Do this Activity 08

User Generated

xnplwbarf24

Humanities

Deep Muscle Therapy School

Description


!!! APA FORMAT !!!

REFERENCES ONLY FROM ATTACHED FILE

!!! 2 PAGES. JUST ANSWER EACH QUESTION and PROVIDE EACH STRATEGIES AS LISTED. ONLY 3 OF THEM AND FOLLOW DIRECTIONS



THE TOPIC ASSIGNED - Developing attitude: How do we create or affirm a favorable disposition toward learning through personal relevance and choice?

1. Describe the essential condition you are assigned. What is it about? Why is it important? (Developing attitude: How do we create or affirm a favorable disposition toward learning through personal relevance and choice?)

2. Describe at least three strategies that you feel are most important to create the condition in your teaching and motivate adult learners. STRATEGIES ON PAGES 172- 223 (CHOOSE 3) (Developing attitude: How do we create or affirm a favorable disposition toward learning through personal relevance and choice?)

From Chapter 6 to 9, Wlodkowski and Ginsberg discussed very specific strategies to create the essential conditions for instruction (The authors numbered all of the strategies in his textbook).

You should choose at least three strategies, point out the number of the strategies, and be certain to discuss why you selected each strategy. STRATEGIES ON PAGES 172- 223 (CHOOSE 3)

Please provide suggestions for implementing each strategy in a learning environment. You should use examples from your own practice to illustrate how to use these strategies.

Be certain to identify if the learning environment is face-to-face, online, or if your suggestions could be applied to both types of learning environments


PDF FILE ATTACHED BELOW. TALK ABOUT STRATEGIES Pg. 172 - 233

Unformatted Attachment Preview

Wlodkowski ffirs 3 Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn A Comprehensive Guide for Teaching All Adults Third Edition 02/04/08 iii Wlodkowski ffirs 3 02/04/08 vi Wlodkowski ffirs 3 Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn 02/04/08 i Wlodkowski ffirs 3 Raymond J. Wlodkowski 02/04/08 ii Wlodkowski ffirs 3 Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn A Comprehensive Guide for Teaching All Adults Third Edition 02/04/08 iii Wlodkowski ffirs 3 Copyright  2008 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Published by Jossey-Bass A Wiley Imprint 989 Market Street, San Francisco, CA 94103-1741 www.josseybass.com No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400, fax 978-646-8600, or on the Web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, 201-748-6011, fax 201-748-6008, or online at www.wiley.com/go/permissions. Readers should be aware that Internet Web sites offered as citations and/or sources for further information may have changed or disappeared between the time this was written and when it is read. Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. Jossey-Bass books and products are available through most bookstores. To contact JosseyBass directly call our Customer Care Department within the U.S. at 800-956-7739, outside the U.S. at 317-572-3986, or fax 317-572-4002. Jossey-Bass also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Chapter One epigraph from The Boy Who Would Be a Helicopter by Vivian G. Paley. Copyright  1990 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College. Reprinted by permission of Harvard University Press. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Wlodkowski, Raymond J. Enhancing adult motivation to learn : a comprehensive guide for teaching all adults / Raymond J. Wlodkowski. —3rd ed. p. cm. —(The Jossey-Bass higher and adult education series) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-7879-9520-1 (cloth) 1. Motivation in adult education. I. Title. LC5219.W53 2008 374.001 9—dc22 2007049555 Printed in the United States of America third edition HB Printing 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 02/04/08 iv Wlodkowski ffirs 3 The Jossey-Bass Higher and Adult Education Series 02/04/08 v Wlodkowski ffirs 3 02/04/08 vi Wlodkowski ftoc 3 Contents Preface The Author 1. Understanding Motivation for Adult Learners 2. Understanding How Aging and Culture Affect Motivation to Learn 3. Characteristics and Skills of a Motivating Instructor 4. What Motivates Adults to Learn 5. Establishing Inclusion among Adult Learners 6. Helping Adults Develop Positive Attitudes toward Learning 7. Enhancing Meaning in Learning Activities 8. Engendering Competence among Adult Learners 9. Building Motivational Strategies into Instructional Designs ix xvii 1 31 49 95 125 171 225 309 377 Epilogue: Ethical Considerations for an Instructor of Adults 435 vii 02/04/08 vii Wlodkowski ftoc 3 viii Contents Appendix: Observation Guide for Culturally Responsive Teaching and Learning (Adult Version) 439 Margery B. Ginsberg References Name Index Subject Index 445 483 491 02/04/08 viii Wlodkowski fpref 3 Preface When I wrote the last edition of this book, the question that guided its conception was, How can instructors help all adults to learn? If we consider only age, income, and ethnicity and race, we have had societal changes in the last ten years that have expanded this challenge significantly. Demographic trends and immigration have increased the diversity of adults throughout postsecondary and workforce education. More adult learners than ever before are English-language learners. The number of younger nontraditional learners and older adult learners in formal educational settings is the highest it has ever been in the history of this country. Among these learners are higher proportions of low-income students as well. Although the enrollment rates for Latino and African American adult learners in two- and four-year colleges have grown, fewer than a quarter of those who enroll complete their degrees. The increased linguistic and cultural diversity make teaching adults today more exciting than ever before. We have more to learn from each other and more ways to do it better. Our potential as instructors has evolved with greater knowledge in multicultural studies, cognitive and biological sciences, assessment practices, online learning, use of the Internet, and the opportunity to use brain-imaging technology to study learning as it happens. We continue to have a responsibility to create learning environments that sustain the integrity of all learners as they attain ix 02/04/08 ix Wlodkowski fpref 3 x Preface relevant educational success. I am convinced that in conjunction with educational policies that promote the common good, a powerful means to helping all adults learn is to go to the source, to the energy—to human motivation. All adults want to make sense of their world, to find meaning, and to be effective at what they value—this is what fuels their motivation to learn. The key to effective instruction is to evoke and encourage the natural inclination in all adults, whatever their background or socialization, to be competent in matters they hold to be important. As in the last edition, the model in this book for teaching and planning instruction focuses on how to continually enhance intrinsic motivation among all learners as part of the instructional process. Dr. Margery Ginsberg and I developed the Motivational Framework for Culturally Responsive Teaching in 1994. It is based on the principle that learning and motivation are inseparable from culture. For over a decade, the framework has been applied nationally and internationally with productive learning outcomes. The Third Edition of Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn is designed to be a practical and immediately usable resource for faculty, trainers, educators, and staff developers whose primary task is instructing adults in universities and community colleges, in professional and industrial settings, and in community organizations. This book will also be very useful to part-time as well as full-time faculty and administrators. As in the earlier editions, deepening learner motivation and helping adults want to learn are the major topics throughout this text. Within the last few years, the number of books about teaching adults seems to have doubled, but this is the only volume focusing on motivation as a constant positive influence during learning. In the chapters that follow, you will learn how to teach or train in ways that make the enhancement of intrinsic motivation an essential part of adult learning. Four chapters describe in detail sixty tested strategies for eliciting and encouraging learner motivation. You can 02/04/08 x Wlodkowski fpref 3 Preface choose the strategies that best apply to your content and learning situation. Among the important additions are insights and examples from the past nine years of application of the motivational framework and the strategies introduced in the previous edition. With applications ranging from postsecondary education to communications technology, in cities from Toronto to Tokyo, ideas advocated in this book have been tried and tested. The results have not been excellent every single time. Through correspondence and on-site visits, I have learned the framework’s limitations and advantages and gained a more nuanced understanding of what can be accomplished when teaching is focused on strengthening intrinsic motivation during learning. What is most exciting to me about this new edition is the integration of a neuroscientific understanding of motivation and learning within an instructional model responsive to linguistically and culturally different adult learners. The research emerging from a biological perspective of learning is used to provide insight and confirm educational practices grounded in knowledge about adult education, the social sciences, and multicultural studies. We are at the beginning of a reciprocal relationship among adult education, biology, and cognitive science, and each has much to learn from the other (Fischer and others, 2007). This edition has greatly benefited from instructors who use this book as a text for their courses. Their experience and suggestions continue to guide its development. As requested, there are more practical examples and case studies to illustrate the motivational framework and its strategies. In this edition, the sections relating to feedback, self-regulation, and transfer of learning are also more substantive than in earlier editions. Any instructor who has searched for a straightforward, true-tolife, and useful book on how to enhance adult motivation for learning should find this book helpful. Because the focus of the book is xi 02/04/08 xi Wlodkowski fpref 3 02/04/08 xii Preface on motivation and instruction, it does not discuss philosophy, curriculum, or policy in depth. However, there are references to allow interested readers to pursue further study in most of these areas. This book is mainly about face-to-face instruction. It can be used for online learning because the motivational framework and most of the strategies are applicable to this format. I have worked with many instructional designers for online learning, and an example of their instructional plans is included in the Chapter Nine. Some promises to you the reader: • A minimal amount of jargon. With the growth of technology in adult education and a neuroscientific perspective as part of this edition, I have had to work hard to keep this commitment. • A little bit of humor. It’s still great to have some fun while you’re learning. • Many examples. Instructors and learners continue to ask for more. • A practical and consistent way to design instruction that can enhance adult motivation to learn any content or skill. This is my professional raison d’etre. I have co-taught courses in disciplines as removed from my background as dye-casting and electronics to continue to extend this commitment. • Motivation theory and methods positively supported by my own experience Instructors have appreciated this characteristic of the book. Nonetheless, please keep in mind that my experience is not unlimited. • A way to teach that respects the integrity of every learner This promise is a lifelong work in progress. And I do have mishaps, faux pas, and mistakes. I continue to videotape my teaching to see if I do as I advocate: to make the learner’s history, experience, and perspective an xii Wlodkowski fpref 3 Preface essential consideration that permeates this approach to instruction. Overview of the Contents This book focuses on the most important ideas and information to make effective instruction a consistent motivational process that enables optimal learning for culturally diverse adults and their instructors. Chapter One offers a neuroscientific understanding of motivation and learning with discussion and definitions of the physiology of the brain. It also explores the intersection of cultural relevance, adult learning, intrinsic motivation, and neuroscientific understanding, concluding with a view of how instruction can be a path to improving educational success for all adults. Chapter Two addresses the characteristics of adult learners, with particular attention to age, culture, and memory. There are overviews of different orientations to adult intelligences including multiple intelligences, practical intelligence, and emotional intelligence. The last part of the chapter offers a rationale for using a macrocultural approach to adult instruction and learning. Chapter Three discusses the core characteristics—expertise, empathy, enthusiasm, clarity, and cultural responsiveness—that are necessary for a person to be a motivating instructor. The chapter outlines performance criteria for each characteristic so that you can comprehend, assess, and learn the behaviors that are prerequisites to enhancing learner motivation. It concludes with Paulo Freire’s conception of critical consciousness as a guide to creating a learning environment that contributes to the common good of society. Chapter Four introduces the four conditions—inclusion, attitude, meaning, and competence— that substantially enhance adult motivation to learn. These motivational conditions are dynamically integrated into the Motivational Framework for Culturally Responsive Teaching, a model of motivational theory in action. xiii 02/04/08 xiii Wlodkowski fpref 3 xiv Preface This model is also an organizational aid for designing instruction. The framework provides guiding questions for creating instruction that elicits diverse adults’ motivation to learn throughout a course or training session. Chapters Five through Eight provide the central content of this book. Each chapter provides comprehensive treatment of one of the motivational conditions: inclusion is covered in Chapter Five, attitude in Chapter Six, meaning in Chapter Seven, and competence in Chapter Eight. These chapters describe in pragmatic terms how each motivational condition can positively influence learning among culturally diverse adults. They also describe and exemplify a total of sixty specific motivational strategies to engender each of the motivational conditions. Where applicable, I discuss each strategy in terms of its cultural relevance, neuroscientific support, and how it relates to adult learners. In most instances the strategies are referenced to further readings that provide research findings and examples of their use in educational settings. Chapter Nine summarizes the previous chapters with an outline of all the motivational strategies and their specific purposes. In addition, it explains two ways to use the Motivational Framework for instructional planning, the superimposed method and the source method. The chapter also provides five real-life examples of instructional planning with discussions of how each plan has been designed, using the framework and motivational strategies from the book. With a discussion of the growing literature on self-directed learning and self-regulated learning, this concluding chapter presents useful suggestions for increasing the capacity for lifelong learning among adults. The book ends with an epilogue addressing the ethical responsibility of being an effective instructor of adults. 02/04/08 xiv Wlodkowski fpref 3 Preface Acknowledgments This edition has benefited from the insightful suggestions of instructors, trainers, and students who have read and used this book. Although they have had faith in its merits, they have also spoken to its flaws. I am particularly grateful to David Brightman, senior editor of the Higher and Adult Education Series at Jossey-Bass, for his continuing support of this project and for his enormous patience and guidance. I also want to express my appreciation to Erin Null, editorial assistant at Jossey-Bass, for her responsiveness and care, which contributed to the ease of completing this work. In addition, I want to thank my friends and colleagues at Regis University, George Brown College, and Edgewood College, where I could apply these ideas in earnest and with the benefit of their good will and support. Finally, I wish to thank Margery, Matthew, and Dan for continuing to bring light to my eyes and warmth to my soul throughout this and many other adventures. Raymond J. Wlodkowski Seattle, Washington December 2007 xv 02/04/08 xv Wlodkowski fpref 3 02/04/08 xvi Wlodkowski flast 3 The Author Raymond J. Wlodkowski is Professor Emeritus at Regis University, Denver, where he was formerly director of the Center for the Study of Accelerated Learning and executive director and founding member of the Commission for Accelerated Programs. He is a licensed psychologist who has taught at universities in Denver, Detroit, Milwaukee, and Seattle. His work encompasses adult motivation and learning, cultural diversity, and professional development. He lives in Seattle and conducts seminars for colleges and organizations throughout North America. Wlodkowski received his Ph.D. in educational psychology from Wayne State University and has authored numerous articles, chapters, and books. Among them are Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn (Jossey-Bass, 1985), the first edition of which received the Phillip E. Frandson Award for Literature; and Diversity and Motivation (Jossey-Bass, 1995), which he coauthored with Margery Ginsberg. Three of his books have been translated into Spanish, Japanese, and Chinese. Wlodkowski has also worked extensively in video production. He is the author of six professional development programs, including Motivation to Learn, winner of the Clarion Award from the Association for Women in Communications for the best training and development program in 199l. He has received the Award for Outstanding Research from the Adult Higher Education Alliance, the Award for Teaching Excellence from the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, and the Faculty Merit Award for Excellence from Antioch University, Seattle. xvii 02/04/08 xvii Wlodkowski flast 3 02/04/08 xviii Wlodkowski flast 3 Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn 02/04/08 xix Wlodkowski flast 3 02/04/08 xx 1 Understanding Motivation for Adult Learners None of us are to be found in sets of tasks or lists of attributes; we can be known only in the unfolding of our unique stories within the context of everyday events. Vivian Gussin Paley L ike the national economy, human motivation is a topic that people know is important, continuously discuss, and would like to predict. We want to know why people do what they do. But just as tomorrow’s inflationary trend seems beyond our influence and understanding, so too do the causes of human behavior evade any simple explanation or prescription. We have invented a word to label this elusive topic—motivation. Its definition varies among scholars depending on their discipline and orientation. Most social scientists see motivation as a concept that explains why people think and behave as they do (Weiner, 1992). Many philosophers and religious thinkers have a similar understanding of motivation but use metaphysical assumptions to explain its dynamics. Today, discoveries in the neurosciences offer a biological basis for what motivation is. Although this understanding is very far from complete, what we know about the working of the brain can enrich 1 2 Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn and integrate fields as disparate as psychology and philosophy. From a biological perspective, motivation is a process that ‘‘determines how much energy and attention the brain and body assign to a given stimulus—whether it’s a thought coming in or a situation that confronts one’’ (Ratey, 2001, p. 247). Motivation binds emotion to action. It creates as well as guides purposeful behavior involving many systems and structures within the brain and body (Ratey, 2001). Motivation is basic to our survival. It is the natural human process for directing energy to accomplish a goal. What makes motivation somewhat mysterious is that we cannot see it or touch it or precisely measure it. We have to infer it from what people say and do. We look for signs—effort, perseverance, completion—and we listen for words: ‘‘I want to . . .,’’ ‘‘We will . . .,’’ ‘‘You watch, I’ll give it my best!’’ Because perceiving motivation is, at best, uncertain, there are different opinions about what motivation really is. As educators, we know that understanding why people behave as they do is vitally important to helping them learn. We also know that culture, the deeply learned mix of language, beliefs, values, and behaviors that pervades every aspect of our lives, significantly influences our motivation. What we learn within our cultural groups shapes the physical networks and systems throughout our brains to make us unique individuals and culturally diverse people. Social scientists regard the cognitive processes as inherently cultural (Rogoff and Chavajay, 1995). The language we use to think, the way we travel through our thoughts, and how we communicate cannot be separated from cultural practices and cultural context. Even experiencing a feeling as a particular emotion, such as sadness or joy or jealousy, is likely to have been conceptually learned in the cultural context of our families and peers as we developed during childhood and adolescence (Barret, 2005). Roland Tharp (Tharp and Gallimore, 1988) tells the story of an adult education English class in which the Hmong students themselves would supply a known personal context for fictional Understanding Motivation for Adult Learners examples. When the teacher used a fictional Hmong name during language practice, the students invariably stopped the lesson to check with one another about who this person might be in the Hmong community. With a sense of humor, these adults brought, as all adults do, their personal experience to the classroom. We are the history of our lives, and our motivation is inseparable from our learning, which is inseparable from our cultural experience. Being motivated means being purposeful. We use attention, concentration, imagination, passion, and other processes to pursue goals, such as learning a particular subject or completing a degree. How we arrive at our goals and how processes such as our passion for a subject take shape are, to some extent, culturally bound to what we have learned in our families and communities. Seeing human motivation as purposeful allows us to create a knowledge base about effective ways to help adults begin learning, make choices about and give direction to their learning, sustain learning, and complete learning. Thus, we are dealing with issues of motivation when we as instructors ask such questions as, What can I do to help these learners get started? and, What can I do to encourage them to put more effort into their learning? and, How can I create a relevant learning activity? However, because of the impact of culture on their motivation, the way we answer these questions will likely vary related to the different cultural backgrounds of the learners. Although there have been attempts to organize and simplify the research knowledge regarding motivation to learn (Brophy, 2004; Stipek, 2002), instructors lack the resources and educational models to consistently and sensitively influence the motivation of linguistically and culturally different adult learners (Guy, 2005). Both culturally responsive teaching (Wlodkowski and Ginsberg, 1995) and neuroscientific understanding of adult learning (Johnson and Taylor, 2006) are recent areas of inquiry and practice in adult education. As a result, instructors still tend to rely on their experience, intuition, common sense, and trial and error. Because 3 4 Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn intuition and common sense are often based on tacit knowledge, unarticulated understanding, and skills operating at a level below full consciousness and learned within our cultural groups, such knowledge can mislead us. Regrettably, some instructors in culturally diverse settings still grade for participation and believe students should speak directly about personal or uncomfortable topics in front of their peers. These teachers are not mean-spirited or rigid. More likely, they are pragmatic. In general, they believe they get more learner participation by grading for it, and they do not have an effective alternative. And most important, such an approach does not conflict with their values. Without a model of culturally responsive instruction with which to organize and assess their motivational practices, instructors cannot easily refine their teaching. What they learn about motivation from experience on the job and from formal courses is often fragmented and only partially relevant to the increasing diversity in their classrooms and training sessions. However, there are a significant number of well-researched ideas and findings that can be applied to learning situations according to motivation principles. The following chapters thoroughly discuss many of these motivational strategies and present a method to organize and apply them in a manner sensitive to linguistic and cultural differences. As we will see, current neuroscientific principles and research offer considerable support for this model and its related ideas. Why Motivation Is Important We know motivation is important because throughout our lives we have all seen the motivated person surpass the less-motivated person in performance and outcome even though both have similar capability and the same opportunity. We know this from our experience and observation. We know this as we know a rock is hard and water is wet. We do not need reams of research findings to establish this reality for us. When we do consult research, we find Understanding Motivation for Adult Learners that it generally supports our life experience regarding motivation. To put it quite simply, when there is no motivation to learn, there is no learning (Walberg and Uguroglu, 1980). In reality, motivation is not an either-or condition, but when motivation to learn is very low, we can generally assume that potential learning will be diminished. Although there have been research studies of adult motivation to participate in adult education programs (Deshler, 1996; Benseman, 2005), no major research studies thoroughly examine the relationship between adult motivation and learning. If we define motivation to learn as the tendency to find learning activities meaningful and worthwhile and to benefit from them—to try to make sense of the information available, relate this information to prior knowledge, and attempt to gain the knowledge and skills the activity develops (Brophy, 2004)—the best analyses of the relationship of motivation to learning continue to be found in youth education. In this field of research, there is substantial evidence that motivation is consistently positively related to educational achievement. Uguroglu and Walberg (1979) performed a benchmark analysis of 232 correlations of motivation and academic learning reported in forty studies with a combined sample size of approximately 637,000 students in first through twelfth grades. They found that 98 percent of the correlations between motivation and academic achievement were positive. We can reasonably assume that if motivation bears such a consistent relationship to learning for students as old as eighteen years of age, it probably has a similar relationship to adult learning. In support of this assumption, these researchers found that the relationship between motivation and learning increased with the age of the students and the highest correlations were in the twelfth grade. Perhaps scholars of adult education have been reluctant to examine the relationship between learning and motivation because the bond seems so obvious. As researchers have found (Pintrich, 1991), people motivated to learn are more likely to do things 5 6 Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn they believe will help them learn. They attend more carefully to instruction. They rehearse material in order to remember it. They take notes to improve their subsequent studying. They reflect on how well they understand what they are learning and are more likely to ask for help when they are uncertain. One needs little understanding of psychology to realize that this array of activities contributes to learning. In a study of adult learners in an urban university, researchers found that when adults perceived their courses as supportive of intrinsic motivation, they were likely to receive higher grades (Wlodkowski, Mauldin, and Gahn, 2001). Motivation is important not only because it apparently improves learning but also because it mediates learning and is a consequence of learning as well. Psychologically and biologically, motivation and learning are inseparable (Zull, 2002). Instructors have long known that when learners are motivated during the learning process, things go more smoothly, communication flows, anxiety decreases, and creativity and learning are more apparent. Instruction with motivated learners can actually be joyful and exciting, especially for the instructor. Learners who complete a learning experience feeling motivated about what they have learned seem more likely to have a continuing interest in and to use what they have learned. It is also logical to assume that the more numerous their motivating learning experiences in a particular subject, the more probable it is that people will become lifelong learners of that subject. To maintain a realistic perspective, however, we need to acknowledge that although some degree of motivation is necessary for learning, other factors—personal skill and quality of instruction, for example— are also necessary for learning to occur. If the learning tasks are well beyond their current skills or prior knowledge, people will not be able to accomplish them, no matter how motivated they are. In fact, at a certain point these mandatory learning factors, including motivation, are insufficient. For example, if learners are involved in a genuinely challenging subject for which they have the necessary capabilities, a point will come Understanding Motivation for Adult Learners at which further progress will require effort (motivation), whether in the form of extra practice or increased study time, to make further progress. Conversely, outstanding effort can be limited by the learner’s capabilities or by the quality of instruction. Sports are a common example for the limits of capabilities. Many athletes make tremendous strides in a particular sport because of exemplary effort but finally reach a level of competition at which their coordination or speed is insufficient for further progress. An example of the influence of the quality of instruction is a learner who has the capability and motivation to do well in math but is limited by an obtuse textbook with culturally irrelevant examples and an instructor who is unavailable for individual assistance. It is unwise to romanticize or expect too much of motivation. Such a view can limit our resourcefulness and increase our frustration. One of the indicators of motivation that we most commonly rely on as instructors is effort (Plaut and Markus, 2005). People work longer and with more intensity when they are motivated than when they are not (especially if there are obstacles). Motivated learners care more and concentrate better while they expend effort, and they are more cooperative. They are therefore more psychologically open to the learning material and better able to process information. It is much easier to understand what you want to understand. As Freud (1955, p. 435) said, ‘‘One cannot explain things to unfriendly people.’’ However, it is important to remember that one’s cultural background can influence perceptions of effort. For example, when researchers asked what percentage of intelligence is due to natural ability and what percentage to effort, the average percentage due to effort reported by European Americans was 36 percent while Asian Americans reported 45 percent (Heine and others, 2001). Because we may vary to the extent that we recognize effort, as instructors we need to be vigilant about seeing it because motivated learners probably get more spontaneous encouragement and assistance from instructors than unmotivated learners do. We are usually more 7 8 Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn willing to give our best effort when we know our learners are giving their best effort, an important reciprocity that can affect an entire class. A Neuroscientific Understanding of Motivation and Learning What happens biologically when we are motivated to learn? The neurosciences have confronted this question directly and provide remarkable information about what happens within our brains and bodies when we are learning. Although much of this knowledge comes from laboratory studies and work with children (Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner, 2007), much has been learned about the basic structures of the brain and nervous system that provides a biological understanding of motivation and learning. Although this information is not definitive and has not been extensively researched in terms of what happens when adults learn, there is enough agreement in the field of neuroscience about basic structures and processes such as neuronal networks and the function of neurotransmitters to inform teaching in adult education (Johnson and Taylor, 2006). This book aims to provide a primary understanding of this fundamental research and to use its findings to add support and insight for those ideas that are within the realm of sound adult instructional practice. Ultimately, our ideas about adult learning will need to be considered in terms of their consistency with biological research about learning. We need not make a scientific model preeminent in adult education (Belzer and St. Clair, 2005), but we can use it to strengthen and enrich our work. An Overview of the Brain At its most basic level, learning is a biological function, and the brain is most responsible for this process. At this moment your brain is engaged in seeing letters on this page, assembling them Understanding Motivation for Adult Learners into words, connecting those words with meaning, and forming thoughts while it also blocks out distracting sounds like the air conditioning, noises from the outside, and other people talking. Your brain is doing not only all this, but it is also probably suppressing your attention to various odors, sights, and sensations, as well as a few memories and your thoughts about what you might do next after reading this passage. Your brain is also regulating your breathing, blood pressure, and body temperature. And most of the functions just mentioned are happening without any conscious awareness on your part! The brain can do these many different things simultaneously because it is so complex, possibly the most complex object known to us. Neurons Recent estimates are that the adult brain has about 100 billion neurons (Bloom, Nelson, and Lazerson, 2001). As illustrated in Figure 1.1, neurons have a cell body, a single long branch known as an axon, and multiple shorter branches called dendrites. The junction where signals pass from one neuron to another is called a synapse (see Figures 1.1 and 1.2). Current brain research supports Synapse Dendrites Axon Figure 1.1. Two Neurons Connecting Source: Jensen, 2005. Used with permission. 9 10 Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn the idea that most learning and development occurs in the brain through the process of strengthening and weakening synaptic connections. Because each neuron may have anywhere from one to ten thousand synaptic connections, the number of different patterns of possible connections in the brain is about forty quadrillion, a staggering number, literally beyond my comprehension. Although there are other cells within the brain, such as glia cells, the neurons are the basic functional cells that appear to control learning. They encode, store, and retrieve information as well as influence all aspects of human behavior (Squire and Kandel, 2000). Neurons act like tiny batteries sending chemical and electrical signals that create processes to integrate and generate information (Jensen, 2005). The threshold for firing at the synapse is determined by the amount of chemicals (called neurotransmitters) released onto the receiving neurons (Bloom, Nelson, and Lazerson, 2001). At the synapse, these chemicals either excite the receiving neurons and cause them to fire, or inhibit them from firing, or Electrical impulse Synaptic gap Axon terminal Neurotransmitters Receptors on the dendrite Figure 1.2. The Synapse Source: Jensen, 2005. Used with permission. Understanding Motivation for Adult Learners modify their excitability. Examples of common neurotransmitters are dopamine and epinephrine, which are involved in affecting our emotions and mood. At the most basic level, the extent to which a neuron is active depends on the mass of its dendritic and axonal systems and its overall chemical reactions. The total of all the neurotransmitters arriving from all the dendrites to a neuron’s cell body at any moment determines whether it will fire. When we learn something, such as a new word or the name of a new acquaintance, connections containing that information are made between neurons. Through practice and repetition we strengthen the connections and ‘‘learn.’’ Neuroscientists have a cliché: ‘‘Neurons that fire together wire together.’’ When we learn something, we are building networks of neurons that represent what we are learning. According to Zull (2002, p. 99), ‘‘It seems that every fact we know, every idea we understand, and every action we take has the form of a network of neurons in our brain.’’ The brain is constructed so that a smaller unit of knowledge, such as visual recognition of the number 3, is likely to be located in a smaller network of neurons. Small networks are connected with other small and large networks to resemble a forest of neuronal networks with tens of thousands of synaptic connections. Just imagine the possible connections one might have to the number 3! All of these connections are neuronal networks (also called circuits) and are apparently dormant before we think of the number 3, but active when we remember it (see Figure 1.3). From a neuroscientific viewpoint, at the micro level, learning is long-lasting change in existing neuronal networks. When adults learn, they build on or modify networks that have been created through previous learning and experience. These networks are the adult learners’ prior knowledge. This is an essential fact that we will return to frequently, both as it pertains to adults’ everyday learning and to their cultural perspectives. An instructor cannot remove the neuronal networks that exist in an adult learner’s brain (Zull, 2002). They are a physical entity. 11 12 Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn That is why, as instructors, we cannot simply explain something away, especially if it is a deeply held attitude or belief. Literally, another neuronal network has to take the place of the current attitude or belief. That biological development takes repetition, practice, and time. Probably new dendrites must grow and new synaptic connections must form and fire repeatedly. A logical explanation or well-constructed argument usually does not have the biological impact to cause the physical changes in a learner’s brain that need to occur for a real alteration in the learner’s attitude or belief. If a learner is ready to change a particular belief or attitude, an instructor’s explanation may be more persuasive and change can occur. In this case, the learner has developed the neuronal networks through previous learning and experience which need only minimal development or stimulation (our explanation) to Simple network Complex network Figure 1.3. Neuronal Networks Source: Jensen, 2006. Used with permission. Understanding Motivation for Adult Learners change the attitude or belief. However, in most instances, Robert Mager’s aphorism holds true: ‘‘Exhortation is used more and accomplishes less than almost any behavior-changing tool known’’ (1968, p. 39). New learning may be able to lessen the use of and even replace particular neuronal networks. Neuronal networks do weaken and die with disuse (Zull, 2002). For all learning, the most pragmatic approach to instruction is to find ways to connect and build on learners’ prior knowledge, to begin with what they already know and biologically assemble with them the new knowledge or skill by connecting the established networks and the new networks. A biological approach to learning requires us to find out what adult learners understand and can do, to see such information as a foundation and a map for what we design for the instructional process. The road to masterful teaching takes a compassionate route. Brain Structures With the development of neuropsychological tools such as positron-emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), researchers can study which brain activities are regulated by which brain structures. Both of these instruments are based on the principle that the part of the brain that is most active during a task needs the most oxygen (Bloom, Nelson, and Lazerson, 2001). Although these tools can scan the brain and represent areas high in metabolic activity, they are an indirect assessment of brain structures and their relationship to human action. Based largely on these forms of neuroimaging research and neurosurgery, neuroscientists have categorized areas of the brain and nervous system, aligning them with particular aspects of human functioning and behavior. According to this scheme, the cerebral cortex—the outermost layer of the brain, which is responsible for all forms of conscious activity—can be divided into four lobes that each carry out a set of actions (see Figure 1.4). 13 Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn • The frontal lobe. Located in the area of the forehead; often called the executive; enables us to sustain attention, make plans, solve problems, and form judgments. • The parietal lobe. Located at the top back portion of the head; enables us to locate ourselves in space and process sensory functions, such as messages from the skin and muscles related to movement. • The temporal lobes. Located above and around the ears; enable us to hear, speak, and connect visual areas to language areas, enabling us to see or hear what we read. • The occipital lobe. Located at the back of the head; enables us to see and is involved in the process of attaching emotions to memories and dreams. Parietal cc ip ita l Frontal O 14 Temporal Figure 1.4. Main Areas of the Human Brain Source: Jensen, 2005. Used with permission. Understanding Motivation for Adult Learners The middle of the brain, also known as the limbic system or limbic region (see Figure 1.5), represents about a fifth of the brain, and is extremely important in helping us to feel what we feel about our lives and the world. The limbic system is a group of brain structures that regulate our emotions, those feelings that indicate our motivation about anything. These six are among the most important structures of the limbic system: • The amygdala. A vigilant monitor that gives meaning to human experience on an immediate level. It reacts to experiences before we consciously understand them, especially those that appear threatening or dangerous (LeDoux, 1996). In situations of uncertainty, it primes the brain to be alert and tuned to subtle cues for further possible action (Compton, 2003). Cingulate gyrus Frontal lobe Thalamus Septum Hippocampus Amygdala Hypothalamus Spinal cord Figure 1.5. The Major Structures Forming the Limbic Region of the Brain Source: Bloom, Nelson, and Lazerson, 2001. Used with permission. 15 16 Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn • The thalamus. A relay station for almost all sensory information (Bloom, Nelson, and Lazerson, 2001). • The hypothalamus. Influences and regulates hormone secretion. Because it monitors information from the autonomic nervous system, it affects appetite, sleep, sexuality, and emotions (Bloom, Nelson, and Lazerson, 2001). • The hippocampus. Helps to form long-term explicit (conscious) memories. Although it does not store memories, it integrates new memories with other memories, a function very important to learning (Zull, 2002). • The cingulate gyrus. Encircles the other structures of the limbic system and appears to mediate communication between them and the cerebral cortex (Bloom, Nelson, and Lazerson, 2001). • The septum. Appears to facilitate the release and binding of dopamine, the neurotransmitter primarily involved in creating positive moods and emotions. It plays a role in maintaining and altering motivation (Zull, 2002). Although identifying these structures of the brain gives us a basic vocabulary for discussing adult learning and motivation, we need to remember that the brain is part of a nervous system that extends to every part of the body. There is strong connectivity within the brain and between the brain and the rest of the nervous system. The brain works so well because its individual structures are so efficiently interdependent. This broader understanding of the connection between the brain and the central nervous system can lead to some confusion. In conventional usage, the neursoscientific literature does not distinguish between neuronal networks and neural networks. When Understanding Motivation for Adult Learners it does make a distinction, neuronal networks are usually discussed in relation to brain functioning, whereas neural networks are more often discussed in relation to the central nervous system, which includes the brain, the spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system. As I use these two similar terms in this book, I will follow this distinction. Our current knowledge of the central nervous system is still inadequate to explain with specific certainty how the brain operates. The brain’s dynamism also makes it an elusive subject for study. As Jensen writes (2005, p. 11), ‘‘Whether you are 2 or 92, your brain is a cauldron of changing chemicals, electrical activity, cell growth, cell death, connectivity, and change.’’ For these reasons we need to use our knowledge of the brain judiciously to discuss learning and motivation. Before we carry out any instructional ideas based on neuroscience, we need to understand how well they are integrated and consistent with our current models, research, and practice in adult education. A Neuroscientific Perspective of Motivation Merging a neuroscientific understanding of motivation with current knowledge from psychology and education creates ideas that are richer, more nuanced, more complex, and, fortunately, quite promising. The brain has evolved over millions of years as the major organ for ensuring human survival. In evolutionary terms, the neocortex, the part of the brain fundamental to thinking, analyzing, and planning, is considered young because it has evolved within only the last five to ten million years (Zull, 2002). As human beings, we want to learn because learning is our means for survival. Knowing what to fear and what to desire is essential to our future. We use cognition to maintain control and to generally navigate away from fear and toward pleasure. The brain has an inherent inclination for knowing what it wants. In human terms, that means relevance (Ahissar and others, 1992). We are compelled to pay attention to things that matter to 17 18 Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn us. Every moment of our lives is a competition among our senses to perceive what matters most. Our emotions usually tell us this, often before we can reflect upon the situation and especially when we feel threatened. What matters is defined through our cultural perspectives which carry language, values, norms, and perceptual frameworks to interpret the world we live in. As we experience our world, events that are accompanied by feelings receive preferential processing in the brain (Christianson, 1992). Because they are salient for survival, emotions add importance to our thoughts and experiences. Structures in the brain and their related neurotransmitters convey these emotions to us moment by moment. For example, the neurotransmitter dopamine is usually connected with feelings of pleasure and elation, and norepinephrine seems to induce a state of arousal. Although emotions capture our attention, we spend most of our waking hours in mind-body states that are made up of sensations (for example, hunger and fatigue), emotions (joy and anger), and thoughts (optimism and concentration) that combine and recombine simultaneously (Damasio, 1999). These mind-body states are made up of millions of neurons in complex web-like signaling systems that represent our behavior. They are quickly shifting neuronal networks that involve multiple structures of the brain. Jensen (2005) draws an apt analogy when he compares their operation to the dynamic atmospheric patterns we call weather. From a neuroscientific perspective, when we are doing something, these mind-body states represent our motivation. We are likely to identify them by the emotion or mood most obvious to us at the moment, such as ‘‘I’m getting bored with reading this textbook.’’ Although our mind-body state may seem stable as we proceed with a task, in reality it is in a state of flux, diminishing, strengthening, or changing into another state. On the single page of a book or in the span of five minutes in a course, we may go from feeling inspired, to feeling frustrated, to feeling creative, and then inspired again. Understanding Motivation for Adult Learners The theories of intrinsic motivation fit very well with a neuroscientific understanding of motivation. As defined by Ryan and Deci (2000, p. 16), ‘‘intrinsic motivation is entailed whenever people behave for the satisfaction inherent in the behavior itself.’’ For example, people read a novel because they find it inherently interesting. Behavior that people find intrinsically satisfying probably conforms to what their brains are physiologically disposed to want and induces or is compatible with a positive mind-body state. We know from psychological research that it is part of human nature to be curious, to be active, to make meaning from experience, and to be effective at what we value (Lambert and McCombs, 1998). These are primary sources of motivation that reside in all of us, across all cultures. When adults can see that what they are learning makes sense and is important according to their values and perspective, their motivation emerges. Such circumstances elicit intrinsic motivation and probably facilitate a mind-body state conducive to learning. Intrinsic motivation is evoked; it is a physical energy aroused by an environment that connects with what is culturally relevant to people. A neuroscientific understanding of intrinsic motivation confirms that we need to create learning environments that access what biologically motivates adults from within. In addition, intrinsic motivation is probably more emotionally salient and varied than it was originally conceived to be. We feel many different emotions while learning, and they may not all be consistently positive. As instructors, we need to pay close attention to the emotions of adult learners and construct with them a learning environment that supports the optimal expression of their emotions in service of their learning. This topic will be addressed throughout this book. Although Csikszentmihalyi’s theory of intrinsic motivation and flow (1997) directly addresses the importance of feedback in learning, a neuroscientific perspective also emphasizes that feedback is essential to the human need for survival. For how the brain operates, this means the feeling of being in control. Feedback 19 20 Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn about one’s learning and behavior significantly contributes to one’s sense of control and is vital to intrinsic motivation and improving learning (Zull, 2002). Extensive coverage of strategies to enhance feedback is found in Chapter Eight. The Intersection of Cultural Relevance, Intrinsic Motivation, and Neuroscientific Understanding In 1996, Brookfield emphasized the need for a culturally relevant perspective of adult learning: ‘‘The differences of class, culture, ethnicity, personality, cognitive style, learning patterns, life experiences, and gender among adults are far more significant than the fact that they are not children or adolescents’’ (p. 379). Today, the cultural context is recognized as an essential consideration for defining as well as facilitating adult learning (Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner, 2007). Theories of intrinsic motivation respect the influence of culture on learning. They include the understanding that the learner’s perspective, language, values, and ways of knowing must be considered in order to foster adult motivation to learn (Wlodkowski and Ginsberg, 1995). When adults care about what they are learning and know they are becoming more effective at what they value by means of that learning, their intrinsic motivation surfaces like a cork rising through water. The instructor can feel it when the learning environment has stimulated the adults’ neurophysiological propensity to provide energy for what matters! Intrinsic motivation is governed to a large extent by emotions, which in turn are socialized through culture. Emotions influence task engagement, the visible outcome of learner motivation. For example, one person working at a task feels frustrated and stops; a second person working at the task feels joy and continues; and yet another person, with a different set of cultural beliefs, feels frustrated at the task but continues with increased determination. The response to the task—frustration, joy, or determination—may differ across cultures because cultures differ in their definitions Understanding Motivation for Adult Learners of novelty, hazard, opportunity, and gratification and in their definitions of appropriate responses (Kitayama and Markus, 1994). Thus, a person’s response to a learning activity reflects his or her culture. From this viewpoint, culturally responsive teaching is necessary if we are to teach all adults effectively. Even though the learners’ internal logic may not coincide with our own, it is present nonetheless. To be effective we must understand that perspective. Rather than trying to figure out what to ‘‘do to’’ learners, we should ‘‘work with’’ them to elicit their intrinsic motivation. Through relationships and teaching strategies, we access their prior knowledge (existing systems of neuronal networks), as expressed through their cultural perspectives, in order to build bridges between what adult learners know and their new learning. Seeing adults as unique and active, we emphasize communication and respect, realizing that through understanding and sharing our resources we create greater energy for learning. When it is working, excellent teaching and learning is like breathing together. Emotion, Memory, and Intrinsic Motivation Research in the neurosciences and the field of intrinsic motivation indicates that emotions are critical to learning. Not only do emotions largely determine what we pay attention to and help us to be aware of our mind-body states, they also affect what we remember. We are much more likely to remember things that engage us emotionally. It appears that the more powerful the feeling that accompanies an experience, the more lasting the memory. Long-term memory, durable neuronal networks, seems to be strongly affected by emotions. We know now that long-term memory is not a permanent trace or print of a past event. It works dynamically, reassembling feelings and information from our past into our present understanding. For example, during stressful experiences, hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol 21 22 Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn are released. They heighten alertness and mobilize parts of the nervous system responsible for movement. They also enhance memory for the experience (LeDoux, 1996; Abercombrie and others, 2003). These hormones are likely to have been present while some of our strongest memories—such as those of births, deaths, and romances—were being made. These chemicals help to create a system of sounds, images, and locations represented by neural networks that are activated and reintegrated among various structures of the brain when they are stimulated by an experience or object such as a question, a person’s face, or a particular song (Shimamura, 2002). In the moment, we recall a memory, unaware that thousands of neurons have fired in a particular pattern involving multiple locations in our brain and nervous system. The biological process of how emotions affect memory is complex and our understanding is incomplete. However, we are reasonably certain that moderate stress and positive emotions such as satisfaction, joy, and feeling creative help us to retain what we are learning and to reassemble what we have learned when we need to recall it (Zull, 2002). Emotions also give texture to events and help us to understand them. Because neurotransmitters such as dopamine that are associated with pleasurable emotions tend to be released in situations of moderate challenge and excitement, we as instructors can create lessons that encourage these emotions and consequently better memory for what is being learned. In theories of intrinsic motivation, emotions are critical to learning as well. Optimal emotional states for learning, such as flow, have been extensively studied and documented across and within cultures (Csikszentmihalyi and Csikszentmihalyi, 1988). When people are in flow—whether at work, play, or while learning in a course—they feel totally involved, immersed in a seemingly effortless performance, fully alive, and without self-consciousness (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997). Often while being in flow, people report feelings of joy, happiness, creativity, and capability. Emotionally, Understanding Motivation for Adult Learners intrinsic motivation is not static and does not remain constant during learning or work. Flow is one of the most positive states of intrinsic motivation. During this time we are fully absorbed, emotionally positive, and very focused. In other intrinsically motivating situations we may be less consistently involved, only mildly interested, and, at times, feel a bit worn or fatigued. Emotions are labile, neurophysiologically undergoing chemical and biological change. A mere distraction, such as the noise of construction work outside the classroom, can disrupt our concentration. The processes of reading, writing, listening, and problem solving undulate with varying degrees of stimulation and appeal whatever their source. My experience as a teacher and a learner is that intrinsic motivation often fluctuates during a learning activity. Overall, I may judge my involvement as intrinsically motivated but with periods when I am bored or disinterested. For an entire learning experience, it might be more accurate to gauge my intrinsic motivation along a scale from mildly intrinsically motivated to deeply intrinsically motivated or in flow. However, such a measure does not register all the possible emotions that I may have felt during the learning activity, such as interest, wonder, and worry. Also, I know from experience that the degree of value that adults have for an activity affects their perception of how motivating that activity is. For example, writing, at times, can be frustrating and tedious. My value for it is obviously strong and there are periods when I seem to be anesthetized from the tedium. But moment to moment, it is my emotions that tell me the degree of my intrinsic motivation for the task at hand. Given the physiology and dynamics of brain functioning, an understanding of intrinsic motivation as a supple phenomenon is fitting. Eventually, intrinsic motivation will probably be more accurately measured by an instrument that has the capacity to measure intensity as a thermometer determines temperature. Beyond brain functioning, this instrument will also need to be sensitive to differing emotional states. 23 24 Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn Underserved and Diverse Adult Learners in Postsecondary Education As a field of study and advocacy, adult education has been a force for increasing adults’ access to and success in postsecondary education. Through political action, literacy efforts, and program development, adult educators have contributed to increasing the number of adults who have earned professional certification and degrees in two-year and four-year colleges. Partially but significantly due to these efforts, nearly 40 percent of all college students today are adults 25 years and older (National Center for Education Statistics, 2002). Programs responsive to the needs and development of adult learners abound in industry, business, and college. If current trends continue, more than 50 percent of all adults between 25 and 55 will be involved in some form of adult education by 2010 (Cook and King, 2004). However, success in higher education for historically underrepresented groups (African Americans, Latinos, and Native Americans) and low-income adults continues to be a serious concern. In 2002, 29 percent of all 25- to 29-year-olds had completed four or more years of college. For whites, the percentage was nearly 36 percent; for African Americans, 18 percent; and for Latinos, slightly less than 9 percent. Although there has been improvement since 1974 for each racial/ethnic group, the improvement parallels the current disproportionate rates of progress. While the Latinos who completed four or more years of college increased 3 percent and African Americans increased 10 percent, whites increased nearly 14 percent during the same period (Mortenson, 2003). Research indicates that family income is a major factor affecting college graduation. Forty percent of adult undergraduates, roughly 2.5 million people, have annual incomes less than $25,000 (Cook and King, 2004). In 1995–96, among low-income adults who were pursuing either a bachelor’s or associate degree, only 7 percent achieved a bachelor’s degree and 8 percent an associate’s degree Understanding Motivation for Adult Learners within the next six years. In this same time period, 42 percent of traditional-age students (18- to 24-year-olds) who were pursuing a bachelor’s degree accomplished their goal (Cook and King, 2004). The competing demands of family and work as well as educational challenges due to insufficient academic preparation likely combine to lessen the chances of success in college for many low-income adults. With 70 percent of current jobs requiring some form of postsecondary education (Carnevale and Desrochers, 1999), low-income adults are ensnared in low-wage occupations with little prospect of moving themselves or their families out of poverty. Historically underrepresented groups and low-income adults are underserved students, lacking the accessibility and support, financial as well as academic, to be successful in postsecondary education. This situation is a critical issue for adult educators. In 2002, 50 percent of people living in poverty in the United States were African American or Hispanic (U.S. Department of Labor, 2003). Their economic status is undeniably due to their lack of education beyond high school and their historic underrepresentation in higher education. As adult educators, we have a moral and professional obligation to render postsecondary education accessible and successful for all adults. In my opinion, this mandate applies as well to trainers in business and industry, where educating adults is an enterprise that matches or exceeds postsecondary education in financing and resource allocation. Improving higher education and making it more equitable is far more than an altruistic venture. The nation needs to remain competitive with skilled and effective workers in a global marketplace (Friedman, 2005). At the time of this writing, we are in the midst of the largest immigration in the history of this country. Between 1991 and 2001 approximately 10.2 million people immigrated to the United States (Constitutional Rights Foundation, 2006). Today, this trend continues. In addition, there is an estimated population of 12 million undocumented workers residing in the United States. Such demographics emphasize the need for adult 25 26 Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn educators and trainers to make higher education and advanced training accessible and successful for all adults. Postsecondary education benefits the United States citizenry as well as the individual. Higher levels of education correlate with higher incomes, better health, and lower levels of mortality (Lleras-Muney, 2002). Education is associated with lower rates of crime, fewer illegitimate births, and less dependency on welfare benefits (Lochner and Moretti, 200l; Wolfe and Zuvekas, 1995). According to the U.S. Department of Education (1998), college-educated adults (85 percent) are more likely to vote than high school graduates (72 percent) and high school dropouts (50 percent). From their review of postsecondary education and employment, Anthony Carnevale and Donna Desrochers conclude (2004, p. 33), ‘‘Adults who are not equipped with the levels of knowledge and skill necessary to get, and keep, good jobs are denied full inclusion and tend to drop out of the mainstream culture, polity, and economy.’’ Among the greatest losses for our society when underserved adult students are not present in our college programs are their cultural perspectives and aesthetics. As microcosms of the broader society, college courses often implicitly and explicitly perpetuate stereotypes and larger systems of inequality—for example, conspicuous consumption without consideration of the common good. Adult students from underrepresented economic backgrounds and ethnic or racial groups can offer ideas, language, examples, and frames of reference that can help majority groups examine ways in which they may unknowingly use dominant beliefs and values that inhibit the welfare of others. For example, individual freedoms may favor the more privileged. And how government monies are allocated is a topic likely to be more informed by adults from different income groups. In general, diversity as a broad category including race, class, gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, religion, disability, age, and other significant differences is central to education as preparation Understanding Motivation for Adult Learners to live and work within a global economy with many different people. In fact, research with traditional-age college students indicates that when they are exposed in their courses to diverse perspectives through interaction with students different from themselves, they develop more complex thinking skills and learn more (Gurin and others, 2002). My personal experience with adult students supports this finding. For a more equitable and effective pluralistic society, we need to learn with diverse adults. For the future, diversity in adult education is an imperative and an opportunity. Instruction as a Path to Improving Educational Success among All Adults Efforts to increase the success of adult learners in higher education offer promising policies and insights. They include financial assistance, especially to low-income adults (Cook and King, 2005; Choitz and Widom, 2003); stronger student support services including academic advising, personal counseling, tutoring, and remediation (Purnell and Blank, 2004; Flint and Associates, 1999); a commitment to adult learners with a focus on meeting their needs (Cook and King, 2005; Flint and Associates, 1999); and faculty and instruction responsive to adult learners (Cook and King, 2005; Flint and Associates, 1999; Grubb and Associates, 1999). Many of the studies cited in this paragraph were conducted at community colleges, where the majority of adult learners in postsecondary education are enrolled. However, the largest number of adult learners, approximately 61 million, participate in work-related courses and training (Paulson and Boeke, 2006). Unless specifically referenced to higher education, all instructional methods, principles, and models suggested in this text apply to this population as well. No single policy, program, or response significantly raises the persistence and degree completion of adult learners (Cook and King, 2005; Flint and Associates, 1999). What is required is a systemwide effort to improve a range of elements from financial 27 28 Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn assistance to instruction. Three books and reports that outline, discuss, and offer examples of these elements and how they might be implemented are Best Practices in Adult Learning: A Self-Evaluation Workbook for Colleges and Universities (Flint, Zakos, and Frey, 2002), Improving Lives through Higher Education: Campus Programs and Policies for Low-Income Adults (Cook and King, 2005), and Promoting Student Success in Community College and Beyond (Brock and LeBlanc, 2005). The focus of this book is on how instructors, teaching, and learning environments can enhance the motivation of all adults to learn. Researchers have found that improvements in instruction can contribute to increased student persistence and success (Grubb and Associates, 1999; Kuh and others, 2005). Their suggestions include more active learning, greater relevance of subject matter to students’ lives, and higher levels of student engagement. Best practices for adult learners in postsecondary institutions include the same three suggestions as well as inclusive learning environments, use of the language of learners and their communities, and assessment of learner competence through performance outcomes (Flint, Zakos, and Frey, 2002). Thus, we can see some convergence between the recommendations from research to improve adult success in college and the literature about best practices for adult learners. This gives us more confidence about what we need to do in the area of instruction to enhance adult learning and motivation. The Motivational Framework for Culturally Responsive Teaching (Wlodkowski and Ginsberg, 1995), which forms the major focus of this book (see Chapter Four), systematically includes these instructional practices as an integral aspect of instructional design and teaching. Factors of this motivational framework have been significantly associated with higher grade point averages (Wlodkowski, Mauldin, and Gahn, 2001) and higher performance (Wlodkowski and Stiller, 2005) among adult learners. This framework can serve as an effective guide for educators and trainers as we plan and carry out our Understanding Motivation for Adult Learners instruction with adult learners. A strength of this model is that it recognizes that human motivation is inseparable from culture and at the same time understandable as energy resulting from biological processes largely within the brain. This approach to teaching allows for a useful integration of these two important sources of pedagogical knowledge. In the next chapter we will deepen our understanding of motivation to learn as it relates to culture and adult development. 29 2 Understanding How Aging and Culture Affect Motivation to Learn The afternoon knows what the morning never suspected. Swedish proverb R eleased from comparison with youth, ‘‘old’’ can be hip, powerful, and aesthetic. Old is rhythm and blues. Old is marching with Martin Luther King Jr. Old is hearing a scratchy vinyl record of Edith Piaf singing lyrics of love and loss and knowing from your own life she is telling the truth many times over. Old is Michelangelo’s David. Old is the Kama Sutra. And old is the Taj Mahal. As James Hillman writes (1999, p. 42), ‘‘When ‘old’ gains its definition only by pairing, it loses its value. In a culture that has only identified with ‘new’ . . . ‘old’ gets the short end of the comparative stick, and it becomes ever more difficult to imagine oldness as a phenomenon apart from the lazy simplicities of conventional wisdom.’’ In fact, the word old derives from an Indo-European root that means ‘‘to nourish.’’ In medieval times, old meant ‘‘fully nourished or matured.’’ Not that old is better than young or new; old is its own thing—certain to be humbled by aging and death but also to be affirmed for the character, perspective, and vitality it can offer to life among all ages. Old is the nurturance of grandparents, the 31 32 Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn guidance of mentors, and the stories carried through our families that give us an identity and a sense of connection with all living things. As we will see in this chapter, older adults are a rapidly growing group among adult learners, and their characteristics and needs enrich and challenge adult education. Characteristics of Adult Learners It is a bit frustrating but understandable that in the field of adult education there is no agreement on the definition of adult (Paulson and Boeke, 2006). The term is culturally and historically relative. Some cultures regard puberty as entry into adulthood, whereas others use legal codes to permit and promote adult behavior. In the United States, people can vote at eighteen but cannot drink until twenty-one and, in particular instances, can be tried in court as adults at fourteen. In conventional terms, being an adult is often associated with having some kind of major life responsibility, such as full-time work or dependents. Chronologically, adults can be divided into three groups: younger adults (18 to 24 years old), working-age adults (25 to 64 years old), and older adults (65 and older). Most students attending traditional colleges where they board and are enrolled full time are younger adults. However, most research and theory in the field of adult education pertains to working-age adults, who are assumed to work at least part time while going to school. As the number of older adults continues to grow, they are also of increasing interest in adult education. In the 2000 U.S. Census, older adults accounted for 12 percent of the total population. Today, 73 percent of all college students can be identified as nontraditional learners (National Center for Education Statistics, 2002). They possess one or more of the following characteristics: delayed enrollment into postsecondary education, part-time attendance, financial independence, full-time job, dependents other Understanding How Aging and Culture Affect Motivation to Learn than a spouse, being a single parent, and having a nonstandard high school diploma. Most of these nontraditional students are working-age adults, but some are young adults or older adults. Although nontraditional students are considered at greater risk of failing to complete a degree, nearly one-third of them succeed. Maybe what is actually at risk are the generalizations made about them. The focus of this book is on working-age adults, nontraditional college students, and older adults. Unless specifically stated otherwise, all strategies, principles, and models proposed in this text can be applied to them. Women make up the majority (approximately 65 percent) of adult college students 25 and older. They compose approximately 65 percent of this population (Aslanian, 2001). Three reasons primarily explain why they outnumber men: (1) there are more women than men in the general U.S. population 25 and older; (2) more women view education as a path to success; and (3) women today have more opportunity to go to college than previous generations due to changes in role expectations and family support. Among students 25 and older, approximately 12 percent are ethnic or racial minorities (Aslanian, 2001). This adult minority population is much smaller than the overall minority population in higher education (approximately 30 percent), especially in community colleges. According to the National Center for Education Statistics (2001), 39 percent of African American, 54 percent of Hispanic, 47 percent of American Indian, and 38 percent of Asian American and Pacific Islander postsecondary students attend community colleges. In some community colleges in large urban areas and in the West and Southwest United States, minority students have become a majority. As Berta Vigil Laden has observed (2004), ‘‘The term minority is being replaced with the more descriptive terms racially diverse and emerging majority to convey more fully these students’ presence in institutions of higher education.’’ Many 33 34 Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn of these community college students are 25 and older or are younger adults with characteristics of working-age adults such as full-time jobs and dependents. We are witnessing a cultural transformation whose beginning is most strongly felt in community colleges. All these groups of adult learners share a common goal: they want to use the knowledge and skills they acquire to enhance their careers or professional opportunities—for better jobs, higher salaries, coveted promotions, or simply staying competitive (Aslanian, 2001). Another national trend is the increasing number of older adults working full time and participating in adult learning. Over 2 million adults 65 and older participate in work-related courses and training (O’Donnell, 2005). Not only does learning add purpose to life for many older adults, it also appears to improve their health (Campbell, 2006). Researchers from multiple disciplines concur that learning is essential to a satisfying later life (Manheimer, 2002). Learning during older adulthood appears to be related to better physical vitality and cognitive functioning. Prior postsecondary education may increase older adults’ desire for learning. Some scholars believe education is addictive and that the more education people have had, the more they will want, especially in later life (Mehrotra, 2003). Postsecondary education may establish a desire for intellectual activities such as reading, reflecting, and problem solving. Continuing these pursuits sustains brain-cell growth and higher cognitive functioning among older adults (Diamond, 2001). In this respect, college-educated older adults may be more likely to value learning for its own sake (Purdie and Boulton-Lewis, 2003). Because they often are in a position to choose what they learn, older adults are more likely to find learning intrinsically motivating. The Gerontological Society of America has confirmed the understanding that aging is about adding life to years, not years to life. As adult educators, we can help make this self-fulfilling prophecy come true. Understanding How Aging and Culture Affect Motivation to Learn Specific Effects of Aging We have described the benefits of learning for older adults. The potential for a satisfying and vital life seems greater than ever before. But there are also many myths and stereotypes about older people, frequently negative ones. Let’s take a closer look. It was once thought that aging was a barrier to learning. This seems less so than ever before. Improved sanitation, nutrition, hygiene, and advances in medical drugs and treatments have increased life expectancy in most industrialized countries. As of 2006, the average life expectancy in the United States was 77.8 years (U.S. Census Bureau, 2006). Since the early 1990s, it has been documented that people remain more active and feel physically better for longer in their older years (Smolak, 1993). Adults over 85 are the fastest-growing segment of the U.S. population (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2003). With the vitality projected by popular icons like Gloria Steinem and B. B. King, even 70 no longer seems old. (This seems ever so true as I enter my early sixties.) There are significant culturally related differences as people age. For example, women live longer than men (U.S. Census Bureau, 2006). To put this generalization in perspective, between the ages of 65 and 74, there are 83 men for every 100 women; among people over 85, there are only 46 men for every 100 women. As we grow older, women eventually outnumber men by more than two to one. In addition, there is far less ethnic or racial diversity among older adults. The percentage of the U.S. population that is non-Hispanic White increases with age from 79 percent of people between 55 and 64 years of age to 87 percent of those who are 85 and over. This decrease indicates some of the disparities in income, living environments, disease exposure, and available medical care between the majority population of this country and its racial/ethnic minorities. 35 36 Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn Although racial/ethnic inequalities persist, becoming older does not mean automatic physical, emotional, or mental deterioration, and the effects of aging differ from person to person. As people reach their 40s and 50s, they undergo changes in vision, cardiovascular and respiratory functioning, reproductive potential (among women), and muscular and skeletal resilience (Bee and Bjorkland, 2004). Beginning slowly, this decline usually accelerates as people enter their 70s. Compensation can offset this deterioration. Eyeglasses, hearing aids, medications, increased illumination, and increased time for learning are some of the ways to equalize learning opportunities for older adults. Central Nervous System, Vision, and Hearing According to longitudinal studies, most normal, healthy adults can be efficient and effective learners well into old age (Schaie, 2005). Although considerable individual differences exist, the intellectual capacity to learn declines only modestly until most people are in their 80s. Variables that reduce the risk of intellectual decline among older adults are absence of chronic diseases, a favorable living environment, an active lifestyle, a partner with high cognitive functioning, satisfaction with one’s life, and continued involvement with learning (Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner, 2007; Campbell, 2006). Because of research on the aging brain, aging is no longer seen as inevitably leading to brain damage and decline. Aging is now seen as a much more complex phenomenon: through reorganization and plasticity the brain can sustain a productive and happy life far into the older years (Reuter-Lorenz and Lustig, 2005). There is evidence that the brains of adults in their 70s and 80s continue to produce new neurons for cognition (Prickaerts and others, 2004). The combination of physical exercise, stimulating environments, and continued learning appears to be able to increase brain cell growth and connections throughout life (Willis, 2006). Understanding How Aging and Culture Affect Motivation to Learn Older learners may require more time to learn new things because, on the average, their reaction time is slower than that of younger learners (Schaie and Willis, 2002). This is due to changes in the central nervous system. However, individual older adults differ substantially in this regard, and the type of task makes a significant difference as well. For example, putting a puzzle together or hitting a button to respond to the identification of a symbol is far different from creating an effective business plan or providing legal advice about a real problem. Speed of response by itself should not prevent anyone from learning what he or she wants to learn. Allowing older adults to control the pace of educational experiences and their exposure to educational materials is an excellent strategy to accommodate any decrease in reaction time. Some people believe that because of the decline in vision, reading is a serious problem for older adults. However, in the absence of disease or serious impairment, the normal physical changes of the eyes can be accommodated through the use of eyeglasses and brighter light. Older adults do have more difficulty rapidly processing visual information and should be allowed more time and control for extracting information from printed materials, computer screens, photographs, films, and other screen projections (Pesce and others, 2005). The decline in hearing has also been well researched (Bee and Bjorkland, 2004). Hearing difficulty affects more than 25 percent of adults over the age of 65, and more than 50 percent of males over the age of 75. In addition to hearing loss, as people become older they may also develop a ‘‘translation’’ problem. Rapid speech is more difficult for older adults to decipher. In addition, adults over 50 usually have some impairment in discerning very soft sounds and high-pitched sounds. Attending to the acoustic environment and moderating the speed of presentation and verbal delivery can help older adults adjust for this sensory loss. 37 38 Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn Intellectual Functioning As a psychologist, I am among those who no longer regard intelligence as a unitary property. Rather, intelligence seems to make more sense and be a much more useful concept when understood as consisting of multiple factors or a number of different intelligences. Standardized intelligence measures such as the WAIS-III or earlier WAIS-R are very academically oriented rather than being sensitive to an adult’s capacity to solve real-life problems. Their narrow framework, cultural bias, and low correlation with work performance caution against using these standardized intelligence tests to make decisions about most adults (Tennant, 2005). Multiple Intelligences If we understand intelligence as the ability to solve problems or to fashion products that are valued by one’s culture or community, we realize intelligence cannot be conceptualized apart from the context in which people live. There is always an interaction between individuals’ biological proclivities and the opportunities in their culture for learning. Thus there exist multiple ways to be capable and to demonstrate intelligence. According to Howard Gardner (Checkley, 1997) people have the capacity for at least eight intelligences (see Table 2.1). Individuals differ in the strength of these intelligences. Some perform best when asked to manipulate symbols of various sorts (linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligences), whereas others are better able to demonstrate their understanding through a hands-on approach (spatial and bodily-kinesthetic intelligences). Rather than possessing a single intelligence, people have a profile of intelligences that combine to complete different tasks. This means that tools and techniques are part of one’s intelligence and its use. The Inupiat hunter who must discern sea, stars, and ice from a small boat on the Arctic Ocean meets an intellectual challenge as profound in its own way as that faced by a systems analyst deciphering the federal Understanding How Aging and Culture Affect Motivation to Learn Table 2.1. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Intelligence Example Core Components Linguistic Novelist, journalist Logicalmathematical Scientist, accountant Musical Composer, guitarist Spatial Designer, navigator Bodilykinesthetic Athlete, actor Interpersonal Therapist, politician Intrapersonal Philosopher, spiritual leader Naturalist Botanist, Farmer Sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms, and meanings of words; sensitivity to the different functions of written and spoken language Sensitivity to and capacity to discern logical and numerical patterns; ability to handle long chains of inductive and deductive reasoning Abilities to produce and appreciate rhythm, tone, pitch, and timbre; appreciation of the forms of musical expressiveness Capacities to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately and to perform transformations on one’s initial perceptions and mental images Abilities to know and control one’s body movements and to handle objects skillfully Capacities to discern and respond appropriately to the moods, temperaments, motivations, and desires of other people Access to one’s own feelings and inner states of being with the ability to discriminate among them and draw on them to guide behavior; knowledge of one’s own strengths, weaknesses, desires, and intelligences Capacity to recognize and classify plants, animals, and minerals, including grass, all varieties of flora and fauna, and rocks Source: Adapted from Viens and Kallenbach, 2004; Checkley, 1997. 39 40 Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn budget at a computer terminal. The crucial question, then, is not, How intelligent is one? but, How is one intelligent? Practical Intelligence Day in and day out, what is called practical intelligence may be for most people the paramount intelligence during the adult years. Tennant and Pogson describe practical intelligence as that which emphasizes ‘‘practice as opposed to theory, direct usefulness as opposed to intellectual curiosity, . . . and commonplace, everyday action or thought with immediate, visible consequences . . . it seeks to do, to move, to achieve something outside of itself, and works toward that purpose’’ (1995, p. 42). When applied in a particular domain, practical intelligence is often referred to as expertise. As such, practical intelligence is often based on prior experience. In their particular area of expertise, most experts show quick, economic problem solving and superior memory (Chi, Glaser, and Farr, 1988). Robert Sternberg (1997) is a leading scholar and researcher in the area of practical intelligence, which he views as what most people call common sense. According to him, being successfully intelligent involves thinking analytically, creatively, and practically and choosing effectively how and when to use these abilities. The main component of practical intelligence is tacit knowledge—‘‘knowledge that reflects the practical ability to learn from experience and to apply that knowledge in the pursuit of personally valued goals’’ (Sternberg and others, 2000, p. 104). Practical intelligence is a promising area of research for adult education. Understanding this ability may help people to develop greater capacity for effective performance in their careers and avocations. Emotional Intelligence In 1995, Daniel Goleman joined the forum about multiple intelligences with his advocacy for emotional intelligence. Although his conceptualization is quite similar to Gardner’s descriptions of Understanding How Aging and Culture Affect Motivation to Learn interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence (see Table 2.1), it is based on the intellectual model proposed by Salovey and Mayer (1990). According to Goleman (1995), to be successful in life one must sensitively use the five domains of emotional intelligence: knowing one’s emotions, managing one’s emotions, motivating oneself, recognizing emotions in others, and handling relationships. Recent neuroscientific findings (see pages 17–20 in Chapter One) have given Goleman’s ideas additional support. In addition, researchers who have studied emotional intelligence in the workplace have found it to be a promising construct (McEnrue and Groves, 2006). An integration of current research and theory suggests that intellectual capacity during adulthood is a combination of genetic expression, experience, and knowledge that displays continued growth and highest potential in culturally relevant, real-life situations. As adult educators, we can explore these rich ideas about the human intellect and use them to enhance our educational practices, but with a constant critical understanding. The construct of intelligence has a history of being oversold. Memory Memory has received a good deal of attention by researchers in learning. Working memory, the initial processing and storing of information that occurs within approximately five to thirty seconds, becomes more problematic as adults age (Bee and Bjorkland, 2004). A common example is increasing difficulty remembering several new names just after being introduced at a party. Generalizing about long-term memory, the capacity for retaining information for minutes or years, is complicated. As people get older, they have more problems transferring (encoding) information into long-term memory. They also have more difficulty retrieving memories. But storage of encoded memories is fairly constant as people age (Hoyer and Roodin, 2003). Older adults appear to process information more slowly, especially when it is complex. 41 42 Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn They also seem less inclined to seriously consider material they see as irrelevant or confusing (Bee and Bjorkland, 2004). When information is learned well, and new material is integrated with prior knowledge, older adults remember and use this knowledge into old age. Age differences in memory are far less dramatic when material is familiar and meaningful. Retention of factual knowledge such as vocabulary or news events shows little if any decline from young adulthood through old age (Hoyer and Roodin, 2003). Generally, older learners are likely to have the most problems with initial learning and subsequent recall when learning activities are fast paced, complex, or unusual. They usually are not as efficient as younger adults in acquiring, organizing, and recalling new information. In Adults as Learners, Pat Cross (1981) has made several practical suggestions for helping older adults with memorization: (1) present new information in ways that are meaningful and relevant; (2) include aids such as mnemonics, advance organizers, and checklists to help older adults organize and relate new material to prior knowledge; (3) present at a pace that permits mastery in order to strengthen long-term memory; (4) present one idea at a time and minimize competing intellectual demands; and (5) summarize frequently to facilitate organization and retention. To this list I would add (6) encourage taking notes on any items of interest and (7) facilitate the application of the new information to relevant issues and problems as soon as possible. Many other instructional suggestions can be made in relation to characteristics of adult development. They are distributed throughout this book in relationship to specific motivational strategies. Participation Earlier in this book, we indirectly addressed the topic of participation in Chapter One’s discussion of the accessibility and retention of underserved adult learners in postsecondary education. In a broader sense, participation—undertaking learning projects, Understanding How Aging and Culture Affect Motivation to Learn courses, and programs—has a long history of research in adult education. Carol Aslanian’s research (2001) provides insights on this topic for both continuing and postsecondary education. Her findings indicate that adult participation is usually due to a life transition that motivates the person to want to learn. The decision to participate in learning at a particular time is triggered by a specific life event. Given a choice among seven possible life transitions, 85 percent of the adults in her study named a career transition such as changing or advancing their careers. For 71 percent, the specific triggers also related to career events such as seeing a job downsized or having to use a computer for the first time. In seeking education, adults in her study looked primarily for quality (program, faculty, course, degree) and convenience (location, schedule, length of time to complete program) as criteria for selection. In general, life transitions and triggers vary culturally. From a sociological viewpoint, unequal access to wealth and power is the foremost explanation for some adults’ lower educational aspirations (Deshler, 1996). There is little doubt that such social factors as unemployment, schooling, home background, government support for or neglect of education, and provision of education in languages other than English powerfully affect the consideration of formal learning for adults. The third edition of this book addresses ways to foster inclusion in learning environments and support adult learners’ participation, because their motivation is frequently more vulnerable than that of younger learners. Cultural Diversity and a Macrocultural Perspective The impact of culture on the human perspective is formed by a complex interaction: we each construct our own reality by interpreting the external world on the basis of our unique experiences with it and our beliefs about those experiences. Neuroscience offers biological support for this remarkable intricacy. As Zull notes, ‘‘The diversity of individual brains is infinite’’ (2002, p. 248). In 43 44 Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn adult education, research on cultural diversity usually focuses on age, gender, race, ethnicity, and income relative to access to and success in higher education. As noted earlier, this information is extremely important, especially for program and policy decisions. In the classroom and distance learning we need to go further than statistics and generalizations about cultural groups to respond to cultural diversity; we need to see adults as individuals with complex identities, personal histories, and unique living contexts. For example, a person is not just older or just African American or just female; she is older, African American, and female. This example is still too simple because it does not include her religious/spiritual beliefs, sexual orientation, income status, or profession, among other possible cultural characteristics. Culturally, a person has a variety of identities that are woven into a personal history and lived in an individual context. As Trina Gabriel advises in an article about Gen Xers of color (2003, p. 25), ‘‘There is no one way for members of various racial or ethnic groups to view the manner in which race or ethnicity affects their lives.’’ And there is no one way for an instructor to view adult learners based on the obvious aspects of their culture. The foremost challenge of education and training, at every level and in every venue, is to create equitable and successful learning environments for all learners. Realistically accomplishing this goal means respecting the cultural integrity of every learner while enhancing every learner’s motivation and learning. Responding to the intricacy of every individual’s multiple cultural identities and the cultural diversity found throughout educatio...
Purchase answer to see full attachment
User generated content is uploaded by users for the purposes of learning and should be used following Studypool's honor code & terms of service.

Explanation & Answer

Attached.

Running head: DEVELOPING ATTITUDES

1

Developing Attitudes
Name
Institution

DEVELOPING ATTITUDES

2
Developing Attitudes

Acquiring education is a lifelong learning process. It befits adults' purpose for learning
and pursuing it. To make adult education effective, it is the responsibility of the educators to
contextualize on strategies that trigger motivation among adult learners. According to
Wlodkowski (2008), learners need to receive support to develop a positive attitude towards
learning. Holding a conversation alone will not help in changing individuals' attitudes
effectively; one must be persuasive enough and become role models in our deeds to reflect the
instructions delivered.
Usually, adult learners tend to develop either a negative or positive attitude. The
educators are bugged with the responsibility of setting the tone for classroom sessions ...


Anonymous
Very useful material for studying!

Studypool
4.7
Trustpilot
4.5
Sitejabber
4.4

Similar Content

Related Tags