Flanagan, S., & Shoffner, M. (2013). Technology: Secondary English teachers and classroom
technology use. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 13(3), 242-261.
Teaching With(Out) Technology: Secondary English
Teachers and Classroom Technology Use
Sara Flanagan
University of Kentucky
and
Melanie Shoffner
Purdue University
Abstract
Technology plays an integral role in the English Language Arts (ELA)
classroom today, yet teachers and teacher educators continue to develop
understandings of how technology influences pedagogy. This qualitative
study explored how and why two ELA teachers used different
technologies in the secondary English classroom to plan for and deliver
instruction. Analysis revealed that the English teachers, one novice and
one experienced teacher, valued integrating technologies into their
instruction and experienced similar challenges in that integration. The
novice teacher believed that technologies played a primary role and
centered her instruction on the available technologies, while the
experienced teacher viewed technologies as having a secondary role,
choosing to integrating technologies only if they added to her instruction.
Considering digital technologies’ widespread availability and influence in everyday life,
the use of different technologies for educational purposes is an important subject for
teachers and teacher educators to consider. Whether referencing specific low- or hightech tools for learning and instruction or the collective grouping of these tools, technology
offers the potential to impact positively students’ learning and teachers’ instruction
(Alvermann, 2007; O’Neil & Perez, 2003; Sternberg, Kaplan, & Borck, 2007).
Adding technology to instruction does not automatically create a meaningful change in
learning or instruction, however. As Bruce (2007) noted, “Simply using computers or
connecting to the network does not ensure that teaching is easier and more effective or
that adolescents will be automatically well prepared to read, write, and live in the 21st
century” (p. 17).
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Meaningful technology use can support positive teaching and learning outcomes that
include effective instruction, support for authentic learning, increased student learning,
and alterations in teacher pedagogy (Culp, Honey, & Mandinach, 2003; DarlingHammond et al., 2005; Pope & Golub, 2000). Such outcomes require teachers and
teacher educators to consider purposefully the application and integration of technology
for classroom teaching and learning, including potential advantages and limitations to
technology (Swenson, 2006). English language arts (ELA) teachers must also consider
implementing different technologies as they relate to expanding conceptions of literacy.
Rather than focusing solely on the single literacy of print, English teachers navigate
multiple literacies (or multiliteracies) in the classroom, working across print, visual, and
media literacies (National Council of Teachers of English [NCTE], 2006, 2008). To
connect these literacies to their instruction and the students in the classroom, English
teachers benefit from implementing the technological pedagogical content knowledge
(TPCK) that allows them to “develop nuanced and critical understandings of these
technologies and the literacies with which they are associated” (Swenson, Young,
McGrail, Rozema, & Whitin, 2006, p. 353).
This article describes how two English teachers implemented technology in their
instruction to support student learning, a framework for understanding the use of
technology in the ELA classroom, and a qualitative study created to examine our
technology use for instruction. The study’s main themes are discussed: the role of the
ELA teacher, the use of technology for ELA instruction, and the challenges and benefits of
technology use in the ELA classroom.
Technology in the English Language Arts Classroom
Technology-enriched ELA classrooms have the ability to support student-centered,
constructivist learning environments, which in turn, may offer advantages for student
learning in the secondary English classroom. Technology has the ability to support
students’ higher order thinking skills, motivation, and engagement when used
constructively.
In addition, teachers’ instructional practices can be augmented when technology use
aligns with their pedagogical beliefs. To support an active learning environment, teachers
must engage students with technology, rather than simply using it as a reward (e.g.,
watching a movie, playing a game) or to project information (e.g., display a presentation;
Ertmer, 2005; McGrail, 2007; Merkley, Schmidt, & Allen, 2001).
Many of the specific technologies integrated into English classrooms are used for creating
certain products: a publishing program to create a brochure, for example, or word
processing software to type an essay (Kamil, Intrator, & Kim, 2000; Leu, 2000). In many
respects, the specific technologies available for the ELA are somewhat lacking when
compared to other disciplines, where content-specific technologies are often more
numerous, readily available, and more interactive (i.e., virtual manipulatives in
mathematics, virtual museums in social studies and simulations in science; Alessi &
Trollip, 2001). Instructional software exists to support and develop specific literacy skills,
such as grammar and spelling, but these specific technologies are not always realistic for
classroom use, as the timing and pacing of the instructional modules may require a great
deal of time (Alessi & Trollip, 2001; Merkley et al., 2001). Moreover, many of these
technologies are geared toward elementary-aged students, using drill-and-practice games
to support beginning literacy skills (McKenna, Labbo, Reinking & Zucker, 2007).
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Technology used for more general purposes can be implemented effectively in secondary
English instruction. Publishing programs, concept mapping and graphic organizer
software, word processing and presentation software, and the Internet support students’
efforts to locate information, create products, and organize information related to their
study of English (Anderson-Inman & Horney, 1997; Jones, 1994; Merkley et al., 2001;
McKenna et al., 2007; Reinking & Watkins, 2000). Email, video conferencing, and
discussion boards allow for engagement with those outside the English classroom,
connecting students with the world beyond classroom walls (Merkely, Schmidt, & Allen,
2001).
Although technology developed specifically for ELA learning may be limited, the role of
technology in the ELA curriculum is described as “both a facilitator and a medium of
literacy teaching and learning” (Sternberg, Kaplan, & Borck, 2007, p. 420). English
teachers generally offer a positive view of technology and support its use in the classroom
(Hunt & Hunt, 2007; McKenna et al., 2007; Merkley et al., 2001; Moynihan, 2007;
Sternberg et al., 2007; Webb, 2007).
A limited number of studies, however, focus on English teachers’ use of technology for
instruction. Existing research tends to explore short-term technology interventions and
focus on student learning rather than teacher instruction, such as integrating a specific
technology-based intervention (Kamil et al., 2000). Though limited, these studies are
useful in exploring the different issues of technology use in the ELA classroom.
Issues of Technology Use in the ELA Classroom
English teachers must develop a level of technological skill that supports their usage of
technology and their incorporation of technology in English instruction (Ruthven,
Hessessey, & Brindley, 2004; Sternberg et al., 2007). Technology integration should be
done to promote active learning and engagement rather than as an alternate means to
deliver information (McGrail, 2007).
This integration of technology, instruction, and subject matter—and the connections
between them—reflects the framework delineated by Mishra and Koehler (2006) as
TPCK. As a framework for teaching with technology, TPCK requires that teachers are able
to teach content-specific concepts using technology, implement strategies to support their
pedagogy when using technology, and assess the abilities of different technologies to
support student learning (Koehler & Mishra, 2009). Implementing technology for student
learning is a complex act with many different issues to consider; an English teacher’s
ability to develop TPCK can, therefore, support that implementation in meaningful and
effective ways (Swenson, 2006).
English teachers must consider multiple factors before implementing technology into
their instruction to weigh the pros and cons for student learning. First and foremost,
having access to technology is an advantage, but access does not directly correlate with
effective usage (Cuban, Kirkpatrick, & Peck, 2001; Sternberg et al., 2007). The use of any
technology should enhance instruction for both the student and the teacher and add to
student learning by supplementing instruction (Young & Bush, 2004). Consequently, the
use of technology in the English classroom should not replace strong instruction,
negatively influence the quality of instruction, or decrease student opportunity for
creativity or replace key instructional materials.
By connecting a specific technology to instruction, students have the opportunity to use
the technology that is appropriate for the academic setting (Young & Bush, 2004). For
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example, English teachers may first present persuasive writing in a formal essay
assignment, with students using a word processing program to create their compositions.
Students may then rewrite their persuasive essay to suit the medium of a blog or
discussion board to better understand how writing differs in different venues and for
different audiences.
In addition to these considerations, English teachers must balance the multiple
challenges of using technology in the classroom, from the simple act of turning on a
computer to troubleshooting problems with software. Teachers must manage limited
access, poor or nonexistent technical support, out-of-date infrastructure, and few
resources for implementing technologies into the curriculum. Even the desire to
incorporate technology into instruction may be problematic, since time is limited time to
learn about and become proficient with different technologies (Ertmer, 1999; McGrail,
2005; Ruthven et al., 2004).
Because technology is constantly evolving, teachers may struggle to stay aware of possible
technologies and lack access to targeted information, such as practitioner-oriented
articles that describe technology use for instruction. These issues contribute to the divide
between the technology used in schools and the teachers’ knowledge of technology’s
instructional applications (Hughes, 2005; Young & Bush, 2004).
Certain guiding principles can help English teachers determine if and when technology
should be used for instruction. Teachers must first determine their goals for instruction
and technology usage, then reflect on their instructional delivery with the available
technology to determine the potential needs of students, such as scaffolding prior to a
technology’s use or additional time to complete a technology-infused activity. Teachers
should determine if the technology’s instructional advantages align with their teaching
pedagogy, as well as their instructional goals and desire for technology (Hughes, 2005;
McKenna et al., 2007; Ruthven et al., 2004; Sternberg et al., 2007; Young & Bush, 2004).
Teachers’ personal experiences with technology, as well as previous successful instruction
with technology, are important factors in determining technology usage (Hughes, 2005).
Additionally, technology is more likely to be used when it allows teachers or students to
be more efficient and effective in completing a task (Ruthven et al., 2004). Technology is
also more likely to be used when teachers understand how the specific technology
enhances instruction and provides individualized support for struggling students
(Ruthven et al., 2004). When each of these factors are met, technology implementation is
more likely to be successful for teacher instruction and student learning (Hughes, 2005).
While advantages exist to the effective integration of technology into ELA, McGrail
(2005, 2006) said that, as of her writing, little research had been done specifically on how
technology usage relates to ELA teachers’ pedagogical practice or actual use of technology
in the classroom. Long-term pedagogical change with technology integration often
requires teachers to understand the value of technology during instruction for student
learning, an element of TPCK.
As technology continuously changes, however, teaching practices and pedagogies may
not. McGrail (2005, 2006) attributed this mismatch to a common barrier: lack of up-todate and ongoing support for technology usage. Much of the existing training or
professional development, at least at the time of her writing, focused on students using
technology, generally, as opposed to teachers using technology for instruction (McGrail,
2005, 2006; see also Sternberg et al., 2007).
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The Study
A qualitative study using case studies (Litchman, 2006; Patton, 2002) was created to
explore how English teachers use different technologies to support their ELA instruction.
Case studies are comprised of a small sample of participants in order to understand a
specific phenomenon. Stake (2006) best described a case study as creating a “picture” for
others to see and experience the phenomenon being studied. Case study research was an
appropriate method for this study, as it allowed us to develop an in-depth understanding
of teachers’ experiences with technology and observe a phenomenon (technology
integration) that would be difficult to measure without observations and interviews (see
Creswell, 2007).
In this study, the following research questions were asked as we examined the
experiences of two teachers surrounding technology:
1.
How do these secondary English teachers consider technology when planning for
classroom instruction?
2. How do these secondary English teachers use technology in their classroom
instruction?
3. What factors or beliefs influence these secondary English teachers' planning for
and use of technology for classroom instruction?
Participants
Two ELA teachers took part in the study over the course of one academic semester.
Kathy, an experienced teacher, was in her 14th year of teaching. Prior to obtaining her
teacher certification at a small, private university, she had earned an English degree from
a midsized public Midwestern university. At the time of the study, Kathy was also
pursuing a master’s degree in English education at a small, private college. Kathy taught
two classes of ninth-grade English and three classes of 10th-grade honors English.
Susan, a novice teacher, was in her second year of teaching and had recently graduated
from the English education program of a large Midwestern university. Susan was also
pursuing her English as a second language (ESL) certification. Susan taught a
combination of courses, including three ninth-grade English classes, two classes of
English for ESL students, and one class of vocational 12th-grade English in the high
school’s alternative/vocational school. She was on the school technology committee that
explored technology available for instructional use.
Setting
Both teachers taught in the same suburban Midwestern high school, with a population of
approximately 1,500 students in ninth through 12th grades and a graduation rate of over
85%. The school was located on the outskirts of a midsize city, drawing mainly middlesocioeconomic-level students from the local city’s suburbs. The school day consisted of
seven instructional periods, each 45 minutes long.
Observations for the study took place in Kathy’s classroom. Susan, as a traveling teacher,
also taught ELA in Kathy’s classroom, allowing data collection to take place in the same
setting. This classroom included two rows of student desks on each side of an open center
aisle. The teacher’s desk was at the back of the classroom with a computer and speakers
connected to an electronic whiteboard (SmartBoard) at the front of the classroom. Each
observed class consisted of 29 ninth-grade students. As ninth-grade English teachers,
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Kathy and Susan worked with other ninth-grade teachers frequently to create grade-level
curriculum and sequence instruction.
Both teachers had access to one departmental computer lab, which was shared with
approximately 15 other teachers. At the time of the study, the school was experiencing
significant budget cuts from the state in addition to the removal of professional
development days. As such, previously planned professional development focused on
technology was eliminated. While the school had SmartBoards in classrooms and
encouraged teachers’ use of this—and other—technologies, limited resources existed to
learn about the functions of the SmartBoard to support instruction. A schoolwide
technology support staff member was available for technology troubleshooting and
installation only.
Data Collection
In order to establish triangulation (Patton, 2002), multiple sources of data were
collected: classroom observations, individual interviews with each teacher, and member
checking of the data during the data collection. Data collection took place over the course
of one 18-week academic semester. The teachers were observed 10 times each, with
observations approximately 45 minutes in length. Susan was observed for one
instructional period. Due to the timing of the school day, Kathy was observed for the last
10 minutes of one instructional period and the following full instructional period of the
next.
All observations focused on several criteria: the process of introducing and delivering
instruction; the observable benefits and challenges of the different modes of instruction;
students’ responses to instruction; transitions between instructional activities; classroom
dynamics; and teacher characteristics. Observations were structured to allow a researcher
to sit unobtrusively in the back of the classroom.
Kathy and Susan stated that they were comfortable being observed, as observations by
practicum students and administrators occurred regularly in their classrooms. The
researcher (i.e., the first author, Flanagan) did not interact with the teachers or the
students during observations; thus, the researcher’s role was strictly that of an observer
(see Litchman, 2006; Patton, 2002).
The focus of this research study (i.e., instruction with and without technology) guided the
observations and the notes taken (as in Creswell, 2007). For instance, a student’s
discussion of a favorite technology with a peer was not recorded, while a teacher’s
comment to a colleague about using PowerPoint was recorded.
Interviews were semistructured in nature with a generic set of questions developed for
each interview. Questions were drawn from Kathy and Susan’s experiences to better
understand and explain instances in the data, as well as from known benefits and
challenges with technology integration noted in research (Creswell, 2007).
Kathy and Susan were each interviewed three times: prior to the observations,
approximately halfway through the observations, and at the conclusion of the
observations. Each interview took place in a quiet location, such as Kathy’s classroom
after school or in the English Department workroom, although Kathy’s second interview
occurred via email due to scheduling conflicts. Member check (Litchman, 2006) occurred
after the fifth observation and 10th observation; member check was 100% with both
Kathy and Susan.
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The initial interview focused on each teacher’s pedagogy, instruction, planning for
instruction, and examples of instruction, with questions focused on the teacher’s use of
technology. For example, the teachers were asked to describe instances when technology
was successful or when challenges were experienced, planning processes with and
without technology integration, the importance of technology in their practice, and their
individual teaching philosophy.
The second interview questions were developed from classroom observations to clarify or
explain an observation, with differences between specific interview questions resulting
from differences in observations. Susan’s interview focused on the strategies she used to
keep students engaged during instruction and the technology she used for instruction, for
example, while Kathy’s focused on the challenges she faced with technology and her
students’ preferences for technology. Both interviews addressed potential instructional
strategies if specific technologies were not available for use.
The final interview asked each teacher similar questions regarding preferred teaching
methods, the role of technology in the classroom, and benefits and challenges to
technology use. The teachers were also asked whether student behaviors and classroom
practices were similar on days they were not observed. Specific questions were also
developed from each teacher’s observations: Susan was asked questions focused on her
different usage of technology and students’ interactions with technology, while Kathy was
asked questions focused on her teaching experiences, teaching style, and students’
engagement during different types of instruction. All interview questions were derived
from observations and from common patterns with technology integration identified
from the literature (see Ertmer, Ottenbriet-Leftwich, & York, 2006; Hughes, 2005;
McGrail, 2005; McKenna et al., 2007; Ruthven et al., 2004; Sternberg et al., 2007; Young
& Bush, 2004).
Data Analysis
For case study analysis, Creswell (2007) recommended that data be drawn from multiple
sources, including interventions and extensive observations. With these, instances in the
data emerge to create a case study of each participant’s experiences. To examine the
research questions, data were sorted into common codes for both Kathy and Susan.
First, for each research question, the data were read to identify specific instances of
technology use during observations and interview responses. These instances were then
used to create an initial set of codes to represent the ideas emerging from the data. For
example, codes were created that identified lack of access to the computer lab, instruction
without technology, types of technologies used in the classroom, and student engagement
when using technology. Data were then sorted into categories to represent groups of
codes. For example, all of the data corresponding to a challenge with technology were
sorted into a category called “challenges”; all of the data corresponding to how a teacher
planned for instruction were sorted into a category called “planning.”
Second, in order to best represent the data and explore the research questions, related
categories were combined to created overarching, meaningful themes. Themes were used
to describe events in the interviews and the observations for each teacher. Each theme
combined several smaller categories of related ideas, such as collapsing the factors that
mitigated the use of technology into one category labeled “challenges to technology use.”
As one example, when observations suggested that the students were not paying attention
to an audio recording of a novel (i.e., playing with pencils, needing redirection from
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Susan or Kathy, and using the incorrect book page), the occurrence was categorized as
“challenge to technology use.” The themes developed are as follows:
•
•
•
•
Planning for instruction: Teacher descriptions or demonstrations of the
development or adaptation of instruction and instructional materials, with and
without technologies.
Role of technologies in the classroom: Roles and perceptions of technologies by
the teacher, including technological literacy.
Benefits of technologies: Instances when teacher or student benefited through the
use of technologies.
Challenges to technologies: Instances when teacher or student was hindered by
the use of technologies.
As with the interview questions, themes were derived from the data as well as from
common ideas found in research related to technology integration. An individual
independent of this research study reviewed 30% of the data for reliability of thematic
coding and interpretation. In order to do this, the first author operationally defined each
theme and gave examples from the data. Next, Flanagan and a rater coded several
instances together without disagreement. The rater then independently coded the data,
randomly selected from interviews and classroom observations across teacher. Reliability
was 100%.
Findings
Both Kathy and Susan incorporated different technologies into their instruction, guided
by their self-explained views of teaching, using it to support their instruction and their
students’ learning. The teachers differed, however, in how they planned for and
implemented the technology used in the classroom (see Table 1 for a summary of
findings).
Table 1
Summary of Findings
Response
Categories
Planning for
instruction
•
•
•
•
Planning for
instruction with
technologies
Kathy
Plans ahead
Always plans “back-up
activities” when using or not
using technology
Relies on previous experiences
Continual reflection of her
teaching
• Used if adds to instruction
(secondary component of
instruction)
• Re-uses technology-based
materials
• More careful, advanced
planning
249
Susan
• Values planning ahead
• Continues learning how much to
teach in an instructional period
• Hesitant to ask for support from
more experienced teachers
• Used from the beginning
(primary component of
instruction)
• Re-uses technology-based
materials
• Advanced planning
Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 13(3)
Benefits and
challenges to
technologies
• Time needed to make sure
technology works ahead of
time
• Lack of training and
knowledge about available
technologies
• Lack of access
• Potential increased student
engagement
• Feels more confident in own
abilities when sees that
students benefit from
instruction with technologies
• Technology literacy
• Frustrations if technology does
not work or students respond in
appropriately
• Distractible students
• Lack of training and knowledge
about available technologies
• Lack of access
• Potential increased motivated
and engagement of students
• Technology literacy
Role of
technologies in
the classroom
• Secondary role
• Valuable component of
instruction
• “There are so many things that
I can use technology for that I
can do without technology […]
I don’t rely on technology. I
am at the cusp of how helpful
it can be, but I also know that
you can get so many things
without it”
• Used technology during four
observations
• Primary role
• Valuable component of
instruction
• “Everything—being able to get
to all students at one time
instead of individual computers
and students need to know how
to use technology, so should be
part of the curriculum”
• Used technology every
observation (10)
The English Teacher’s Role
Both teachers’ technology use was influenced by the beliefs they held on their role in the
ELA classroom. Kathy saw herself as a mediator who motivated students to learn,
explaining, “Everyone can be motivated, but I cannot motivate everyone. I want to teach
the students how to learn and not feed them information.”
In reflecting on her teaching, Kathy described how past experience allowed her to choose
which methods “worked” and which needed adaptation. From her perspective,
“traditional methods,” such as paper-based assignments, discussion, group activities, and
lecture were more suited to her classroom than those methods incorporating technology:
I go back to what I learn best with. I think that, in English, traditional methods—
especially with literature, grammar, and mechanics—just work. What kinds of
technology can you use to analyze the texts? [It is more] practical to use those
traditional methods, it makes sense.
Kathy added technology to her instruction only if she believed it provided additional
advantages. Across all 10 observations, Kathy used two different technologies four times:
a SmartBoard and audio recording CDs of the novel Great Expectations. Kathy credited
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her years of teaching experience as the reason she could plan and deliver instruction
effectively, regardless of her technology use. In Kathy’s view, her knowledge of the
available resources allowed her to choose the instructional method that best suited her
purposes, technology-based or otherwise.
Much like Kathy, Susan identified herself as a facilitator of student instruction: “I want
the students to take charge of discussion. I obviously lecture at times, but I like for the
students to be in control, and I look for their input when planning projects and due
dates.” She drew upon her former experiences as a student teacher to plan her
instruction, including how much time a specific topic would take to teach and how to
deliver instruction to meet the needs of the students. As a first year teacher, however,
Susan was often unaware of instructional resources available at the school until informed
by another teacher.
Susan explained that she preferred teaching methods that engaged students through
technology integration. In each of the 10 observations, Susan used either a SmartBoard or
CDs of the novel Great Expectations—and often both. While these were the same
technologies Kathy used, Susan used them with a higher frequency: 10 times versus four
times. She believed student engagement was an important aspect of how and why she
implemented technology into her instruction:
I try to use [the SmartBoard] every day, even if it is just as simple as putting a
schedule on a board. If I have something to lecture on, I create a PowerPoint so
[students are] engaged in some way and can follow along, instead of listening to
me talk.
Teaching with Technology in the English Classroom
While both Kathy and Susan saw value in using technology in their teaching, they
approached technology usage differently in both their planning and their classroom
instruction. Kathy began her planning by identifying instructional objectives before then
considering the technology available to support those objectives. One frequent challenge
she faced in her planning, for example, was the availability of the school’s computer lab;
while the technology might support her chosen objectives for a lesson, the inability to use
the computer lab for that lesson required Kathy to consider different options and remain
flexible in her instruction..
Susan began her instructional planning by considering the technology available for the
lesson and then identifying the instructional objectives for the lesson. By considering
specific technology before she planned her instruction, Susan believed she could identify
potential problems she or her students might have with its use, including the need for
additional instructional time.
Because she traveled room-to-room, Susan also had to consider the classroom she was
using and the resources available in that classroom when planning her instruction. She
noted that it was often difficult to plan instruction with certain technology, such as the
computer lab, because she still struggled with pacing her instruction: “We’d been doing a
webquest with Great Expectations. I gave them four days in the lab [to complete it] but
we only needed three….How long should I give them to type? How much time in the lab
do I give them?”
Susan saw technology as having a primary role in her classroom instruction, for example,
when she was able to reach all the students at once by using the SmartBoard during a
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lesson, as opposed to using individual paper-based materials. Susan saw her students’
engagement with technology supporting a more active learning environment in her
classroom, as well, such as when Susan said that she would use technology even if it were
not readily available in her classroom. She said she would borrow a projector from the
school library to display slides on an overhead or a whiteboard: “Students need to know
how to use technology, so it should be part of the [teacher’s] curriculum.”
Susan specifically focused on taking “full advantage” of the SmartBoard in her daily
instruction. Across observations, she used the SmartBoard to show agendas, provide
content, lead grammar activities, administer quizzes and present film clips. Susan often
lectured from a PowerPoint presentation displayed on the SmartBoard. Using the
classroom speakers installed in the ceiling, Susan (like Kathy) played audio recordings of
novels under study via the computer in the classroom.
Kathy saw technology as an enhancement to her instruction, preferring to use no
technology if “there was no clear or compelling reason to use it.” As she explained,
There are so many things that I use the technology for that I could do without it. I
think in English we don’t need it—we need a typewriter, a pencil, and a book.
There is so much [technology], almost too much. I don’t rely on technology….I
know how helpful it can be, but I also know that you can get so many things
without it. I don’t think of it first as I think younger teachers might do….
Kathy used the SmartBoard, for example, with premade activities or “on the fly” teaching,
such as showing students a picture of a term after looking it up in Google images. She also
used worksheet-like pages she had created in Microsoft Word or Publisher to display
images of concepts for discussion, vocabulary terms, and comparing and contrasting
activities. Kathy was comfortable with how she used the SmartBoard but admitted that
she would like to know other ways to use it in order to take full advantage of its
capabilities.
Challenges of Technology in the English Classroom
Interviews and classroom observations revealed the greatest challenge to any technology
usage in the classroom by these two teachers was simply a lack of training. Kathy had no
formal training or information on manipulating the SmartBoard or using it for
instruction. Despite being a member of the school’s technology committee that decided to
purchase the SmartBoards, Susan also had no formal training. Even though she felt
comfortable using the SmartBoard in the classroom, Susan believed she would benefit
from training focused on its features for classroom instruction. Both teachers explained
that what they knew about using any technology during instruction typically came from
trial-and-error usage or another colleague’s expertise.
Due to her lack of experience and training with the SmartBoard, Kathy acknowledged her
fear and nervousness associated with using the newer technology: “Last year, when [the
SmartBoard] was first installed, I would only use it with Honors students because they
were more forgiving [of my mistakes] and helpful. I was far more nervous [with other
students].”
She added that her fear of technology tended to dissipate with more experience and
knowledge, such as when she realized that students enjoyed helping her use the
SmartBoard. Susan, on the other hand, was more confident in her knowledge of how to
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use the available technology and learn the needed functions of the technology as she used
it, such as learning how to play a movie or create quizzes to display on the SmartBoard.
Unreliable technology was another challenge for Kathy and Susan. The teachers described
several unsuccessful experiences when different technologies did not work, requiring
them to quickly change their instructional plans. This challenge was compounded by
having one technical assistance person for the entire teaching staff, causing the
technological problem to remain unaddressed for several days and requiring additional
changes to planned instruction. In interviews, Susan noted the challenge of using
technology when it did not work properly and she was unable to troubleshoot the issue.
For example, Susan was unsure how to save her writing on the SmartBoard after
navigating to another page and would have to pause instruction to correct this before
moving on to the next point.
Lack of access caused challenges for Kathy and Susan, as well. When either teacher
wanted students to use an individual computer, they struggled to reserve time in the
English departmental computer lab. They explained that lab time had to be requested
weeks in advance, especially if the lab was needed for more than one class period. Having
to estimate the lab’s use so far in advance compounded the difficulties associated with
using the computer lab: planning instruction far in advance and teaching students to use
the technology. Both teachers also acknowledged the difficulty of being able to access a
document camera to display worksheets or other printed materials (i.e., a passage from a
book or an illustration). Without access to the document camera, the teachers had to
retype worksheets used with the SmartBoard each time to create an electronic version.
Lastly, Kathy and Susan saw students’ usage of technology as a challenge, as well.
Observations in Susan’s class confirmed that students were more off-task during
transitions between technology and while using it. As she moved between the SmartBoard
and class discussion, for example, students would begin talking to each other or lose
attention with the task at hand. Students appeared to enjoy the use of technology,
however. During observations, they often loudly asked to use the SmartBoard, disrupting
the flow of instruction or talking over each other in order to use it. Susan believed that
students were “sometimes not mature enough to handle” technology in the classroom,
since they seemed overwhelmed or distracted by it. Kathy did not experience these
challenges. However, she attributed this fact to the overall structure and expectations of
her classroom.
Benefits of Technology in the English Classroom
Just as Kathy and Susan experienced similar challenges in their use of technology, both
acknowledged similar benefits. Both saw technology as a “savings” to their classroom.
Since much of Susan’s instruction utilized PowerPoint slides, she could reuse the slides
and avoid remaking materials. Kathy also noted this benefit, adding that she also
appreciated the savings of paper and time. By having students respond to questions she
posted on the SmartBoard, she avoided providing each student with a paper copy of the
activities.
Both teachers noted—and observations confirmed—that their students enjoyed the use of
technology in their instruction, specifically the use of audio CD versions of the novels
under study. Kathy viewed this technology, as well as others, as a way to differentiate
instruction: “I do know that [the CDs] capture the attention…of my audio learners. One of
my goals is to incorporate more audio technology into my class to address those
learners.”
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Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 13(3)
Observations of the teachers confirmed that more students responded to questions when
they were allowed to go to the SmartBoard to provide an answer or follow along in novels
with the audio CDs. In Susan’s class, for example, students eagerly volunteered to show
their projects and respond to questions when able to use the computer or SmartBoard.
When students appeared motivated or engaged by the use of technology, Susan saw this
as an outcome of students’ ability to interact with her instruction on the SmartBoard
rather than listening to a lecture. Kathy agreed, noting that students liked to help her use
the SmartBoard by “running everything” and “underlining things and writing on it.”
During observations in both classes, students who were quiet during other components of
instruction, like whole-class discussion, volunteered more when they could use the
SmartBoard.
Kathy and Susan valued teaching students how to use technology that could be used for
other purposes. Kathy’s students used Microsoft Publisher to create professional looking
brochures rather than creating them with traditional materials, providing options for
formatting, text, fonts, images, and spell-check, while teaching students how to use the
specific software. Kathy also maintained a classroom website for students and parents to
access copies of class materials and schedules. Susan believed it was important for
students to be exposed to and provided experiences with different technology, such as
creating websites and developing PowerPoint presentations. Both teachers noted that
they needed to value technology, in part, because students were using it as part of their
daily life.
Susan explained that it was important to consider different technologies and integrate
them into instruction so that students were well prepared for life beyond the classroom;
even if they were not college-bound, for example, she believed that students needed to
know how to “search the web and find resources.”
Similarly, Kathy believed it was “important to teach with technology to give [students]
opportunities to use technologies and to get experiences with different skills to help them
later and in other classes.” As Kathy explained, “I, as a teacher, need to stay abreast and
use what is out there to reach students. If [technology] is one way, then I need to do that
and make it work.”
Teaching With Technology
Technology offers a means to differentiate instruction, motivate students, improve
instruction, provide visual cues, and improve learning, especially in the area of literacy
(O’Neil & Perez, 2003; Shoffner, de Oliveira & Angus, 2010; Sternberg et al., 2007).
Additionally, technology has a potentially positive impact on secondary ELA instruction
when used in and selected appropriately for classroom learning (Swenson, 2006). The
International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE, 2008) promoted the use of
technology in instruction to customize students’ learning experiences and provide a
variety of instructional methods. NCTE (2010) echoed these benefits while emphasizing
the importance of using technology to prepare students for postschool outcomes.
Throughout this study, Kathy and Susan stated many advantages of using technology in
classroom instruction: reaching a variety of learning styles, differentiating instruction,
providing visual supports, providing new experiences, and motivating students. For
example, the teachers’ use of the Great Expectations audio CDs allowed them to reach
students who struggled to read the text independently, while the visual nature of the
SmartBoard provided cues and illustrations to visual learners.
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Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 13(3)
Kathy and Susan also emphasized the importance of technological literacy, defined as
having the computing and technological skills to support learning, communication,
performance, and overall productivity (Newby, Stepich, Lehman, & Russell, 2006). The
teachers saw technology as a component of the English curriculum, supporting and
enhancing instruction while preparing and supporting students to become technologically
literate for their futures outside of the classroom.
Both teachers’ instructional uses of technology align with the NCTE’s (2008) position
that English teachers must intentionally work to support students’ proficiency with
technology in order to prepare them for the 21st century. Secondary English instruction is
a natural venue to integrate technological literacy skills, such as preparing presentations,
creating professional brochures, and communicating through email (Bailey, 2009; Holum
& Gahala, 2001).
A positive perception of technology use, coupled with positive experiences using the
technology, encouraged the teachers in this study to integrate technology into their
instruction. As other authors have noted, positive perceptions and experience can support
teachers’ view of technology as an intrinsic part of pedagogy and curriculum rather than a
supplemental component (Shoffner, 2007, 2009; Ertmer, 1999; Levin & Wadmany,
2006/2007; Pope & Golub, 2000).
However, teachers must know how to integrate technology effectively into their
instruction in order to maximize its potential for student learning (i.e., TPCK). As Cuban,
Kirkpatrick, and Peck (2001) have noted, access to technology does not necessitate
effective use. Susan and Kathy reported having little to no training with the technology
available to them, despite their need for this support. This outcome is echoed across
educational research: A major barrier to technology use is the lack of knowledge and
training (Ertmer, 1999; Ertmer et al., 2006; Hew & Brush, 2007) coupled with a lack of
support in how to use technology, either technically or administratively (Ertmer et al.,
2004).
Kathy’s and Susan’s experiences revealed these same challenges: a lack of training in and
experience with the available technology. Both said that additional time to prepare
technology-rich instruction, increased support for technology use, and one-on-one
training (specifically with the SmartBoard) would help them better integrate technology
effectively in their instruction.
TPCK is an important element of a teacher’s knowledge, since ineffective technology use
may hinder instruction instead of supporting it (Hughes, 2005; Young & Bush, 2004).
While instruction with specific technologies is an important component of technology
use, teachers must be willing to use and learn about technology in the absence of such
training. Kathy and Susan appeared to understand this differentiation, for example,
noting their need for training with and support for the SmartBoard but continuing to
learn about the different functions from their experiences and other colleagues.
Teaching experience may indeed lead to better or more effective uses of technology
during instruction, independent of a teacher’s experiences with a specific technology
(Hughes, 2005; Ruthven, Hennessy, & Brindley, 2004). For example, Kathy’s status as an
experienced teacher may have supported more effective instruction, regardless of
whether technology was used, while Susan’s status as a novice teacher may have
influenced her students’ off-task behavior when transitioning between or using
technology.
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Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 13(3)
Implications
Despite its focus on in-service teachers, this study holds several implications for teacher
educators and preservice teachers. Kathy and Susan noted their need for additional
training and support to integrate technology more effectively into their ELA instruction.
Such support for practicing teachers is a well-recognized issue, focused on teachers’
abilities to use technology, generally, and to apply and integrate technology into
classroom instruction, specifically (Ertmer, 1999; Ertmer et al., 2006; Hughes, 2005;
ISTE, 2008).
While such training should be available to in-service teachers, teacher preparation should
also include more focused work with technology to support preservice English teachers’
understanding of technology integration in their future instruction. Moreover, preservice
teachers’ coursework should be grounded in the TPCK framework in order to address the
manipulation of specific technologies for instruction. Such training would support the
development of teachers’ ability “to flexibly navigate the spaces defined by the three
elements of content, pedagogy, and technology and the complex interactions among these
elements in specific contexts” (Koehler & Mishra, 2009, Technology, Pedagogy, and
Content Knowledge section, para 2)
Second, use of any technology is closely connected to availability, as seen in Kathy’s and
Susan’s limited access to the school’s computer lab and lack of access to different
technologies suited to the ELA classroom. To counter this issue, preservice English
teachers must learn how to remain flexible in their instruction while developing their
understanding and use of available technology—from those provided by the school to
those freely available through the Internet. Teacher educators must address specific
technologies that support teaching and learning while developing preservice teachers’
abilities to think creatively and flexibly when choosing and using any technology in the
classroom.
Additionally, teacher education should model effective uses of content-specific technology
and provide opportunities for technology-related instructional decisions beyond the
typical stand-alone technology integration course. Both teachers in this study valued the
use of technology in their teaching, despite the limitations they faced, encouraging
researchers to examine how best to prepare preservice English teachers to integrate
technology into their instructional practice.
Ultimately, preservice English teachers will become practicing English teachers who are
expected to use effective teaching methods—technology-based or otherwise—for their
English instruction. Thus, it is important to prepare preservice teachers effectively to
know both when and how to integrate technology during instruction. Pope and Golub
(2000) have suggested several guiding principles specific to English teacher preparation
for instructional technology integration, including (a) introducing different technologies
that support both instructional and pedagogical goals; (b) reinforcing that teachers
should know how to effectively model the use of technologies to their students; (c)
addressing how to evaluate technologies for instructional purposes; and (d) encouraging
reflection and evaluation on instruction with and without technologies. These principles
can be taught, modeled and reinforced with preservice teachers to support their
instructional decisions when they enter the classroom.
Other fields, such as special education, elementary education, and science education,
have suggested providing early experiences with technology use while delivering
instruction and field experiences that model effective technology integration (Anderson &
Perch-Hogan, 2001). When such experiences are not available, paper-based or video-
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Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 13(3)
based case studies have also been used successfully to increase preservice teachers’
awareness of different technologies and their integration into instruction (Boiling, 2007;
Bulgar, 2007; Hewitt, Pedretti, Bencze, Vaillancourt, & Yoon, 2003; Van Laarhoven et al.,
2008). Preservice English teachers would also benefit from experience with different
technologies in the context of their methods courses to support understanding of their
purposes in the classroom and when and how to use them for instruction.
Conclusion
While this study focused on the experiences of two English teachers and is, therefore, not
generalizable, their experiences may parallel those of teachers around the country and
across other academic content areas: a lack of support, a lack of training, a lack of access
to technologies, but a desire to integrate technologies because of the advantages provided
for student instruction. Both Kathy and Susan saw value in using technology in their
instruction, despite limited access to English-specific resources to support that
instruction.
The challenges of access to and resources for using technology in classroom instruction
were balanced by the advantages of student motivation, engagement, and saved time in
creating instructional materials. While both teachers illustrated different aspects of
technology use in their instruction, their experiences offer insight into the role of
technology in and value for secondary ELA instruction.
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Author Information
Sara Flanagan
University of Kentucky
Email: sara.flanagan@uky.edu
Melanie Shoffner
Purdue University
Email: shoffner@purdue.edu
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Teachers’ Use of Educational Technology in U.S.
Public Schools: 2009
First Look
NCES 2010-040
U . S . D E PA R T M E N T O F E D U C AT I O N
Teachers’ Use of Educational
Technology in U.S. Public Schools:
2009
First Look
MAY 2010
Lucinda Gray
Nina Thomas
Laurie Lewis
Westat
Peter Tice
Project Officer
National Center for Education Statistics
NCES 2010–040
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
U.S. Department of Education
Arne Duncan
Secretary
Institute of Education Sciences
John Q. Easton
Director
National Center for Education Statistics
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Deputy Commissioner
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Acknowledgments
The authors would like to recognize the teachers in public elementary and secondary schools who
provided data on educational technology upon which the report is based. In addition, we thank the
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iii
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Contents
Page
Acknowledgments ......................................................................................................................
iii
List of Tables ..............................................................................................................................
vi
Appendix A Tables .....................................................................................................................
vii
Appendix B Tables ......................................................................................................................
viii
First Look Summary ...................................................................................................................
1
Introduction ........................................................................................................................
Selected Findings ...............................................................................................................
1
3
Tables .........................................................................................................................................
5
Related Reports ..........................................................................................................................
21
Appendix A: Standard Error Tables ..........................................................................................
A-1
Appendix B: Technical Notes ...................................................................................................
B-1
Appendix C: Questionnaire .......................................................................................................
C-1
v
List of Tables
Table
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Page
Percent of teachers with computers in the classroom every day and percent that can
bring computers into the classroom, ratio of students in the classroom to these
computers, and percent of these computers with Internet access, by school and
teacher characteristics: 2009 ............................................................................................
5
Percentage distribution of teachers reporting how frequently they or their students
use computers during instructional time in the classroom and in other locations in
the school, by school and teacher characteristics: 2009 ..................................................
6
Percent of teachers reporting the availability of various technology devices, and of
those with the devices available, percent that reported using the devices sometimes
or often for instruction during their classes, by school and teacher characteristics:
2009 .................................................................................................................................
7
Percent of teachers reporting that a system on their school or district network was
available for various activities, and of those with a system available, percent that
reported using the system sometimes or often, by school and teacher characteristics:
2009 .................................................................................................................................
9
Percent of teachers reporting that remote access to various school or district
computer applications, documents, or data was available, and of those with remote
access available, percent that reported using it sometimes or often, by school and
teacher characteristics: 2009 ............................................................................................
10
Percent of teachers reporting how frequently they used various types of software
and Internet sites for classroom preparation, instruction, or administrative tasks, by
school and teacher characteristics: 2009 ..........................................................................
11
Percent of teachers reporting how frequently their students performed various
activities using educational technology during their classes, based on teachers
reporting that the activity applied to their students, by school and teacher
characteristics: 2009 ........................................................................................................
13
Percent of teachers reporting how frequently they used various modes of technology
to communicate with parents or students, by school and teacher characteristics:
2009 .................................................................................................................................
15
Percent of teachers reporting the extent to which various kinds of education and
training prepared them to make effective use of educational technology for
instruction, by school and teacher characteristics: 2009 ..................................................
17
Percentage distribution of teachers reporting the number of hours spent in
professional development activities for educational technology during the last 12
months, by school and teacher characteristics: 2009 .......................................................
18
Percentage distribution of teachers who reported participating in professional
development activities for educational technology during the last 12 months
reporting agreement or disagreement with various statements about those activities,
by school and teacher characteristics: 2009 .....................................................................
19
vi
Appendix A Tables
Table
1a.
2a.
3a.
4a.
5a.
6a.
7a.
8a.
9a.
10a.
11a.
Page
Standard errors for the percent of teachers with computers in the classroom every
day and percent that can bring computers into the classroom, ratio of students in the
classroom to these computers, and percent of these computers with Internet access,
by school and teacher characteristics: 2009 .....................................................................
A-3
Standard errors for the percentage distribution of teachers reporting how frequently
they or their students use computers during instructional time in the classroom and
in other locations in the school, by school and teacher characteristics: 2009 ..................
A-4
Standard errors for the percent of teachers reporting the availability of various
technology devices, and of those with the devices available, percent that reported
using the devices sometimes or often for instruction during their classes, by school
and teacher characteristics: 2009 .....................................................................................
A-5
Standard errors for the percent of teachers reporting that a system on their school or
district network was available for various activities, and of those with a system
available, percent that reported using the system sometimes or often, by school and
teacher characteristics: 2009 ............................................................................................
A-7
Standard errors for the percent of teachers reporting that remote access to various
school or district computer applications, documents, or data was available, and of
those with remote access available, percent that reported using it sometimes or
often, by school and teacher characteristics: 2009...........................................................
A-8
Standard errors for the percent of teachers reporting how frequently they used
various types of software and Internet sites for classroom preparation, instruction, or
administrative tasks, by school and teacher characteristics: 2009 ...................................
A-9
Standard errors for the percent of teachers reporting how frequently their students
performed various activities using educational technology during their classes,
based on teachers reporting that the activity applied to their students, by school and
teacher characteristics: 2009 ............................................................................................
A-11
Standard errors for the percent of teachers reporting how frequently they used
various modes of technology to communicate with parents or students, by school
and teacher characteristics: 2009 .....................................................................................
A-13
Standard errors for the percent of teachers reporting the extent to which various
kinds of education and training prepared them to make effective use of educational
technology for instruction, by school and teacher characteristics: 2009 .........................
A-15
Standard errors for the percentage distribution of teachers reporting the number of
hours spent in professional development activities for educational technology
during the last 12 months, by school and teacher characteristics: 2009 ..........................
A-16
Standard errors for the percentage distribution of teachers who reported
participating in professional development activities for educational technology
during the last 12 months reporting agreement or disagreement with various
statements about those activities, by school and teacher characteristics: 2009 ...............
A-17
vii
Appendix B Tables
Table
B-1.
B-2.
Page
Number and percent of responding teachers in the study sample, and estimated
number and percent of teachers the sample represents, by school and teacher
characteristics: 2009 ........................................................................................................
B-4
Percent of cases with imputed data in the respondent sample, and percent of cases
with imputed data the sample represents, by questionnaire item: 2009 ..........................
B-6
viii
First Look Summary
Introduction
This report provides national data on the availability and use of educational technology among teachers in
public elementary and secondary schools during the winter and spring of 2009. The data are the results of a
national teacher-level survey that is one of a set that includes district, school, and teacher surveys on
educational technology.1 Every year between 1994 and 2005 (with the exception of 2004), the Office of
Educational Technology (OET) in the U.S. Department of Education asked the National Center for Education
Statistics (NCES) to conduct a survey of public schools to track access to information technology in schools
and classrooms. NCES used its Fast Response Survey System (FRSS) to conduct these surveys. For fall
2008,2 this OET-sponsored technology study was redesigned and expanded to incorporate surveys at the
district, school, and teacher levels. These three surveys provide complementary information and together cover
a broader range of topics than would be possible with one survey alone. Prior to 2008, the surveys focused on
computer and Internet access and use, as well as procedures to prevent student access to inappropriate material
on the Internet and teacher professional development on technology use.3 The set of 2008 surveys collected
data on availability and use for a range of educational technology resources, such as district and school
networks, computers, devices that enhance the capabilities of computers for instruction, and computer
software. They also collected information on leadership and staff support for educational technology within
districts and schools.
During the design phase for the set of 2008 surveys, research was conducted to determine how specific topics
and survey questions should be distributed across the three surveys. The surveys were developed to reflect
how information on educational technology is kept within most public school systems. This report presents
results from the teacher-level survey, including information on the use of computers and Internet access in the
classroom; availability and use of computing devices and software, teachers’ use of school or district networks
(including remote access); students’ use of educational technology; teachers’ preparation to use educational
technology for instruction; and technology-related professional development activities. The teacher survey
covers the following specific topics:
Number of computers located in the teacher’s classroom every day and number that can be brought into
the classroom;
Internet access for the computers available in the classroom;
Availability and frequency of use for computers and other technology devices during instructional time;
Availability and frequency that teachers use systems on the school or district network for various
activities;
Remote access (e.g., access from home) for teachers to use various school or district computer applications
or data;
Types of software and Internet sites used by teachers for classroom preparation, instruction, and
administrative tasks;
Students’ use of educational technology during classes;
1
For results from the district-level survey, see Educational Technology in Public School Districts: Fall 2008 (NCES 2010–003) at
http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2010003. For results from the school-level survey, see Educational Technology in U.S. Public
Schools: Fall 2008 (NCES 2010–034) at http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2010034.
2
The district and school surveys collected data for fall 2008. For the teacher survey, sampling lists were collected from schools beginning in fall
2008, and survey data were collected from teachers beginning in January 2009.
3
A list of related reports from the 1994 through 2005 FRSS technology surveys of public schools may be found in the Related Reports section.
1
Modes of technology used by teachers to communicate with parents and students;
Teacher training and preparation to use educational technology for instruction; and
Number of hours spent in professional development for educational technology during the previous
12 months, and teachers’ opinions about statements related to this professional development.
The questionnaire instructed teachers to use the following definitions when answering the survey.
Technology: Information technology such as computers, devices that can be attached to computers
(e.g., LCD projector, interactive whiteboard, digital camera), networks (e.g., Internet, local networks),
and computer software. We specifically are not including non-computer technologies such as
overhead projectors and VCRs. 4
Classroom response system: Wireless system allowing a teacher to pose a question and students to
respond using ―clickers‖ or hand-held response pads, with responses compiled on a computer.
Document camera: Device that transmits images of 2- or 3-dimensional objects, text, or graphics to
a computer monitor or LCD projector.
Blogs: Websites where an individual or group creates a running log of entries that can be read by
other users, such as in a journal.
Wikis: Collaborative websites that allow users to freely create and edit web page content (e.g.,
Wikipedia).
Social networking websites: Online social networks for communities of people who share interests
and activities or who are interested in exploring the interests and activities of others (e.g., Facebook,
MySpace).
Teacher in a self-contained classroom: Teaches all or most academic subjects to the same group of
students all or most of the day.
NCES in the Institute of Education Sciences conducted this FRSS survey during the 2008–09 school year, with
collection of sampling lists starting in September 2008 and collection of teacher surveys starting in January
2009. FRSS is a survey system designed to collect small amounts of issue-oriented data from a nationally
representative sample of districts, schools, or teachers with minimal burden on respondents and within a
relatively short period of time. For this survey, 2,005 public schools in the 50 states and the District of
Columbia were asked to provide sampling lists of full-time teachers. Questionnaires were mailed to 4,133
teachers selected from these sampling lists. The unweighted and weighted list collection response rates were
80 percent and 81 percent, respectively. The unweighted and weighted teacher response rates were both 79
percent, resulting in overall response rates of 64 percent (unweighted) and 65 percent (weighted).5 The survey
weights were adjusted for list collection and questionnaire nonresponse, and the data were then weighted to
yield national estimates that represent all full-time teachers in regular public elementary and secondary schools
in the United States. The results of a nonresponse bias analysis conducted for the survey to inform the
nonresponse weight adjustments, along with additional details about the survey methodology, response rates,
and data reliability, are presented in appendix B.
4
5
This is the exact wording of the definition provided to respondents on the questionnaire. LCD is the acronym for liquid crystal display.
The weighted list collection was calculated using the school base weight without nonresponse adjustment. The weighted teacher response rate
was calculated using a base weight that included the school-level and teacher-level weights but did not include the school or teacher
nonresponse adjustments. The overall weighted response rate was calculated as the product of the weighted list collection and weighted teacher
response rates.
2
Because the purpose of this report is to introduce new NCES data through the presentation of tables containing
descriptive information, only selected findings are presented. These findings have been chosen to demonstrate
the range of information available from the FRSS study rather than to discuss all of the observed differences;
they are not meant to emphasize any particular issue. The findings are based on self-reported data from public
school teachers.
All specific statements of comparisons made in the bullets have been tested for statistical significance at the
.05 level using Student’s t-statistics to ensure that the differences are larger than those that might be expected
due to sampling variation. Adjustments for multiple comparisons were not included. Many of the variables
examined are related to one another, and complex interactions and relationships have not been explored.
Tables of standard error estimates are provided in appendix A. Detailed information about the survey
methodology is provided in appendix B, and the questionnaire can be found in appendix C. Appendix B also
includes definitions of the analysis variables (i.e., school characteristics) and terms used in the report.
Selected Findings
This section presents key findings on teachers’ use of educational technology in public schools during the
winter and spring of 2009.
Ninety-seven percent of teachers had one or more computers located in the classroom every day, while
54 percent could bring computers into the classroom (table 1). Internet access was available for 93 percent
of the computers located in the classroom every day and for 96 percent of the computers that could be
brought into the classroom. The ratio of students to computers in the classroom every day was 5.3 to 1.
Teachers reported that they or their students used computers in the classroom during instructional time
often (40 percent) or sometimes (29 percent) (table 2). Teachers reported that they or their students used
computers in other locations in the school during instructional time often (29 percent) or sometimes
(43 percent).
Teachers reported having the following technology devices either available as needed or in the classroom
every day: LCD (liquid crystal display) or DLP (digital light processing) projectors (36 and 48 percent,
respectively), interactive whiteboards (28 and 23 percent, respectively), and digital cameras (64 and
14 percent, respectively) (table 3). Of the teachers with the device available, the percentage that used it
sometimes or often for instruction was 72 percent for LCD or DLP projectors, 57 percent for interactive
whiteboards, and 49 percent for digital cameras.
Teachers indicated that a system on their school or district network was available for entering or viewing
the following: grades (94 percent), attendance records (93 percent), and results of student assessments (90
percent) (table 4). Of the teachers with one of these systems available, the percentage using it sometimes
or often was 92 percent (grades), 90 percent (attendance records), and 75 percent (student assessments).
Ninety-seven percent of teachers reported having remote access to school email, and of these teachers,
85 percent used this remote access sometimes or often (table 5). Eighty-one percent of teachers had remote
access to student data, and of these teachers, 61 percent used this type of access sometimes or often.
Teachers sometimes or often used the following for instructional or administrative purposes: word
processing software (96 percent), spreadsheets and graphing programs (61 percent), software for managing
student records (80 percent), software for making presentations (63 percent), and the Internet (94 percent)
(table 6).
Results differed by low and high poverty concentration of the school6 for the percentage of teachers that
reported their students used educational technology sometimes or often during classes to prepare written
text (66 and 56 percent, respectively), learn or practice basic skills (61 and 83 percent, respectively), and
6
Poverty concentration is based on the percent of students eligible for free or reduced-price lunch (less than 35 percent and 75 percent or more—
referred to as low and high poverty, respectively).
3
develop and present multimedia presentations (47 and 36 percent, respectively) (table 7). Percentages are
based on the teachers reporting that the activity applied to their students.
Differences were found among low and high poverty schools for the percentage of teachers who
sometimes or often did the following: used email or list-serve to send out group updates or information to
parents (69 percent compared to 39 percent) or to students (30 percent compared to 17 percent), used
email to address individual concerns with parents (92 percent compared to 48 percent) or with students (38
percent compared to 19 percent), used a course or teacher web page to communicate with parents (47
percent compared to 30 percent) or with students (36 percent compared to 18 percent) (table 8).
The percentage of teachers that reported that the following activities prepared them (to a moderate or
major extent) to make effective use of educational technology for instruction are 61 percent for
professional development activities, 61 percent for training provided by school staff responsible for
technology support and/or integration, and 78 percent for independent learning (table 9).
The percentage of teachers that reported spending the following number of hours in professional
development activities for educational technology during the 12 months prior to completing the survey
was 13percent for none, 53 percent for 1 to 8 hours, 18 percent for 9 to16 hours, 9 percent for 17 to 32
hours, and 7 percent for 33 or more hours (table 10).
Of the teachers who participated in technology-related professional development during the 12 months
prior to completing the survey, 81 percent agreed that ―it met my goals and needs,‖ 88 percent agreed that
―it supported the goals and standards of my state, district, and school,‖ 87 percent agreed that ―it applied to
technology available in my school,‖ and 83 percent agreed that ―it was available at convenient times and
places‖ (table 11).
4
Table 1.
Percent of teachers with computers in the classroom every day and percent that can bring computers into the classroom, ratio of
students in the classroom to these computers, and percent of these computers with Internet access, by school and teacher
characteristics: 2009
Computers in the classroom
every day
Ratio of
Percent of
students in the
computers
Percent of
classroom to
with Internet
teachers1
computers2
access
Characteristic
All public school teachers ........................................
3
97
5.3
93
Computers that can be brought
into the classroom
Ratio of
Percent of
students in the
computers
Percent of
classroom to
with Internet
teachers1
computers2
access
54
2.4
96
Total computers (in or can be
brought into the classroom)
Ratio of
Percent of
students in the
computers
Percent of
classroom to
with Internet
teachers1
computers2
access
99
1.7
95
5
School instructional level
Elementary .................................................................
98
5.4
92
52
2.6
96
99
1.7
95
Secondary ..................................................................
95
5.2
94
57
2.3
96
98
1.6
96
School enrollment size
Less than 300 .............................................................
97
4.5
92
53
2.4
98
99
1.6
96
300 to 999 ..................................................................
97
5.4
94
53
2.5
96
99
1.7
95
1,000 or more .............................................................
96
5.3
92
56
2.3
96
99
1.6
95
Community type
City ............................................................................
96
5.2
92
54
2.7
95
99
1.8
94
Suburban ....................................................................
98
5.4
93
56
2.3
97
99
1.6
96
Town ..........................................................................
96
5.2
93
52
2.7
96
99
1.8
95
Rural ..........................................................................
97
5.3
95
52
2.4
95
99
1.6
95
Percent of students in the school eligible for
free or reduced-price lunch
Less than 35 percent ..................................................
96
5.9
93
61
2.1
97
99
1.5
96
35 to 49 percent .........................................................
98
5.4
92
52
2.5
96
99
1.7
94
50 to 74 percent .........................................................
97
4.9
94
47
2.9
96
98
1.8
95
75 percent or more .....................................................
97
4.7
93
50
3.0
94
1004
1.8
94
Main teaching assignment
General education in self-contained classroom ..........
99
5.5
91
49
3.1
96
99
2.0
94
Mathematics/computer science, science ....................
95
6.6
92
61
2.0
96
99
1.5
95
Other academic subject5..............................................
96
7.7
97
60
2.2
97
99
1.7
97
Special education, English as a second
language ................................................................
99
3.1
92
49
1.7
96
99
1.1
95
Other assignment6 .......................................................
94
3.4
93
53
3.0
96
97
1.6
95
Elementary/secondary teaching experience
3 or fewer years .........................................................
95
5.5
95
53
2.6
93
99
1.8
94
4 to 9 years .................................................................
97
5.4
94
57
2.2
97
99
1.6
96
10 to 19 years .............................................................
97
5.6
91
53
2.5
97
99
1.7
95
20 or more years ........................................................
97
4.8
93
52
2.5
96
99
1.6
95
1
Percent of teachers with one or more computers with the characteristic.
2
Ratio computed by dividing the number of students in all teachers’ classrooms by the number of computers with the characteristic.
3
Data for combined schools (those with both elementary and secondary grades) are included in the totals and in analyses by other school characteristics but are not shown separately.
4
Rounds to 100 percent.
5
Other academic subjects include English/language arts, foreign languages, and social sciences/social studies.
6
Other assignments include arts and music; health/physical education; vocational, career, or technical education; and other (respondent asked to specify).
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Fast Response Survey System (FRSS), ―Teachers’ Use of Educational Technology in U.S. Public Schools,‖ FRSS
95, 2009; and Common Core of Data, ―Public Elementary/Secondary School Universe Survey,‖ 2005–06.
Table 2.
Percentage distribution of teachers reporting how frequently they or their students use computers during instructional time in the
classroom and in other locations in the school, by school and teacher characteristics: 2009
In the classroom
Not
available
Characteristic
All public school teachers ........................................
1
1
In other locations in the school
Never
Rarely
Sometimes
Often
Not
available
10
19
29
40
2
Never
Rarely
Sometimes
Often
8
19
43
29
6
School instructional level
Elementary .................................................................
1
8
17
31
44
2
7
16
44
31
Secondary ..................................................................
2
16
23
25
34
2
10
25
40
24
School enrollment size
Less than 300 .............................................................
1
9
23
28
39
3
6
18
47
27
300 to 999 ..................................................................
1
9
18
30
43
2
7
16
44
32
1,000 or more .............................................................
1
15
19
28
36
2
9
26
41
22
Community type
City ............................................................................
1
10
19
30
40
2
8
20
44
26
Suburban ....................................................................
1
11
18
30
40
2
8
19
39
31
Town ..........................................................................
1
9
19
25
46
1
7
18
51
24
Rural ..........................................................................
1
11
18
31
38
1
7
18
44
30
Percent of students in the school eligible for
free or reduced-price lunch
Less than 35 percent ..................................................
1
12
21
29
36
1
7
20
43
29
35 to 49 percent .........................................................
1!
14
17
31
37
1
8
19
45
26
50 to 74 percent .........................................................
2
8
18
28
44
3
8
18
44
27
75 percent or more .....................................................
#
9
15
28
48
2
7
17
41
34
Main teaching assignment
General education in self-contained
classroom .............................................................
1
6
13
33
47
2
6
12
46
34
Mathematics/computer science, science ....................
1
15
22
26
36
3
11
25
40
21
Other academic subject2..............................................
1
14
24
29
32
1!
3
21
46
29
Special education, English as a second
language ................................................................
‡
5
21
29
44
‡
7
22
44
26
Other assignment3 .......................................................
3
14
19
24
41
1
15
21
35
27
Elementary/secondary teaching experience
3 or fewer years .........................................................
1
13
22
25
39
3
8
24
37
28
4 to 9 years .................................................................
1
11
21
28
40
2
8
23
42
26
10 to 19 years .............................................................
1
10
19
32
38
1
6
16
46
31
20 or more years ........................................................
1
10
14
31
44
2
9
15
44
30
# Rounds to zero.
! Interpret data with caution; the coefficient of variation is greater than 50 percent.
‡ Reporting standards not met.
1
Data for combined schools (those with both elementary and secondary grades) are included in the totals and in analyses by other school characteristics but are not shown separately.
2
Other academic subjects include English/language arts, foreign languages, and social sciences/social studies.
3
Other assignments include arts and music; health/physical education; vocational, career, or technical education; and other (respondent asked to specify).
NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals due to rounding.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Fast Response Survey System (FRSS), ―Teachers’ Use of Educational Technology in U.S. Public Schools,‖ FRSS
95, 2009; and Common Core of Data, ―Public Elementary/Secondary School Universe Survey,‖ 2005–06.
Table 3.
Percent of teachers reporting the availability of various technology devices, and of those w...
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