UNIT III STUDY GUIDE
The Great War
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit III
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
5. Contrast varied perspectives concerning America’s presence in the world.
5.1 Discuss America’s experience in becoming a world military power during World War I (WWI).
5.2 Describe reactions to America’s impact on the world stage during the WWI era.
Course/Unit
Learning Outcomes
5.1
5.2
Learning Activity
Unit Lesson
Readings: U.S. History
Unit III Scholarly Activity
Unit Lesson
Readings: U.S. History
Unit III Scholarly Activity
Reading Assignment
Throughout this course, you will be provided with sections of content from the online resource U.S. History.
You may be tested on your knowledge and understanding of the material listed below as well as the
information presented in the unit lesson. Click on the link below to access your material.
Click here to access this unit’s readings from U.S. History. The chapter/section titles are also provided below.
Chapter 22 (Sections 22.1–22.5): Age of Empire: American Foreign Policy, 1890-1914
Chapter 23 (Sections 23.1–23.5): Americans and the Great War, 1914-1919
Unit Lesson
We ended the previous unit with the ascent of Teddy Roosevelt taking over as president for the deceased
McKinley. The turn of the century would prove to be a period of great change for the United States, and it
began with a larger-than-life figure in the Oval Office.
Roosevelt was viewed as a warrior, sportsman, cowboy, activist, reformer, and politician. He led the American
people with a confidence and charisma that inspired feelings of American infallibility and arrogance.
Politically, his influence is perhaps best known for trust-busting, or enforcing regulations on the monopolies
that had overtaken the railroads, oil, and other economic entities, which used laissez-faire tactics to widen the
economic gap. Roosevelt also believed in holding these corruptive influences publicly liable, which would
become synonymous with his role in supporting muckrakers—and arguably being one. He was first a man of
the citizens, hoping to build relationships rather than enemies, and he even served as a mediator of labor
disputes such as with the United Mine Workers (UMW). He did not seek to punish the successful but simply to
ensure that the system was fair for all.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the contiguous U.S. map, with the exception of a few southwestern
territories, closely resembled that of modern America—at least politically. The treatment of Hawaii and
Alaska, as protected U.S. territories at the time, along with Roosevelt’s arrogance, led to questions about
America’s imperial potential. The same “big stick” that Roosevelt had used to bust corrupt corporations would
also sometimes reach beyond U.S. boundaries. He would be directly influential in U.S. actions in Cuba and
Panama. As a Navy man, he was an advocate of international ambition. The idea of the United States as a
“world police” agency would be made law with his Roosevelt Corollary, which was an amendment to the
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Monroe Doctrine that spelled out the United States’ role as an international police
in theGUIDE
Western
UNITpower
x STUDY
Hemisphere.
Title
The threat of a developing American
empire became very apparent under
Roosevelt’s watch. Though his terms
would not include the inclusion of any
particular U.S. military conflicts, it is
arguably fair to consider his time as
executive similar to that of wartime
presidents. His impact in foreign affairs
would change U.S. positioning in the
world and set the stage for leaving the
Western Hemisphere in case of world
conflict.
Fluctuations in Unity
Roosevelt would serve the remainder of
McKinley’s term and earn reelection the
following term. He was so popular as
President that even his chosen
successor, William Howard Taft, would
fail to keep the nation, or the Republican
Party, united. Taft was not the
Cartoon of Teddy Roosevelt and the big stick
charismatic presence Roosevelt had
(Rogers, 1904)
been, and he also proved susceptible to
swaying from Congress and allowed the
courts to return to social politics. In a few short years, almost all of Roosevelt’s good will with the American
people was undone by rivals from both within and outside of the party. Anti-American sentiment was even
fostered abroad due to unsupported economic plans.
In 1912, one of the more fascinating political battles in American history occurred. A third political party, the
Bull Moose Party, came out of nowhere to attack the Taft Administration. Led by former President Teddy
Roosevelt, this political family feud would ultimately seal the victory for Democrat Woodrow Wilson to take
office in 1913. Wilson, however, needed more than a civil conflict to guarantee victory. With the failures of
Taft, progressivism once again gained steam, and Socialist Eugene Debs was again a legitimate national
contender for office. Though four names were on the ballot, Wilson was the clear victor. The nation was the
most politically divided it had been since Lincoln was in office, but Wilson had support throughout the nation,
and helped to unite the nation after what had been a disaster for Republican supporters.
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Wilson, like Roosevelt, was UNIT
a competent
economist
x STUDY
GUIDE and a
bulldog for reform. He wouldTitle
quickly attack trusts, stabilize
trade and taxation, and put the banks back in check; in
addition, his Federal Reserve Act of 1913 gave the federal
government an economic control that it had lacked since the
Jackson Administration. Progressivism was in remission,
except for a few strategic programs. Wilson had patched the
nation back together, but his reelection in 1916 was won on
a different platform: isolationism and neutrality. War had
broken out in Europe, and the United States, with its melting
pot of cultures, was a wildcard. Wilson knew that war could
be an economic savior from the recession of 1913 but a
political death sentence if the United States became directly
involved. His best move was keeping the United States out
of the fight while serving as supplier to those fighting.
The Path to War
Woodrow Wilson was the President of the United States
for the entire war.
(Pach Brothers, 1912)
Oddly enough, the United States’ path to joining the war in
Europe would start with disputes in Central America. The
Monroe Doctrine once again encouraged U.S. influence in
the Americas, and, like Roosevelt, Wilson felt that the U.S.
model was to be the savior for struggling nations to the
south. The United States wanted to firm up economic ties in
the Caribbean and Central America and felt that helping to
secure pro-U.S. leadership would be the best way to do so.
Influences in Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and Nicaragua provided some positive results, but adjacent
Mexico would incite a series of challenges. A takeover of Mexico by anti-U.S. General Victoriano Huerta
would quickly result in U.S. interference. When Huerta fled to Spain, another rebellion emerged—this one
under the leadership of Francisco “Pancho” Villa. Villa proved to be more adept at avoiding U.S. pressure,
and with the war in Europe continuing to intensify, Wilson could not afford to dispatch too many resources to
the dispute.
On February 25th, 1917, the British intercepted a letter from Germany’s Foreign Secretary Arthur
Zimmerman. This letter stated that if Mexico would declare war on the United States, Germany would return
its former holdings in the American Southwest to Mexico at the end of the war. In response, Wilson asked
Congress to allow the arming of American merchant ships; the United States remained neutral, unnerved by
Germany’s unrestricted submarine warfare. While Wilson preached neutrality, the United States was not
entirely out of the war’s influence. The U.S. trade with Britain constituted almost half of the country’s wartime
supplies, and Wilson even approved billions of dollars in U.S. loans to cover the growing cost of the allied war
effort. This trade was so lucrative that even the blockade by Britain against Germany did not significantly faze
U.S. interests.
In response to the British blockade, on May 7, 1915, German U-boats in the Eastern Atlantic sunk a luxury
liner off the coast of Ireland carrying 128 U.S. citizens. Germany rationalized the sinking as an act of war, as
the liner was carrying war supplies. Tensions calmed with the United States until March of 1917, when
Germany again targeted passenger vessels that it considered to be a covert part of the war effort. These
attacks would kill another 66 U.S. citizens, and with the Zimmerman threat from only weeks before, Wilson
had no choice but to ask Congress to declare war on Germany.
The First World War
World War I began in 1914 with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary as he
paraded in the city of Sarajevo. However, it can be argued that the battle lines were drawn much earlier. Upon
the United States’ entry into the war, Europe was divided between the Central Powers (i.e., the Triple
Alliance), which included the nations of Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria, and
the Allied Powers (i.e., the Triple Entente), which included Great Britain, France, Japan, and Russia. The war
was as much a family feud as it was a political powder keg. Monarchs from multiple nations, including the
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aforementioned Franz Ferdinand of Austria as well as Wilhelm II of Germany, UNIT
Nicholas
II of Russia,
x STUDY
GUIDEand
George V of Britain, all claimed some lineage to the Austrian Royal Family, which
Titlewas once also part of the
Holy Roman Empire. Some of the smaller nations would also boast leaders of great charisma and influence,
such as Italy’s ambitious Victor Emmanuel III, Serbia’s sickly Peter I, and the fearless Belgian Albert I.
These fronts, or battle lines, were crafted from a series
of alliances, which had been drafted over the previous
decades. The assassination of an Austrian heir by a
Bosnian extremist, Gavrilo Princip, was the spark
necessary to cause a territorial dispute in the Balkan
region to explode into a full-scale world conflict. Nation
after nation, compelled by their allies, declared war
against one another. Even the bloodline of the
influential Habsburg family, which included many of
the prominent royal families of Europe, was not
enough to suppress the chaos that politics and fear
had created.
Gavrilo Princip was a teenage Serbian militant who assassinated
Franz Ferdinand in 1914.
(Producer, 2013)
World War I is also known as the Great War. It was
the first modern war, the first trench war, and the last
war to be dominated by the traditional European
monarchies, which used nationalism as a method for
championing combat as a glorious rite of passage.
This conflict was brutal for those on the front lines, as
weeks to months at a time were spent crouching in dirt
trenches. Covered in filth and waste, gas masks at the
ready, soldiers had to hold their resolve while
preparing for the worst. Reinforcements and supplies
were not always on schedule or reliable; when there
was an advance, it was rarely more than a few feet.
For those who did brave “no-man’s land” between the
trenches, all too often, they had maybe only moments
to reach the next trench. Any gains meant braving a
sprint over barbed wire, mud, and fallen comrades, all
while machine gunfire mowed down entire lines of
soldiers.
The nationalistic ideals and image that had been portrayed were far from the truth, as the narratives from
those present reflect this more barbaric scene. Erich Maria Remarque’s unforgettable account of innocence
lost as a German soldier in All Quiet on the Western Front matches lesser known but equally horrific versions
from both sides of the conflict.
On the home front, the war received mixed reviews. In the mix of hysteria and fear from loved ones half a
world away, there was also a question of American purity, which became especially hostile, with even
multiple-generation Americans who had German ancestry being ostracized. Politically, on one side, Socialists
saw this as an unnecessary threat to the American people and fueled by a Capitalist agenda. On the other
side, Progressives saw this as an opportunity for reform; with the men away, there were opportunities for
others to advance and capitalize on the wartime production. This even fed into prohibition (Eighteenth
Amendment) as an effort to conserve resources. The suffrage debate would also quickly gain support in this
charged atmosphere.
By 1918, Wilson had changed his perspective to one of support for the betterment of the war. By 1919, the
Nineteenth Amendment was passed and then ratified in 1920, giving women the right to vote. It is important to
note, however, that there was still a heavy lobby against the passage of this suffrage bill; even in the
prohibition years, alcohol companies held a strong political pressure, and they were frantically jumping from
state to state to slow the passage.
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It would be a showdown in Nashville, Tennessee, that ultimately decided the bill’s
WithGUIDE
a strong sense
UNITfuture.
x STUDY
of anti-suffrage among the state congress, most did not ever expect the bill to Title
pass. The sudden
disappearance of large numbers from the Tennessee Congress kept the vote from reaching quorum. It would
take legal threats to return quorum to the chambers, and even then the outcome was still expected to be a
“no.” It was after receiving a letter from his mother that a shocking change of heart compelled one
representative, Harry Burn, to change his vote. This tipped the scale toward ratification, and women were
finally granted their voting rights. Women would have their first opportunity to vote in the presidential election
of 1920, which witnessed Republican Warren G. Harding take all but the American South. Eugene Debs
would run yet again as a Socialist, but in a charged post-war atmosphere, his support was barely registered.
By the time the U.S. entered the war, it was in its latter stages. The Bolsheviks, a Russian revolutionary
group, had taken control of Russia from Nicholas II and soon after pulled out of the war—essentially removing
the Eastern front. With the help of the draft (Selective Service Act) and some effective nationalist propaganda,
the U.S. built a military just shy of 5 million in number, including draftees and volunteers.
As at home, there was a cultural divide among different races, creeds, and cultures in the ranks of the
military. The 92nd Division, which was composed of African Americans, was the first such regiment to be
integrated with the French. Interestingly enough, being stationed in France became a kind of utopia for these
African Americans, as European prejudices were not as pronounced as those in the United States, and many
earned medals of valor that came with extended times at the front.
Most American soldiers would not see war until March 1918, when they were sent to reinforce the war-weary
French troops along the Western front. A couple months later, Wilhelm was forced to abdicate. Armistice Day,
November 11, 1918, would be the official ending date for the conflict.
Working Toward Peace and Cooperation
One of Wilson’s most infamous failures was his Fourteen Points plan, from which he hoped to inspire a
peaceful forum for debate and discussion, a proposed League of Nations reminiscent of today’s United
Nations. With the Democrats no longer in control of the legislature, this plan flopped on both the national and
international levels, failing to even receive the support of the U.S. Senate. Still, the year 1919 would see
official peace and strides made toward Wilson’s desired cooperation.
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There would also be sanctions that
gravely wounded the nations that
compromised the Central powers—
especially Germany—which would end
up on the cusp of total economic failure.
Left with mountains of debt and the loss
of the disputed Alsace-Lorraine region to
France, and without the right to retain a
standing army, Germany was a shell of
its former self, providing a dangerous
opportunity for a charismatic and
ambitious young German corporal
named Adolf Hitler. Other nations, too,
would suffer from these sanctions, many
of which were decided by Western
powers without account to local cultural
ties and potential new powder kegs. As
with the end of any conflict, so also ends
the wartime opportunities. This all too
often causes the economy to slow and
new “villains” to emerge. The new threat
would be any opposition to democracy.
The first Red Scare, which was a
politically charged public warning
against communism, emerged in full
force, with vengeance toward anyone
who threatened the American ideal. This
would include two major migrating
populations within U.S. borders:
Mexicans and African Americans.
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
The war years and economic
Cartoon about Kaiser Wilhelm considering Wilson’s 14-point plan
(Bushnell, 1918)
opportunities motivated the movement
of approximately 500,000 African
Americans to northern industrial cities in
search of work and an escape from the continued harsh realities in the South. In the following two decades,
another 500,000 also migrated, often as families came together. With day labor moving to industry,
opportunities opened in agricultural centers such as the American South and Southwest. It is from this
motivation that hundreds of thousands of Mexicans entered the United States in search of better lives and to
escape from corrupt governments. As their numbers grew, so did their voice, representation, and, just as
suddenly, renewed forms of segregation and hate.
These first two decades of the 20th century proved to have both pros and cons, as almost every community
would be drastically impacted by the war, migrations, or legal changes. As important as it is to consider the
international impact of an event such as World War I, it is also important to reflect on the local impact; for
some communities, entire generations of young adult men were lost, while in other communities, new laws led
to an upsurge in family potential. In still others, the entire demographic changed as the need for labor surged
during wartime production. The next 2 decades would be stark reminders of just how quickly life could change
and how even positive developments, such as the end of a bloody war, can have negative consequences.
References
Bushnell, E. A. (1918). Bushnell cartoon about Kaiser Wilhelm considering Wilson’s 14-point plan [Image].
Retrieved from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bushnell_cartoon_about_Kaiser_Wilhelm_considering_Wilso
n%27s_14-point_plan.jpg
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Pach Brothers. (1912). President Woodrow Wilson portrait [Photograph]. Retrieved
UNIT from
x STUDY GUIDE
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:President_Woodrow_Wilson_portrait_December_2_1912.jpg
Title
#/media/File:President_Woodrow_Wilson_portrait_December_2_1912.jpg
Producer. (2013). Gavrilo Pincip [Photograph]. Retrieved from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gavrilo_Princip_cropped.jpg
Rogers, W. A. (1904). Theodore Roosevelt and his big stick in the Caribbean [Image]. Retrieved from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tr-bigstick-cartoon.JPG
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UNIT IV STUDY GUIDE
The Great Depression and
the New Deal
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit IV
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
1. Describe the impact of industrial expansion on the evolution of big business in the United States.
1.1 Recognize how the New Deal attempted to impact business in America.
1.2 Describe the impact that the Great Depression had on America’s changing economic
landscape.
4. Summarize the impact of the Civil Rights Movement on America’s societal infrastructure.
4.1 Recognize the varied economic policies and New Deal programs that served as catalysts for
social growth.
4.2 Identify popular media figures associated with post-World War I (WWI) America.
4.3 Identify themes associated with the Great Depression era.
Course/Unit
Learning Outcomes
1.1
1.2
4.1
4.2
4.3
Learning Activity
Unit Lesson
Readings: U.S. History
Unit IV Assessment
Unit Lesson
Readings: U.S. History
Unit IV Assessment
Unit Lesson
Readings: U.S. History
Unit IV Assessment
Unit Lesson
Readings: U.S. History
Unit IV Assessment
Unit Lesson
Readings: U.S. History
Unit IV Assessment
Reading Assignment
Throughout this course, you will be provided with sections of content from the online resource U.S. History.
You may be tested on your knowledge and understanding of the material listed below as well as the
information presented in the unit lesson. Click on the link below to access your material.
Click here to access this unit’s readings from U.S. History. The chapter/section titles are also provided below.
Chapter 25 (Sections 25.1–25.4): Brother, Can You Spare a Dime? The Great Depression, 1929-1932
Chapter 26 (Sections 26.1–26.3): Franklin Roosevelt and the New Deal, 1932-1941
Unit Lesson
Fallout of the Great War
For Americans, the decades between the world wars were times of contrast and change—and with good
reason. The visual images of the Great Depression, such as businessmen in bread lines, have etched
themselves into the nation’s memory, but that is only a part of the story. This would be a time of great joy and
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heartbreak, triumph and adversity, and magic—perhaps best encapsulated in UNIT
F. Scott
Fitzgerald's
1924
x STUDY
GUIDE
masterpiece The Great Gatsby. This setting provides a backdrop to the attitudes
and extravagances of
Title
American society in the Roaring Twenties.
Although the more outrageous fads of the time would fade, some of the cultural gifts continue today. Perhaps
the most timeless, poignant donation is the fervent flowing radiance of jazz music, impassioned enough to
stimulate dance, decadence, and deception, but with the soul to personify both the highs and lows of the era.
Unit IV will focus on the fallout of the Great War, the realities of coming home in the wake of great changes,
and the society that was mortared back together from a world at war.
American Renewal
The end of the Great War brought about a
period of renewal in America. Though the
United States’ time in the war was limited,
it took its toll on the younger generation by
accounting for more than 320,000 killed,
wounded, or missing in action. As with any
war, there would soon be a period of
economic deterioration causing
widespread loss of jobs, great migrations
in search of opportunity, and a renewed
period of struggles. The first modern war
was a nightmare—a conflict so
devastating that many believed it was
barbaric enough to ensure that another
war would never begin. In the wake of the
war, there would continue to be waves in
political leadership, including Harding and
Fall’s scandalous Teapot Dome and
Hughes’s ambitious Five-Power Naval
Treaty of 1922, which put limits on naval
power and created worries about being
able to defend the Pacific, but as a whole,
it was a return to politics as usual.
Today, we know that there would soon be
an even more devastating series of
conflicts on the horizon, but at the time, it
was a period of thankfulness and
celebration. The 1920s remain as one of
the most iconic decades for the United
Troops returning from war
States. The affordable automobile may be (Library of Congress, 1919)
one of the strongest manifestations of this
ideal. Loud and flashy, the automobile
inspired exploration, innovation, and even youthful expression to breathe a renewed zeal into the nation.
Henry Ford’s savvy business success was not without a more universal purpose and outcome; in addition to a
rise in the necessity for car parts, America’s obsession with travel would inspire new roads and services,
introducing the iconic styles of glass gas pumps and full-service stations.
Motels and restaurants would appear and grow more successful businesses to serve the growing numbers of
weary travelers. Sometimes, even new communities would arise, perhaps most notably in regions outside of
the chaos and racket of major cities—areas that are known as suburbs in today’s society.
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New Normal
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
There was also a new “normal” for many demographics in the population that had spent much of the previous
century simply trying to have their voices heard. Women, for the first time, were given ballots to vote for the
president. Despite Harding’s failures in office, this first election after the war was one of great significance
concerning equality for all Americans.
Women again would defy expectations with a rise in the number of individuals seeking education and being
admitted to college, and the public image of women was shaped by the increasingly popular magazines
geared toward women, which threatened to shatter the gender spheres of influence. This culminated in
another chance for controversial reform: the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). Like suffrage, the ERA would
emphasize the equal ability and intelligence of women. However, this would ultimately find defeat in the
political halls. Unlike the suffrage debate, the divide between supporters was not as pronounced along gender
lines. The question of what equality really meant became a common topic of conversation. Would this equality
stop at wage increases, or was there a barrier that could safeguard protective legislation, such as maternity
leave and related provisions, types of extreme physical labor, and even gender-specific washroom facilities?
This reform would again shake the expectations of society and lead to a new generation of outspoken female
leaders in the coming decades.
Another group tried to once again find their place in American society—African Americans, many of whom
were veterans of the war and fresh from an overwhelming acceptance by the French. These efforts would
again lead to large patterns of migration due to inefficient or corruptive influences in regions of heightened
segregation, including a clear negative influence in the American Southeast. This was punctuated by a
pronounced (and often publicly sponsored) revival of hate groups who tried to use religious and moral
imagery to spread their message to the susceptible masses. Groups such as the Ku Klux Klan resurged
during this era, becoming an unavoidable reality. Now much less a secret society than an unofficial policing
agent, their message of 100% Americanism ensured that segregation was kept alive not only in the Old South
but throughout the nation.
In the North, which had been the destination for many during current and earlier migrations, a wave of culture
change encapsulated the spirit of the society. Marcus Garvey built a regiment of supporters who joined his
Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) in droves, and the term New Negro was coined as a way to
identify those who influenced a renewed era of culture that was reflective of the African American. This culture
became known as The Harlem Renaissance and resulted in the creation of a rich legacy of great works of art
that were painted, written, and performed musically, especially in an era bearing witness to the rise of jazz
and blues.
For many of the upper-class citizens, this became a time of luxury and criminal mischief. The Eighteenth
Amendment, which banned all manufacture, sale, and ingestion of alcoholic beverages, had an unexpected
consequence—crime grew throughout the nation. In major cities, such as Chicago, crime bosses could have
more power than police chiefs. To many people, figures such as Al Capone were viewed as kings, offering
debauchery to anyone choosing to partake.
Today, the image of the semi-hidden speakeasy is still prevalent throughout the media. Gambling, alcohol,
prostitution, and other crimes against moral standards were less and less of a risk for those seeking these
vices, which included politicians, writers, artists, and other persons of influence and affluence throughout
society. This was just a taste of the kind of corruptive influence that was present in this era. Not unlike the
political machines a century earlier, these kings of influence had a resilient hold on the lower and working
classes. However, unlike Boss Tweed and his contemporaries, these newer kings were, more often than not,
deposed by being riddled with bullets. They were finally brought under control with a repeal of the Eighteenth
Amendment in 1933.
The Great Depression
Just as many had taken the era by storm, there were also those who became immersed in more melancholy
views. Often associated with the horrors of war, changes in the society they had known, or simply drowning in
the vices of the age, cultural titans such as Ernest Hemingway, William Faulkner, and F. Scott Fitzgerald
illuminated a darker side of the time, a reality for many in the shadows of the showy lights. These artists
discussed themes of poverty, loss, prejudice, and missed opportunity. This Lost Generation provides even
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modern readers with a depiction of timeless struggles and human emotions drowned
by society.
UNIT x out
STUDY
GUIDEThese
depictions, ranging from rural Mississippi, to Cuban seas, to lavish New York, Title
still have a way of reaching out
to us in modern times. They would become increasingly relevant to all as the next great challenge arose: a
worldwide economic collapse of unprecedented scale.
The Great Depression hit the world
from seemingly out of nowhere. Its
devastating effects would cripple the
country’s economic infrastructure and
hierarchy. President Herbert Hoover,
who took office in January 1929 on a
platform of savings and reform, may be
better known today for Hoovervilles—
the unflatteringly named tenements
filled with starving Americans—than
any action taken during his presidency.
Though a veteran of strife and personal
ambition based on his own need,
Hoover failed to provide leadership
during a calamity to the extent of the
Great Depression.
By 1929, the U.S. economy was
reaping what it had sown in the years
after the war. The U.S. decision to
forego providing aid for European
School children line up for free issue of soup and a slice of bread in the
rebuilding and instead contributing to
Depression
the devastation through demands of
(Hood, 1934)
wartime repayment meant that
traditional buyers were no longer able
A Hooverville in Portland, Oregon
to purchase industrial goods, and the
(Rothstein, 1936)
economic collapse finally spread across
the Atlantic. In addition, poor management of funds only caused greater economic divide in America.
Segregation of haves from have-nots increased, creating greater social tensions throughout the population.
Hoover tried to keep the nation’s head above water through plans of good faith between production and
industry, but as debt rose, so did frustrations. Implementing tariffs and taxes, lowering prices, and limiting
supply all failed to resurrect the economy. National spending, though helpful to a few, was far too late. When
he left office, Hoover had seen the American economy shrink to nearly half its worth in 1929. In 1933, the
economy was the lowest it had been in a generation. Millions of people had lost everything, and there was no
longer faith in his leadership to correct the nation’s course. Once again, the desperation led to rash action,
which meant new spikes in racism, such as the Scottsboro case, and a renewal of two controversial voices in
American politics: Socialism and Communism.
The Second Roosevelt
As much as Hoover had appealed to the common person with his poor upbringing, it was difficult for the nowdestitute American voter to imagine one of his or her own having the answer to battling the Depression. It is
from this frustration that the nation would find Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR). A cousin of the charismatic
former president Theodore Roosevelt, FDR was also a demanding character with a face that the camera
loved.
FDR practiced a policy of government that worked for the people, not one asserting that better times were
ahead. It was this enthusiasm that had brought him success as New York’s governor. In 1932, FDR and
Hoover were complete opposites in the eyes of the American people, and that was the perfect recipe for
bringing the Democratic Party back into the White House for the first time since the Civil War.
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FDR made himself what he had to be—a
man of the people. Though this was
almost an insult to the elites who shared
his experiences, Roosevelt proved his
willingness and ability to reach out to the
struggling masses. Perhaps his greatest
gift was his ability to use the technology of
the day to his advantage. Being stricken
with polio, he had limited ability to walk,
which might have unfairly discounted him
in a more prosperous or invasive era.
However, that handicap was cleverly
hidden with camera tricks and a dedicated
support network. Despite this affliction,
Roosevelt embraced the office of a public
figure, speaking directly to the American
people in their homes via radio broadcast
of his Fireside Chats. He provided a calm
but assertive reminder that there was a
strong, charismatic, and active voice
behind the American public’s interests.
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
FDR knew that time was not his ally, and
he promised the American people that
changes would come soon—a plan that
he explained would unfold in the first 100
Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR)—a man of the people
days of his term. This plan would
(Suckley, 1941)
eventually become known as the New
Deal. In simplest terms, the New Deal was
a series of federally funded programs, most of which put the average American person back to work,
generally on projects that directly addressed other government needs such as infrastructure building. Other
programs that were also a part of this New Deal would be those that reformed banking practices to ensure
that the people’s money was safe. Now, with money in people’s pockets and faith in financial institutions,
Americans could again become consumers, and with consumption, the downward spiral started to reverse.
Of course, no plan is perfect, and there is always an opposing side. FDR’s plan was no different.
Republicans, now out of their accustomed political roles, argued about loopholes in the programs. They
claimed that the plan was fascist and unequally beneficial to different-sized businesses and farms as well as
anti-capitalistic in nature. One program, the National Recovery Administration, was even declared
unconstitutional. Even nature seemed to be against FDR. John Steinbeck’s masterpiece The Grapes of Wrath
describes the hardships of the dustbowl that plagued the American Midwest in the 1930s, describing it and
the economic plight as akin to a trial, death, or a demon itself.
Despite the disbelievers and heartache, the New Deal quickly benefited millions. With that motivation, a
second major effort was launched in 1935 with the Works Progress Administration (WPA). This program was
also geared toward lowering unemployment and satisfying public work needs. Roosevelt, remember,
considered himself as a man for the people. However, as widespread as these programs were, many in the
American population still would not directly benefit. In this time of uncertainty, even those who were able to
remain employed needed some assistance against the big businesses, such as steel, which held all
bargaining power in the down economy.
With this in mind, unionization, which had emerged initially as a socialist measure, was given a much-needed
ally in 1935 with the Wagner Act and John L. Lewis’ Committee for Industrial Organization (CIO). These
guaranteed the safety and legality of unions. The next and perhaps most notable still-existing program today
would address those who could no longer work but who felt the economic strain all the same: Social Security.
Though not as comprehensive as today, it did ensure benefits for a struggling population. Even with these
plans, life was not perfect, and many people continued to suffer. This was especially true for the youngest and
HY 1120, American History II
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oldest, those without deep American or European roots, and those suffering through
Still, the
UNIT xsegregation.
STUDY GUIDE
majority of the population saw the American economy shifting to the positive. Title
FDR soundly won reelection in 1936 and subsequently took the opportunity to guarantee additional political
support. Using age against several current judges, he opened new positions on the Supreme Court to
account for Republican carryovers. This meant that he would be able to guarantee four Democratic voices on
the highest court in the land. The New Deal had supporters and detractors, but for many Americans, it
brought hope to a time that might otherwise not have had any. Roosevelt’s plans put people to work. The New
Deal reached across age, gender, and ethnic lines to ensure that opportunities were as fair as possible, and it
worked to restore good faith in banking, labor, and protective institutions that had withered in the wake of the
1929 crash. As this era affected people on a world scale, it is important to recognize how our own families
and communities were and are impacted by both the time and the programs associated with it. This was a
project that was designed to be stimulating and enlightening.
By 1938, the luster of the New Deal was wearing off, but opportunity was shifting across the Atlantic. Once
again, there were rumbles of discontent and aggression rising from Western Europe, and the German
Wehrmacht army was marching under a fascist swastika and banner. At the same time, the often-elusive
Empire of Japan was making noise, gearing up to strike to ensure its own preservation. The world was again
about to be at war, and the United States was no longer able to assume a policy of isolation.
References
Library of Congress. (1919). Returning from World War I [Photograph]. Retrieved from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Returning_from_World_War_I.jpg
Rothstein, A. (1936). Hooverville Portland Oregon [Photograph]. Retrieved from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Hooverville#/media/File:Hooverville_Portland_Oregon_1936.jpg
Suckley, M. (1941). Roosevelt in wheelchair [Photograph]. Retrieved from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Roosevelt_in_a_wheelchair.jpg
HY 1120, American History II
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UNIT V STUDY GUIDE
World War II
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit V
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
Summarize the impact of the Civil Rights Movement on America’s societal infrastructure.
5. Contrast varied perspectives concerning America’s presence in the world.
5.1 Compare views from political, social, and economic realms regarding the United States’
participation in World War II (WWII).
6. Explain the United States’ role as a superpower during and after the world wars.
6.1 Discuss the United States’ power and influence throughout the world during WWII.
7. Describe the modern challenges and opportunities concerning the United States around the globe.
Course/Unit
Learning Outcomes
4
5
5.1
6
6.1
7
Learning Activity
Unit V Outline
Unit V Outline
Unit Lesson
Reading: U.S. History
Unit V Assessment
Unit V Outline
Unit Lesson
Reading: U.S. History
Unit V Assessment
Unit V Outline
Reading Assignment
Throughout this course, you will be provided with sections of content from the online resource U.S. History.
You may be tested on your knowledge and understanding of the material listed below as well as the
information presented in the unit lesson. Click on the link below to access your material.
Click here to access this unit’s readings from U.S. History. The chapter title is also provided below.
Chapter 27 (Sections 27.1–27.4): Fighting the Good Fight in World War II, 1941-1945
Unit Lesson
In this unit, it will once again be important to consider the perspective of the time, with an emphasis on the
lingering effects of worry, anxiety, and opportunity. We will review questionable actions from all fronts,
including questionable actions of both successful and unsuccessful regimes, and compare attitudes and
actions of civilians during those times. It is nearly impossible not to hold a preconceived perspective on this
conflict, as it is one of the most enduring and lucrative subjects recorded in national memory.
HY 1120, American History II
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Challenge yourself to avoid anachronism, and insert yourself into the time period.
wouldGUIDE
possess people
UNITWhat
x STUDY
of this age to react in ways that we have trouble even considering today? ThisTitle
unit will look at the social
change, the times directly after, the civilian response, and the beginnings of a tension-filled Cold War. You will
be challenged to look past modern understandings to engage in debates from the time.
A Time of Unrest
By the latter 1930s, the United States was watching its economy slowly starting to rebound, and President
Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s (FDR) New Deal was continuing to put willing Americans back to work. By 1933,
aggressions again began to stir in Europe. Despite his personal international ambitions, which echoed the
previous Roosevelt’s imperial interests, FDR knew that the American people needed domestic stability before
the country could once again reenter the world stage. The Good Neighbor Policy was a promise to remain as
a dormant, isolated power; it was more show than substance, but it kept America progressing economically.
Things were not going as well across the Atlantic. The reconstruction of Europe following World War I (WWI)
was slow, as those nations who faced a generation’s worth of loss struggled to regroup and rebuild their
ancient lands. One of the few nations successfully on the rise was the unlikely Germany. Under the
leadership of a charismatic orator named Adolf Hitler, whose personal drive and ambition allowed him to
quickly rise through the ranks, Germany was no longer tending to its wounds. Instead, it was boasting about
its progress on the world stage. Hitler’s Nazi initiative had given direction, hope, and stability to a people who
had either lost or forfeited much of their culture after the Great War. By 1936, the swastika hung in Berlin next
to the Olympic flag.
Hitler and His Allies
In 1933, Hitler had taken the role of Chancellor. He had suspended the German Parliament and declared the
nation in need of emergency action, even at the expense of basic civil liberties and rights. His National
Socialist Party (Nazi), though socialist only in name, would quickly gain support from all ages through a series
of programs ranging from work opportunities to the Hitler Youth, which was a program for all German children
meant to indoctrinate them into the role of an ideal Nazi. Der Fuhrer, the leader, had stealthily and
successfully made himself dictator of the most powerful fascist government in Europe, meaning the
government was extremely conservative, bordering on autocratic. And yet, his greatest motivation was still
only known by a select few.
HY 1120, American History II
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UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
Hitler salutes marching Nazis in Weimar in October 1930
(Pahl, 1930)
In much the same tradition of Caesar and Napoleon, Hitler quickly amassed a powerful circle of advisors and
muscle, including a secret enforcement squad called the Gestapo. These propelled him to a level of
unchecked power and influence. His success was so surprising to the world that he was even honored with
the cover of Time Magazine’s “Man of the Year” issue in 1939.
Hidden behind the glamor was a dark cloud that was about to envelop Europe once again. Unfortunately,
many did not hear the rising sound of a beating drum. The Wehrmacht, the German war machine, was about
to march once again—this time under the Nazi banner. Among those who responded to the beating drum
were fellow fascist dictators Il Duce (the leader); Benito Mussolini of Italy; and Hideko Tojo, Prime Minister of
Japan, under the rule of Emperor Hirohito.
Japan and Italy, though not major factors in any Great War alliance, felt disregarded in the previous treaties.
Fueled by both desperation and outrage, these two joined with Germany, creating a new Axis alliance against
the revitalized Alliance of Western power. Their tactics included deploying fear-filled propaganda and
aggressive oratory.
For all of the domestic building that had been accomplished in Germany, what would make Nazism distinct
from Fascism was the central role of cultural aggression and blame. For Hitler, his aggressive anti-Semitism
was a rallying cry across political borders. However, what was yet unknown were the lengths he would go
with this charge.
To the East, Japan’s ambitions of naval superiority rivaled only those of Britain in the Atlantic, and Emperor
Hirohito and his Prime Minister Tojo would prove their might and resolve with attacks on longtime rival China.
What united Tojo with Hitler was simple; each wished to retake what he believed culturally belonged to his
country, despite political boundaries or declarations from a previous generation. Just as Hitler had violated
stipulations from the Great War, Japan openly disregarded naval treaties based on past trade battles—a
move that would ultimately leave the United States, whose population had again embraced isolationism, no
choice but to enter the fray.
In 1936–1937, while Hitler was retaking the lost West German lands, Japan would invade China. In the
1930s, Japan was a major trading nation with the United States, but what Tojo did not expect were the
continued loyalties stemming from the Great War. The United States’ greatest international ally during this
HY 1120, American History II
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era, and arguably still today, was the United Kingdom. The Japanese threats against
required
UNIT x China
STUDY
GUIDEthe
United States to disrupt this trade, which included oil experts essential to continued
Title Japanese prosperity.
In addition, trade would ramp up with the creation of the Lend-Lease Act in 1941. This promise to
continuously supply war and civilian needs to Britain, without requirement for repayment, would ensure an
American presence in the war, even if not with troops. It would also serve as a manufacturing boom for
struggling American industries. This concerned many of Roosevelt’s contemporaries, who feared this alliance
was sending the United States headfirst into the war. FDR was cast as a warmonger, baiting possible future
Nazi attacks to which the United States would have to respond.
The War to End All Wars
Hitler would continue to spread his Nazi influence by malevolently extending Germany’s borders throughout
Europe. In 1938, Austria was again incorporated into Germany. In 1939, the German-Soviet Non-Aggression
Pact was signed. Czechoslovakia would fall, followed by Poland on the heels of the unrelenting blitzkrieg
(lightning war) by the German Luftwaffe (Nazi Air Force). Britain and France, still weary from the Great War,
had tried to reason with Hitler. They allowed him to disregard certain parts of the overbearing Treaty of
Versailles in an attempt to appease him, as long as he promised to stop this annexation of neighboring
nations. The brash nature of Hitler’s refusal to leave Poland again triggered the alliance system, prompting
Britain and France to take up arms to avenge Poland, a tactic that would lead the German army into Paris
once again, despite the efforts of Commander Charles de Gaulle. The war to end all wars, as it is often called,
had officially began anew.
What is sometimes overlooked was the opportunity at this time for other revolutions. Perhaps the best-known
case was Spain’s Francisco Franco, who was also a fascist. His efforts would hinder the democratic process
in Spain and spark the Spanish Civil War of 1936, but perhaps the greatest significance of his rise was the
revelation of the nature of chaos in Europe during this time. His contemporaries, Hitler and Mussolini,
recognized Franco, but ultimately the Spanish Civil War would do little more than ensure that Spain was a
nonfactor in the greater world conflict throughout the 1930s.
As 1940 rolled around, Germany began looking west. Despite their interests and attempts to fight, the
Scandinavian nations provided little interference against Hitler’s might, eventually pushing the remaining
French resistance south into a territory known as Vichy France.
On June 4, 1940, in response to Hitler’s progress, a single voice spread through the airways to the resistant
British camps, homes, and bases from the confident and defiant oratory of Sir Winston Churchill, the Prime
Minister of Great Britain, whose calm, unwavering tone provided the Allies with a sense of comfort in a time of
uncertainty and chaos. He, like FDR during the Depression, would be the rock of defiance against Hitler, and
the resounding, composed tenor urged the British people to have the spirit to “keep calm and carry on.”
Hitler would invade the Soviet Union (U.S.S.R.) on June 22, 1941. On the American front, FDR stayed the
isolationist course. The military, continuing to address its own issues with regard to integration and with the
newly formed Army Air Corps, felt confident that the two oceans provided the necessary forewarning to react
to threats. Still, the fleets remained on alert, especially in Norfolk, VA, home of the Atlantic fleet, and at the
United States’ westernmost military installation, a small port off of the Hawaiian island Oahu, named Pearl
Harbor.
On December 7, 1941, everything changed. The United States, in hopes of limiting the Japanese threat and
in response to its earlier aggression toward Anglo populations in Asia, cut off the supply lines to oil, which was
essential to the Japanese military and cultural ways of life. Japan already had agreed to a defensive pact with
the European Axis nations, and Tojo, now in complete control of military operations, felt it was time to act to
ensure a future for the empire. With the use of 183 fighter planes, known as Zeros, the Japanese completely
decimated the Pacific naval fleet stationed at the Pearl Harbor port. The attack was immediately considered
an act of war. FDR’s message on December 8, 1941, addressed the significance of the attack: as “a date
which will live in infamy.”
HY 1120, American History II
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UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
Pearl Harbor
(U.S. Navy, 1941)
Congress officially declared war on the Axis Powers, making the United States the replacement nation in the
Allied Powers, replacing the now-occupied France. Alongside Britain’s Churchill and the U.S.S.R’s Stalin,
FDR’s presence would complete the Big Three, who would dictate the pattern of the war in the 1940s.
At home, the war was a part of everyday life once again. For many families, this meant that husbands,
brothers, uncles, and sons of adequate age would likely be sent overseas. For women, this meant a return to
industry and manufacturing. All able factories switched from commercial to wartime production. Scrap
materials and goods were carefully monitored to avoid waste, and the victory garden became a common sight
throughout most neighborhoods as the U.S. government rationed most consumable staples such as bread,
gas, and meat.
With much of the luster of war lost during the horrors of the Great War only a generation ago, propaganda
and enlistment would change. One of the most notable icons during this age would be Rosie the Riveter, a
characterization in the style of Uncle Sam who personified the spirit of the ideal industrial woman. Rosie
inspired many to forego traditional gender roles in order to aid the American cause. In addition, a heavy
emphasis was given to a new style of media, which was attractive to all ages: cinema and animation.
Though the United States would be shocked by the attack on Pearl Harbor, there was quickly trouble in the
Atlantic in the form of U-Boats threatening the Lend-Lease Act supply lines with Britain and the Soviet Union.
It was official that the United States was now facing a two-front war, with oceans separating battle lines.
FDR’s strategy would have to be one of great innovation and action to keep the Axis Powers from spreading
the blitzkrieg to American shores as well as avoiding another disaster like Pearl Harbor.
Politically, two new actions were taken to attempt to ensure American support and to limit the spread of
secrets. First, the Selective Service Act had been enacted in 1940, thus guaranteeing a continued enlistment
through the draft if voluntary enlistments started to wane. Still in use today, this act requires all males by their
18th birthday to declare for the draft. To many, this would be seen as a violation of rights, but to others, it was
a leveling of the chances for military service, as the draft would hinge on the random draw of numbers,
without regard of race, wealth, or beliefs. In addition, with the influence of union leader A. Philip Randolph,
HY 1120, American History II
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FDR created the Committee on Fair Employment Practices to ensure that raceUNIT
would
not be aGUIDE
discriminating
x STUDY
factor in employment.
Title
The second act by executive order of FDR was almost a complete about-face in tolerance. Naturalized
Americans of Japanese descent (particularly on the West coast), some of whom were multi-generational
Americans, were forcefully taken from their homes and sequestered in internment camps, all in the name of
security. This round-up, a direct reaction to the Pearl Harbor disaster, was generally nonviolent but was a
clear violation of basic civil rights done in the name of security.
Though unique to American history, this type of internment was not unique to even this time. Across the
Atlantic, Hitler’s anti-Semitic agenda became clear. Hitler was fixated on creating a master race, specifically a
revival of the mythical Aryans, whose god-like powers would give Hitler the necessary means to spread his
influence across the globe.
Hitler’s legacy actually includes a heavy helping of religious and occult symbolism. Most often associated with
his right-hand man, Minister of the Interior Heinrich Himmler, much of the modern research concerning this
partnership displays Hitler’s intent to secure power in any way possible. In contemporary discussion of
Himmler, it can become difficult to find where fact ends and conspiracy theory begins, but it is important to
note that Hitler’s inner circle and Schutzstaffel (SS) corps used much occult and religious symbolism in their
rituals and garb. Use of these symbols was an effective motivator for many Germans, even leading to the
roundup and violent suffering of another ancient culture, the Jewish people, during the Holocaust. In all,
approximately 11 million deaths at concentration camps throughout Europe were attributed to the Holocaust—
6 million of which were directly related to Hitler’s anti-Semitic agenda.
June 1942 would be a turning point in the war. The Battle of Midway changed the tide of Japan’s pressure on
the Americans for the remainder of the war. In November, Nazi General Erwin Rommel, one of history’s most
legendary strategists, was stopped before securing the invaluable Suez Canal pipeline, and American
General George Patton (known as “Ole Blood and Guts” for his brutal successes) would ensure the removal
of the Germans from North Africa only a few months later.
With the fighting now focused only in Europe, a new Allied strategy would pit the Soviet Union against the
Nazis while the other allies went after Mussolini. By February 1943, the Nazis were being pushed back from
Stalingrad in the East, and Mussolini was ousted from the south in July of 1943. This removed the Italian
threat, leaving only Hitler’s Nazis around the Mediterranean.
Just as Britain had dealt with nighttime bombings and blitzkrieg tactics by Germany, by 1943, Germany was
dealing with air raids from American and British bombers, and 1944 saw a considerable drop in Allied
casualty rates. The war had changed course. Now the Axis powers were fighting a two-front war and
scrambling to keep their reclaimed territories throughout Europe. It was now time for the Allies to retake the
conquered lands, starting with France.
On June 6, 1944, Eisenhower commanded Operation Overlord, also known as D-Day. This was a multi-point
amphibious attack on the German-occupied coast of northern France, taken to open up the ports between
Britain and France that were necessary to allow for a last, full-scale invasion. This was just the first in a series
of pivotal and deciding battles across Europe: Paris was reclaimed on August 25th, the Battle of the Bulge
took place on December 16th, and the Allies made their final push into Germany itself. On May 7, 1945,
Germany unconditionally surrendered. Hitler, no longer able to visualize his dream, had taken his own life
only a week prior, and the Third Reich collapsed. With both Italy and Germany out of the fight, Europe began
to rebuild. The United States and U.S.S.R. switched their focus to Japan.
FDR, in his fourth term in office, died from a stroke on April 12, 1945. He had seen America through some of
its toughest times and prevailed through the waves of criticism, doubt, and bloodshed that the world continued
to offer. As the war entered its final stage, a fresh leader would have to make two of the most significant and
difficult choices in American military history.
FDR’s successor, Harry S. Truman, wanted to end the war swiftly and mightily. Japan expected invasion,
from the Soviets if not the Americans, and had its troops prepared for a defense of the island nation. What it
did not expect was for America to finish the war with an attack of unprecedented size and impact.
HY 1120, American History II
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Fearing for the possibility of hundreds of thousands more American casualtiesUNIT
if thexwar
continued,
Truman
STUDY
GUIDE
believed it was time to demand Japan’s surrender. On August 6, 1945, following
Japan’s failure to respond to
Title
Truman’s demands, the industrial city of Hiroshima, heavily populated and still relatively intact from the war,
became the site of the first nuclear bomb, which wiped it from the map in a matter of moments. Three days
later, a second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki, an important Japanese port city. Japan saw the might of
American technology and knew that the Soviet Union was primed for invasion. On August 14, 1945, Japan
surrendered unconditionally, and the war was over.
Firestorm cloud over Hiroshima on August 6, 1945
(U.S. Army, 1945)
The Cold War
With men home from war, new families quickly grew into what we now call the Baby Boom era, but the same
elation felt after the Great War was not present. While hostilities had ended, much of the world was in ruins,
and through the rubble, there remained two big powers: the United States and the Soviet Union. While FDR,
Churchill, and Stalin had worked well enough together to mutually benefit from the destruction of the Nazi
regime, the Communist power that had previously toppled Nicholas II was still not tolerant of capitalist
nations. Stalin was now the supreme commander of much of Eastern Europe, specifically the lands that his
army had liberated and occupied, including half of all former German lands and half of its capital city, Berlin.
This began the period of uneasy calm and warnings, most often called the Cold War.
By 1947, only 2 years after Japan’s surrender, America was again on high alert, this time partially due to its
own actions. The bombs that leveled Hiroshima and Nagasaki were worldwide news. With two remaining
superpowers, what emerged was a series of philosophical differences and an eventual arms race.
The Allied Powers sought to rebuild the world they had helped destroy to avoid repeating the same mistakes
made following the Great War, including the consequential punitive reparations that delivered Germany to
Hitler. This included rebuilding Germany to its former economic power, while still imposing strict military
sanctions.
HY 1120, American History II
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Stalin, however, saw weakness, and in that weakness, opportunity. His philosophy
to spread
the Soviet
UNIT was
x STUDY
GUIDE
influence as far as it would go, which would include economic equality and forced
Titlereparations on the Axis
nations to rebuild the Soviet lands devastated by the fighting. Truman, sensing potential conflict down the
road, committed the U.S. intervention to support nations under oppression from internal or external pressures.
This Truman Doctrine, in conjunction with the Marshall Plan, which pledged $13 billion to European rebuilding
aid, set the scene for the U.S. presence in the world for the next 50 years. In 1949, the United States and her
Western European allies would create a new pact, known as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO),
to prepare for potential Soviet conflict. In addition, a new intelligence program, the Central Intelligence Agency
(CIA), would emerge with a focus on international espionage.
Though World War II (WWII) was over, the peace process would also include a fair amount of military action,
the first of which would be the still-controversial creation of an Israeli State within Palestine. On one side, the
new inhabitants claimed the land as ancestral homelands taken by force; on the other, the current residents
claimed that the land had been abandoned and was now occupied. Needless to say, this separation in views
would only continue to fester into greater issues, some still appearing in our contemporary headlines. In Asia,
Communism quickly spread among the poorer nations. China, for example, would rally behind Mao Zedong
(Tse-Tung), who would eventually craft the second most powerful Communist power in the world.
At home, the end of the war also meant the end of wartime production. Many women lost their positions or
lost a significant percentage of their wages with the return of the men from war. In addition, unions, fearing
the loss of their workers’ wages, strategically worked to keep new measures implemented by Truman, such
as the fallout from the Employment Act of 1946, from taking the jobs of established workers.
Also apparent was the continued segregation at home. Once again, a full generation of men from all races
went to war only to find their treatment better abroad than at home, including African Americans, Mexican
Americans, and Japanese Americans, many of whom came home only to find that their families had been
taken forcefully to camps while neighbors and opportunists took the chance to steal or destroy their personal
effects. Arguably, Truman’s most effective measure was geared toward the poor, as his Housing Act of 1949
succeeded in increasing government housing, although it proved to only be a patch on a growing wound.
The Cold War was also not simply a conflict on the international scale; the Communist threat would weave
itself into almost every part of daily life. Wisconsin Senator Joseph McCarthy would become the face of a
revived Red Scare during these drastic federal changes. McCarthy, noteworthy for his national following and
common theme of anti-Communist messages, would prompt an internal investigation into almost everything
American, including cinema, media, government, and even lifestyles.
Under the cape of McCarthyism, simply to be considered un-American was traitorous. For many, even
previous associations such as school groups or connections with known Communists at any time could result
in life as an outcast, loss of jobs and homes, or even incarceration. This high state of alert would mean
keeping close eyes on the spread of communism into new nations. Soon, it would usher in a new period of
American action: the Korean War.
Looking back, this was a time of high alert for many. The war had been a blessing and a curse for Americans.
It resurrected the economy, but only led to greater issues back home, and the fallout of the war would lead
directly into a new period of fear and violence. Considering the times, it is important to reflect on some of the
actions taken at home and abroad. What may have possessed so many to willingly give these fascist leaders
almost unlimited political control? Why did Americans allow the government to incarcerate neighbors? Finally,
was Europe arguably any less in danger with the rise of Communism in the Soviet Union and China?
References
Pahl, G. (1930). Weimar, Aufmarsch der Nationalsozialisten [Photograph]. Retrieved from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_10210541,_Weimar,_Aufmarsch_der_Nationalsozialisten.jpg
U.S. Army. (1945). Firestorm cloud over Hiroshima [Photograph]. Retrieved from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Firestorm_cloud_over_Hiroshima.jpg
HY 1120, American History II
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U.S. Navy. (1941). US Shaw exploding in Pearl Harbor [Photograph]. Retrieved
fromx STUDY GUIDE
UNIT
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:US_Shaw_exploding_in_Pearl_Harbor.jpg
Title
HY 1120, American History II
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