navigation
Encouraged research in astronomy and mathematics
The
Printing press
Reformation
An
intellectual revolution in the way people
saw the world
A revolution in human knowledge
An attempt to understand and explain how
the natural world functioned
Study of “natural philosophy” – SCIENCE
Mathematics
Astronomy
A new method of
inquiry based on
observation,
experimentation and
testing of hypotheses
Sir Francis Bacon
(1561-1626) was the
first to outline the
process of designing
and carrying out an
experiment in order
to reach a factual
conclusion
Medieval (Ptolemaic)
Earth-centered
Earth-stationary
Hierarchical
Ladder-like
Heavenly bodies are
perfect
Geocentric
Copernican
On the Revolutions of
the Heavenly Spheres
(1543)
Sun-centered
Earth rotates around
the sun and on its axis
Heavenly bodies are
not perfect
Heliocentric
Nicholas
Copernicus
On
the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres
(1543)
Initiates the modern study of astronomy
Johannes
Kepler
Three Laws of Planetary Motion
Planets move in ellipses around the sun
Planets velocity varied according to their distance
from the sun
Physical relationship between the planets could be
determined mathematically
Video: Empires of the Medici,
episode 4 (30:00)
https://www.amazon.com/Medici-Birth-
Dynasty/dp/B002S2BZWU?crid=1EUC5SJVBUO
J0&keywords=empires+medici&qid=15366381
79&sprefix=empire+of+the+medici,aps,264&s
r=8-1&ref=sr_1_1
Studied
the skies through a telescope
Heavenly bodies are imperfect
•
•
•
•
•
Moon surface is rugged with craters and mountains
The sun had spots
Earth and the heavens are all made of the same
matter
Sun is the center of the universe
Jupiter had its own moons
1610
– published The Starry Messenger –
showing that the heavens were filled with
previously unknown objects
1632 – Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief
World System: Ptolemaic and Copernican –
Argument between two imaginary men, one
in favor of heliocentrism and one for geocentrism
1633 – Tried by the Inquisition and forced to
recant his beliefs about heliocentrism
English physicist and mathematician
Fields of Study:
Optics – branch of physics which involves the behavior and
properties of light
Mathematics
Calculus
Laws of Gravitation
Law of Universal Gravitation - Objects with mass feel an attractive
force that is proportional to their masses and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance.
Three Laws of Motion:
1.
A body at rest will remain at rest, and a body in motion will
remain in motion
2.
For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction
unless it is acted upon by an external force
3.
The force acting on an object is equal to the mass of that
object times its acceleration
Belgian Physician
Revolutionized the study of biology and
medicine through his careful study of
human anatomy
Author
of One The Fabric of the Human Body
(1543) – demonstrating the importance of
observation for understanding the human
body
Used the bodies of executed criminals to
study anatomy
Found out that the heart had two chambers
and two atria
Corrected errors about women’s anatomy
Men do not have more teeth than women
Men don’t have one less rib than women
English
Physician
Discovered that
the heart not the
liver pumps blood
through the body
Science became a separate discipline from
philosophy or theology
Challenge to traditional authority
New view of the universe
Humans and earth are not the center of existence
New language of Mathematics
New approach to finding answers:
The Scientific Method
Creation of a scientific community
Observation
Experimentation
Then make general conclusions
Ex. England’s royal academy
The Enlightenment – use of reason to improve
the human condition
1650-1700
Anthony Johnson
The Terrible Transformation
From the video:
Africans in America: Part I –The Terrible
Transformation
Virginia
Maryland (1634)
▪ “Proprietary Colony” – belonging to private interests
▪ Given to Cecelius Calvert, Lord Baltimore
▪ Intended as a haven (safe place) for Catholics but
most settlers were Protestants
▪ Cash crop - tobacco
Native Americans presence and power
dwindled on the coastal plain.
▪ Disease and war reduce their numbers from
24,000 in 1607 to 2000 by 1669.
▪ Enabled colonists to expand into new territory
English population increased.
▪ 130,000 migrants from Britain to VA and MD by
1700
▪ 90,000 as indentured servants
▪ Tobacco becomes profitable crop
▪ Tobacco Boom 1620s-1650s
Skewed sex ratio:
▪ In 1625, men composed 74 % of the population,
only 10% were women and 16% children.
1650s – small free black population
By 1660, English pop., was around 30,000 and
the number of people of African birth or
descent was fewer than 1500
High mortality rate due to disease and overwork
▪ Before 1650, nearly 2/3 died before their indenture
was over
But health circumstances were improving
slowly:
▪ People are “seasoned” by surviving local diseases and
pass greater immunity on to their children
▪ Apple orchards provide cider which is safer to drink
than water
Brutal labor conditions
▪ Workers can not take masters to court for mistreatment
or breach of contract
▪ Could be fined, branded, whipped or have their length of
servitude extended if accused of insubordination
▪ Runaways had their length of service doubled
▪ Servants could be bought and sold
▪ Unmarried women who became pregnant were
punished with two extra years of service
In 1624, Elizabeth Abbott succumbed to
beatings inflicted by her master. A witness
saw Abbott’s “body full of sores and holes
very dangerously raunckled and putrified
both above her waist and uppon her hips and
thighs.”
The case against the master was dismissed
even though he had previously killed another
servant with a rake.
Slaves were generally treated like indentured servants
and were freed after a few years of hard labor (not a
permanent condition)
Slaves could acquire and manage their own property
▪ Could earn money to purchase their freedom
Black Freedmen had the same rights as white men:
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
Vote
Buy and sell property
Testify in court
Marry white women
Own slaves and indentured servants
Own firearms
From Angola
Arrived as a slave
Treated as an indentured servant
Married an African woman named Mary and
had four children
Acquired his own 25o acre plantation
Owned at least one slave
By 1650 Anthony was one of 400 Africans in a
colony of around 19,000 settlers
Shipment of 20 slaves arrived on a Dutch ship (1619)
Anthony Johnson
John Punch sentenced to lifelong servitude for
running away (1640)
Children of enslaved women will be slaves (1662)
Baptism does not alter the condition of a person as to
his bondage or freedom (1667)
Bacon’s Rebellion (1676)
Slaves forbidden to carry arms (1680)
Owners forbidden to free slaves (1691)
Killing your slave not a crime (1699)
Interracial marriage criminalized (1705)
Slavery becomes:
▪ 1.
▪ 2.
▪ 3.
Race-based
Permanent
Hereditary (inherited through the mother)
By the 1660s the tobacco boom was fading.
▪ Tobacco prices fell
▪ The Navigation Acts permitted colonists to trade only
with Britain
Social structure increasingly hierarchical
By 1700, 90 percent of VA burgesses linked by ties of
blood or marriage
Life of indentured servants became harder
▪ Time added to service for a variety of offense
▪ Courts upheld the master’s rights to treat his servants
however he pleased.
“Freedom dues” no longer include land, creating a
class of tenants.
▪ Freed servants - Only between 9 and 17 percent gained
land
▪ By 1675 tenants represent around 1/3 of the population
Good land became scarce
Only available land was near the border with Native
Americans
Exploitative tax system
▪ Tax revenue based not on price of tobacco but amount
shipped
▪ Overproduction drove prices down
NATHANIEL BACON
SIR WILLIAM BERKELEY
Governor Berkeley angers other elite planters
(like Nathaniel Bacon) by giving his favorites:
▪ Good public offices
▪ Grants for frontier lands
▪ Licenses to trade with the Native
▪ lower tax rates
Stopped calling the colonial assembly in 1661
Settlers begin to seize frontier land and start
fighting with Native Americans
Settlers want Gov. Berkeley to grant them
permission to exterminate all Native
Americans on Virginia’s frontier – he refuses
At this point both many wealthy planters and
poor freemen, servants and slaves are all
unhappy with the administration of Governor
Berkeley
Led by Nathaniel Bacon against Governor
Berkeley and his supporters.
Represented a split within the planter elite
Bacon gained support from small planters,
tenants, and servants
▪ Promised to end indentured servitude for people
who joined his rebellion
▪ Hinted that he would provide people with land
and lower taxes
Recruited support from small planters, tenants, servants
and slaves
Led attacks on the Native Americans in defiance of the
Governor
Declared guilty of treason (1676)
Attacked Jamestown with his followers and burnt it to the
ground (Sept 1676)
Dies of dysentery (Oct 1676)
Rebellion collapses (Dec/Jan 1676)
23 rebel leaders are hung by Governor Berkeley
Crown sends 6 warships and 8 transports with 1100 troops
English Commander Sir Hubert Jeffreys becomes
Governor (1677)
Great planters fear both another uprising and an
reassertion of crown power within Virginia
Introduce a more popular mode of politics
▪ Reduced taxes
▪ Permitted organized attacks on Native Americans in
order to gain more land
▪ Reintroduced the Head right system
▪ The great planters worked to make themselves
popular especially during election times
▪ Treating
▪ Providing favors
This alliance became easier and more essential,
by the turn of the century as the labor force
switched from white indentured servants to
enslaved Africans.
▪ Fewer servants meant fewer men eventually
demanding land and political rights
▪ By providing more rights, opportunities and just
treatment to poorer white men, the planter elite
sought to forge a community of white men,
preventing poor white and black men from uniting
together (like during Bacon’s Rebellion)
Starts to develop when there is a marketable
commodity that requires labor (tobacco)
Full develops when there is a planter class
able to:
▪ Command the regions resources
▪ Mobilize the power of the state
▪ Vanquish competitors
Slavery is the central mode of economic
production
Master-slave relationship provides the model
for all social relations
Slaveholders are the ruling class
Elite Rule
Popular Politics
White Racial Supremacy
1. Mounting fears amongst colonial leaders
about cooperation between free and non-free
laborers.
Wanted to divide the workforce in order to
control it.
2. English servants demanded shorter
indentures, better working conditions, and
suitable farmland when their contracts
expires.
Not giving them these things would create
bad publicity in England.
3. Labor Shortage
▪ Economy improved in England so less people are
willing to come as indentured servants.
▪ There was a labor shortage in England due to Civil
War, plague and the London fire
▪ Stiff penalties were placed on sea captains who abducted people
to bring to America (kidnapping)
▪ English people have heard about the mistreatment
of indentured servants and don’ t want to come
▪ Native American numbers have diminished due to
disease, warfare, and mistreatment
▪ Also easier for Native Americans to hide in the familiar
wilderness.
4. There is already an existing slave trade and
slave merchants and captains are looking for
new markets.
Captive Africans became increasingly easy to
obtain as England becomes involved in the
trade.
▪ British Parliament chartered the Royal African
Company in 1672
4. As life expectancy increased in Virginia it
became cost-effective to purchase a slave
rather than a temporary servant
5. Western perceptions of Africans led them
to ask few questions about enslavement
▪ Heathens (non-Christians)
▪ Savage, uncivilized
▪ False science of race develops
Edmund Morgan, American Slavery, American
Freedom
Peter H. Wood, Strange New Lands, Africans
in Colonial America
Ira Berlin, Many Thousands Gone: The First Two
Centuries of Slavery in North America
Alan Taylor, The Settling of North America,
Vol. 1
The Enlightenment
The
Enlightenment
•
•
•
An intellectual movement
Centered in France and spread throughout W.
Europe
Developed amongst the intellectual elite
known as the Philosophes:
•
French intellectuals who shared a common culture
through literature, correspondence and private
gatherings – “Republic of Letters”
Progress
can be achieved through human
actions
The power of reason to improve society
Faith in Science
Focus on Education
Support
for Freedom and Liberty
Political Equality
Against censorship
Skepticism
about traditional beliefs
Attack superstition
Against religious intolerance
The Renaissance
The Reformation
The Scientific Revolution (16th and 17th C)
The popularization of science
Development of the scientific method
The printing press spread new ideas and
discoveries
The Legacy of John Locke
Essay on Human Understanding (1690)
Tabula rasa (blank slate) – people do not have
inherited abilities
Two Treatises of Government:
Man has natural right to life, liberty and property
People have the right to oppose the government is
their rights are not being protected
People make a contract with the government to
protect their rights – relinquishing some of their
freedom in exchange for security
•
Voltaire
–
–
–
–
•
Montesquieu
•
•
•
•
•
Philosophical Letters on the English (1734)
Candide (1758)
Promoted free speech, civil rights and religious toleration
Spoke out against the Catholic church
The Spirit of the Laws (1758)
Admired the British government
Separation of Powers
Checks and Balances in government
Diderot
–
The Encyclopédie (1751-1772)
–
•
Compilation of Enlightenment thought
Spread Enlightenment ideals throughout Europe
An
Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the
Wealth of Nations (1776)
Our self-interest results in prosperity
Doctrine of “laissez faire” – “leave alone”
If “left alone” the economy would thrive
naturally – economic regulations like tariffs are a
bad idea – free trade is good (The government
should not interfere in the economy)
The “Invisible hand” of the economy would, over
time, cause supply and demand to meet, thus
determining the price of goods
And the “virtue of the marketplace” would
enhance social happiness and civic virtue
Reason
Progress
Optimism
Individualism
Tolerance
Secularism
Confidence
in man and his achievements
The
abolition of slavery.
The end of torture and executions.
Improvement of living conditions
Educational reform
Government change
Encourages
American
French
Haitian
New
Revolution:
forms of government and society
Democratic ideals
Liberty
Equality
Abolition movement
The Declaration of Independence (July 4, 1776)
“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men
are created equal, that they are endowed by their
creator with certain unalienable rights, that among
these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. –
That to secure these rights, governments are instituted
among men, deriving their just powers from the
consent of the governed, --That whenever any form of
government becomes destructive to these ends, it is
the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to
institute a new government”
⬧
⬧
Based on concept of natural rights
Assumptions of Republicanism
Political system where all power came from the people, rather than
from supreme authority (such as a King)
⬧ Authority rested on the consent of the governed
⬧
⬧
Equality of Opportunity (not condition)
⬧
⬧
⬧
⬧
⬧
People talents and abilities would determine their status, not their
positions at birth
Constitutions should be written down (Unlike in Great
Britain)
Need to curb executive power
No nobility / hereditary titles
Broader franchise than England – white men with property
can vote
The first ten amendments to the Constitution
Adopted in 1791
Intended to preserve the rights and liberties of
individuals
Includes:
Freedom of assembly, speech, religion and the press
Guaranteed a speedy trial by an impartial jury
Preserved the right to bear arms
Prohibited unreasonable searches
Ideas
The Atlantic Slave Trade
Not
not actions:
inclusive of all people.
Women
Lower classes
Limited
immediate impact on daily life
Prevalence of Death and Disease
Superstition
Early Modern Europe: The
Renaissance
Terms
The Renaissance
Question to Consider
What are the characteristics of the “modern world?”
What do modern people care about?
What do they believe in?
What do they focus on?
What is valued in modern society?
Renaissance
Late 14th to early 16th Century
“rebirth” of the culture of classical antiquity (Ancient
Greece and Rome)
A profound and enduring transformation in culture,
politics, art, and society in Europe
Starts in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe
Characteristics of the Renaissance
Celebrated humans and their achievements
Optimistic faith in human potential
Secularism
Individualism
Why do people major in the Humanities today?
Humanism
Intellectual movement
Emphasis on study and self-improvement
Intended to create a successful, cultivated, civilized
individual who used these skills to succeed within
the everyday world of politics, trade, and religion
Humanism
Study of the classical texts of Greek and Roman
language, culture, politics, and philosophy
Study the Liberal Arts
Grammar
Logic
Rhetoric
Arithmetic, Music, Geometry and Astronomy
What Made the Renaissance
Possible?
Europe in 1500
Italy in 1500
Urbanization
Large city-states
By 1300, northern Italy boasted twenty-three city-states with
populations of 20,000 or more
Among those cities were also several that boasted populations
of over 100,000 by the fifteenth century, including Florence
and Milan, which served as centers of banking, trade, and
craftsmanship.
By 1200, most Italian cities were politically independent of
lords and came to dominate their respective hinterlands,
serving as lords to “vassal” towns and villages for miles
around. (from reading)
West Meets East
East-West trade (increased after the Crusades)
Impact of trade and commerce
Growing wealth and status of merchant bankers
Knowledge from Arab world including double-entry
bookkeeping and the use of Arabic numerals
International exchange and competition stimulates
thinkers, writers and artists
St. Mark Preaching in Alexandria (1507)
Prosperity and Patronage
Economic Prosperity
The Patronage System
Cosimo de Medici (13891464)
The Medici Family
Dominated Florentine politics and culture
throughout the 15th Century
Started as merchant bankers
Cosimo was a noted sponsor of poets, philosophers,
orators, and artists, spending vast sums of money as
a patron of art and thought.
The Medici family includes four popes (Leo X,
Clement VII, Pius IV and Leo XI
The Printing Press
The invention of movable type (circa 1450)
It has been estimated that by 1500 printing presses had
printed between 6 and 50 million books, more books than had
been produced since the Fall of the Roman Empire.
Revolution in knowledge and communication that
affected all levels of society
Medieval vs. Renaissance Art
Duccio di Buenisegna
(1255-1319)
Raphael Sanzio (1520)
Medieval vs. Renaissance Art
Giotto (1266-1337)
Raphael, The Small
Cowper Madonna
Medieval vs. Renaissance Art
Madonna and Child on a
Curved Throne (1200s)
Madonna del Cardelino
(1506)
The Development of Linear
Perspective
Medieval Art
Medieval Art
Giotto, Jesus Before the Caif (1305)
Masolino, Herod’s Feast (1436)
Raphael, The School of Athens (1510)
Realism
Michelangelo’s David
Glorification of the
human body
Realism
Architecture
Return to Roman styles
of architecture
Brunelleschi’s Dome for
the Cathedral of Florence
New Subjects
The Birth of Venus (Sandro Botticelli)
Portraiture
The Arnolfini Portrait
By Jan van Eyck
1434
The Last Supper
House
Future Developments
Religious Change
Political Change
Overseas Exploration
Scientific Revolution
Timeline
1397 Medici Bank established in Florence
1420 Portuguese colonize Madeira
1450 Gutenburg invents moveable type
1453 Fall of Constantinople
1488 Bartolomeu Dias sails around the Cape of Good Hope
1492 Columbus’ first voyage
1505 Leonardo da Vinci paints the Mona Lisa
1509 Henry VIII ascends to the British throne
1512 Michelangelo completes the Sistine Chapel
1513 Machiavelli writes The Prince
1517 Luther prints his 95 Theses (starts the Protestant
Reformation
Africa and the
Transatlantic Slave
Trade
Terms
Triangular trade
The transatlantic slave trade
Anthony Johnson (Colonial Virginia)
The Terrible Transformation (of American slavery)
Olaudah Equiano
Africa (European
Perspective)
Not just a stop off on route to Asia
Trade
Resources – Gold, ivory, the slave trade
Markets
Prime land for growing sugar cane / plantation agriculture /
slavery
Madeira
Canary Islands
Cape Verde
Triangular Trade
Europeans bring textiles, guns, rum and manufactured
goods to Africa and trade for slaves
Slaves are brought to the New World and traded for crops
Sugar / Molasses, coffee, tobacco, indigo, rice are sold in
Europe
The Transatlantic Slave
Trade
Slavery
Widespread human practice throughout history
Origins in the earliest human civilizations
Prevalent in Ancient Greece and Rome
Before the Atlantic slave trade, Africa had a system of
slave trading
Africa: Enslavement prior to
contact with Europeans
Punishment for a crime
As payment for a family debt
Capture in warfare – MOST COMMON
The Transatlantic Slave Trade
Encouraged by demand for labor in the New World
first in South America and by the 17th C in the
English North American settlements.
Took off in the 17th C with growth of cash crops on
plantations (sugar, tobacco, indigo, rice)
Transatlantic Slave Trade
Britain, France, Spain and Holland were major
participants
10-12 million slaves were brought from Africa to the
New World The majority of the slaves went to Brazil
and the West Indies
Less than 10 percent went to North America
From Columbus through 1820 five times as many
Africans as Europeans came to the Americas
Africa and the Transatlantic
Slave Trade
African coastal leaders cooperated with the European traders - benefitted rulers or
wealthy and powerful merchants (Other leaders resisted the slave trade)
Led to increased warfare
Slaves become a valuable commodity
Loss of millions of people, esp. young men and women
Mostly aged 15 to 35 years
Estimated 2 to 1 male –female ratio
Hurts agricultural production
Led to a massive African Diaspora – 12 to 15 million people
African Resistance
1526, King Afonso of Kongo, who had previously enjoyed good relations with the
Portuguese, complained to the king of Portugal that Portuguese slave traders were
kidnapping his subjects and depopulating his kingdom.
In 1630, Queen Njingha Mbandi of Ndongo (in modern Angola) attempted to drive
the Portuguese out of her realm, but was finally forced to compromise with them.
In 1720, King Agaja Trudo of Dahomey not only opposed the trade, but even went
as far as to attack the forts that the European powers had constructed on the coast.
But his need for firearms forced him to reach an agreement with the European slave
traders.
Other African leaders such as Donna Beatriz Kimpa Vita in Kongo and Abd alQadir, in what is now northern Senegal, also urged resistance against the forced
export of Africans.
People also revolted on the slave ships
The Middle Passage
The forced transatlantic voyage of slaves from Africa
to the Americas
4-10 weeks
1 in 6 slaves die / 1 in 15 by end of 18th C
Primarily end up in diamond and gold mines in
Brazil or sugar and coffee plantations in the
Caribbean
American Slavery
1. Race-based
2. Permanent
3. Hereditary (Inherited through the mother)
American Slavery
Primarily based on plantation agriculture
Treated slaves as a form of dehumanized property –
chattel slavery
Enforced through a culture of violence and fear
Witch Trials in Early Modern Europe
1450-1650
❖ Term:
❖ Malleus Maleficarum
❖ Witches Sabbat
❖ Question:
❖ What was the definition of a witch in Early Modern
Europe? What were typically the characteristics of people
accused of witchcraft? Why were women considered
more likely to be witches?
The Witch Hunt
❖ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-HggxcuHAnU
The Witch of
Newbury
(1643)
What can we learn about accusations
of witchcraft from this document?
Why do you think there might be
accusations during a time of war?
The Trial of Suzanne
Gaudry (1652)
❖ One of the few sources that contains the dialogue of the
inquisition and confession
❖ What do these documents tell us about witchcraft
beliefs?
❖ And about the investigations of witchcraft?
❖ Why do you think witchtrials often led to multiple trials
and executions? (chain reaction witch hunts)?
Statistics
•
•
The best estimates for Early Modern Europe are:
–
90,000 - 110,000 trials
–
40,000 - 60,000 executed
There was a dramatic increase in prosecutions in the late
16th / early 17th C
Statistics
•
•
About half the people tried and executed were in the
German lands of the Holy Roman Empire
•
Trier – 368 deaths
•
Bamberg
•
Würzburg
The other heavy concentrations were in the lands
surrounding Germany
–
Switzerland, Poland, France
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❖ Würzburg
❖ 1616-1618 - 300 executions
❖ 1626-1630 – over 900 executions
❖ Cologne
❖ 1626-1634 – over 2000 victims
Beliefs
•
Witches were both harmful magicians and
worshippers of the Devil
•
Witches made a pact with the Devil
•
Devils would provide wealth or some other form of
reward in return for allegiance and the witch’s soul
after death
•
Witches could fly
•
Witches worshipped the Devil collectively and in
engaged in blasphemous, amoral and obscene
rituals (the witch’s sabbat)
The Witch’s Sabbat
•
Naked dancing
•
Cannibalistic infanticide
•
Ritual sex with the Devil
•
Orgies
•
Parodies of the Catholic Mass
(The Black Mass)
–
Say the Nicene Creed
backwards while standing
on your head
–
Consecration of a host
made of offal, turnip or
some black substance
Who was Accused?
•
75-80 percent women
•
Majority older than 50 years old (past child bearing)
•
Generally from lower levels of society
•
Unpopular – viewed as quarrelsome or argumentative
•
Related to an accused witch
•
However, there were men (including elite men) and children executed to – varied by
region?
•
Most of the accusers are women
•
Why Women?
Why women?
–
Believed to be morally weaker than men
–
Believed to be more carnal
–
Role as cooks, healers and midwives
–
Older women may have been senile
Witches: A Century of
Murder
❖ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gB2DeAzCBi4
❖ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MBBHfZwjxYY
The Malleus Maleficarum
•
Treatise on witchcraft
•
First published in 1486, reprinted 13 times before 1520
•
Work of two Dominican Inquisitors
–
Heinrich Kramer (Inquisitor for S. Germany)
–
Jacob Sprenger (may not actually have done any writing)
•
They had conducted 50 witch trials, 48 with women
defendants
•
Referred to witches as “She”
Malleus Maleficarum
•
Significance:
–
Synthesized different witchcraft beliefs into a single wellorganized work (encyclopedia of witchcraft)
–
Provided theological support for its ideas
–
Gave legal advice on how to bring witches to trial
–
Emphasis on the susceptibility of women to the crime
–
Argued that those that did not believe in witches were
heretics
–
Along with other treatises, it made literate members of
society aware of witchcraft and convinced of its reality
Malleus Maleficarum
❖ John Chrysostom (Archbishop of Constantinople / earch
church father) says: "What else is woman but a foe to
friendship, an unescapable punishment, a necessary evil, a
natural temptation, a desirable calamity, a domestic danger, a
delectable detriment, an evil of nature, painted with fair
colours! Therefore if it be a sin to divorce her when she ought
to be kept, it is indeed a necessary torture; for either we
commit adultery by divorcing her, or we must endure daily
strife." Cicero in his second book of The Rhetorics says: "The
many lusts of men lead them into one sin, but the lust of
women leads them into all sins; for the root of all woman's
vices is avarice. And Seneca says in his Tragedies: A woman
either loves or hates; there is no third grade. And the tears of
woman are a deception, for they may spring from true grief,
or they may be a snare. When a woman thinks alone, she
thinks evil."
Malleus Maleficarum
❖ “Others again have propounded other reasons why there are
more superstitious women found than men. And the first is,
that they are more credulous; and since the chief aim of the
devil is to corrupt faith, therefore he rather attacks them. See
Ecclesiasticus xix: He that is quick to believe is light-minded,
and shall be diminished. The second reason is, that women
are naturally more impressionable, and more ready to receive
the influence of a disembodied spirit; and that when they use
this quality well they are very good, but when they use it ill
they are very evil. The third reason is that they have slippery
tongues, and are unable to conceal from the fellow-women
those things which by evil arts they know; and, since they are
weak, they find an easy and secret manner of vindicating
themselves by witchcraft.”
Malleus Maleficarum
❖ “…we may add to what has already been said the
following: that since they are feebler both in mind and
body, it is not surprising that they should come more
under the spell of witchcraft. For as regards intellect, or
the understanding of spiritual things, they seem to be of
a different nature from men; a fact which is vouched for
by the logic of the authorities, backed by various
examples from the Scriptures. Terence says: Women are
intellectually like children.”
Malleus Maleficarum
❖ “But the natural reason is that she is more carnal than a
man, as is clear from her many carnal abominations. And
it should be noted that there was a defect in the
formation of the first woman, since she was formed from
a bent rib, that is, a rib of the breast, which is bent as it
were in a contrary direction to a man. And since through
this defect she is an imperfect animal, she always
deceives. For Cato says: When a woman weeps she
weaves snares. And again: When a woman weeps, she
labours to deceive a man.”
The Malleus Maleficarum
❖ The Malleus contained a lengthy
discussion on why women were
especially prone to witchcraft
❖ Women are more credulous
and more impressionable than
men
❖ Women have “slippery tongues
and cannot conceal from other
women anything they have
learned by the evil arts.”
The Malleus Maleficarum
•
Women had greater sexual appetites than
men, so their lust leads them to accept even
the Devil as a lover
•
Women are defective and cannot control
their affections or passions and so they
“search for, brood over, and inflict various
vengeances, either by witchcraft or by some
other means.”
Why did witchcraft trials and executions
increase in the 16th C?
The Role of the Reformation
•
Fear of the Devil
•
Greater emphasis on personal piety and increased guilt
•
Attack upon superstition, paganism and magic
•
Emphasis on the Bible
•
“Though shalt not suffer a witch to live” (Exodus 22:18)
•
Religious Conflict (warfare)
•
Also related to other forms of social and economic unrest
•
•
•
Bad weather
Poor harvests
Weak government oversight / lack of central administration
❖ Why would people accuse others of witchcraft? Why
would they act as inquisitors, torturers and judges?
The Pendle Witch Child
❖ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MATKIhrDZSc
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