College of Administrative and Financial Sciences
Assignment 2
Deadline: 28/03/2020 @ 23:59
Course Name: Organizational Behavior
Student’s Name:
Course Code: MGT301
Student’s ID Number:
Semester: II
CRN:
Academic Year: 1440/1441 H
For Instructor’s Use only
Instructor’s Name: Dr xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Students’ Grade: 00/10
Level of Marks: High/Middle/Low
Instructions – PLEASE READ THEM CAREFULLY
• The Assignment must be submitted on Blackboard (WORD format only) via
allocated folder.
• Assignments submitted through email will not be accepted.
• Students are advised to make their work clear and well presented, marks may be
reduced for poor presentation. This includes filling your information on the cover
page.
• Students must mention question number clearly in their answer.
• Late submission will NOT be accepted.
• Avoid plagiarism, the work should be in your own words, copying from students or
other resources without proper referencing will result in ZERO marks. No exceptions.
• All answered must be typed using Times New Roman (size 12, double-spaced) font.
No pictures containing text will be accepted and will be considered plagiarism).
• Submissions without this cover page will NOT be accepted.
Course Learning Outcomes-Covered
1 Develop the problem-solving skills for teamwork especially if the problem relates to the task
(Lo 3.2).
2 Ability to communicate and share information within the team and organization in
professional manner (Lo 4.4).
Assignment 2
Reference Source: Book-Ch:-13 & 14
(10 Marks)
Critical Thinking:-Leadership
Use at least 3 scientific references to support your answers. Follow APA-style when
referencing.
Assignment Question(s):
1. Define leadership and explain the difference between being a manager and being a leader.
Which boss would you rather have? Why? (02 Marks)
2. The leadership style theories, which you have learned in the chapter 13 & 14 based on that
determine which leadership styles are suitable for managers who are managing workers (
both Blue collar & White collar) in the organizations.(03 Marks)
3. Describe directive leadership and supportive leadership, Explain their importance. (02
Marks)
4. How organizations are benefitted from supportive leadership? Give an example of such
organization which you might have come across. (03 Marks)
Answer:
1.
2.
3.
.
What is leadership?
What are situational contingency
approaches to leadership?
What are follower-centered approaches
to leadership?
What are inspirational leadership
perspectives?
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
13-2
Role of management is to promote stability
or to enable the organization to run
smoothly.
Role of leadership is to promote adaptive
or useful changes.
*Persons in managerial positions could be involved with both
management and leadership activities, or they could emphasize
one activity at the expense of the other. Both management and
leadership are needed, however, and if managers do not assume
responsibility for both, then they should ensure that someone else
handles the neglected activity.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
13-3
Leadership
Process of influencing others to understand
and agree about what needs to be done
and how to do it; and
Process of facilitating individual and
collective efforts to accomplish shared
objectives.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
13-4
“Great leaders are almost always great
simplifiers, who can cut through argument,
debate and doubt, to offer a solution everybody
can understand.”
- Colin Powell
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
13-5
Formal leadership
Informal leadership
Exerted by persons
Exerted by persons who
appointed (or elected)
become influential
to positions of formal
authority in
organizations.
because they have
special skills that meet
the resource needs of
others.
*There is a rich body of research regarding what leadership is, who has the capacity for
leadership and how it is manifest.
Formal leadership positions exist by virtue of their formal authority. However, leadership
involves more than having authority conferred by a position. It can be manifested not
only by an individual but by a team. It can be manifested within many levels of the
organization.
Leadership has a generally accepted component of the ability to influence others and to
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inspire effort.
Approaches to leadership
1. Trait and behavioral theory perspectives.
2. Cognitive and symbolic perspectives.
3. Transformational and charismatic
perspectives.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
13-7
Trait leadership perspective
Assume that personality traits play a central
role in differentiating between leaders and
non-leaders, in that leaders must have the
―right stuff.‖
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
13-8
*Ambition, motivation, honesty, self confidence and a high need for achievement are
key traits that leaders have.
13-9
Behavioral leadership perspectives
Assumes that leadership is central to
performance and other outcomes.
Focuses on leader behaviors rather than
traits.
*Two major studies, at the University of Michigan and Ohio State
University, tried to identify the leadership behaviors that resulted in
effective performance.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
13-10
Michigan studies
Employee-centered supervisors:
Place strong emphasis on subordinate’s
welfare.
Production-centered supervisors:
More concerned with getting the work done.
*Employee-centered supervisors were found to
have more productive work groups than
production-centered supervisors.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
13-11
Ohio State studies
Consideration
o Sensitive to people’s feelings and making things
pleasant for the followers.
Initiating structure
o Concerned with defining task requirements and other
aspects of the work agenda.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
13-12
*Effective leaders should be high on both consideration and initiating structure.
This dual emphasis is reflected in the leadership grid approach. Leadership
grid results are plotted on a nine-position grid that places concern for
production on the horizontal axis and concern for people on the vertical
axis, where 1 is minimum concern and 9 is maximum concern. As an
example, those with a 1/9 style—low concern for production and high
concern for people—are termed ―country club management.‖ They do not
emphasize task accomplishment but stress the attitudes, feelings, and social
needs of people.
Similarly, leaders with a 1/1 style—low concern for both production and
people—are termed ―impoverished,‖ while a 5/5 style is labeled ―middle of
the road.‖ A 9/1 leader—high concern for production and low concern for
people— has a ―task management‖ style. Finally, a 9/9 leader, high on both
dimensions, is considered to have a ―team management‖ style; this is the
ideal leader in Blake and Mouton’s framework.
Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
1113
Situational Contingency Leadership
The effects of leader traits are enhanced by their
relevance to situational contingencies.
*Traits are enhanced by their relevance to the leader’s situational
contingencies.
Prosocial power motivation, or power oriented toward benefiting others, is likely
to be most important in situations where decision implementation requires
lots of persuasion and social influence. ―Strong‖ or ―weak‖ situations also
make a difference. An example of a strong situation is a highly formal
organization with lots of rules, procedures, and policies. An example of a
weak situation is one that is ambiguous and unstructured. In a strong
situation traits will have less impact than in a weaker, more unstructured
situation because the leader has less ability to influence the nature of the
situation. In other words, leaders can’t show dynamism as much when the
organization restricts them.
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Prosocial power motivation, or power
oriented toward benefitting others, is
likely to be most important in situations
where decision implementation requires
lots of persuasion and social influence.
*―Strong‖ or ―weak‖ situations also make a difference. An example of a
strong situation is a highly formal organization with lots of rules,
procedures, and policies. An example of a weak situation is one
that is ambiguous and unstructured. In a strong situation traits will
have less impact than in a weaker, more unstructured situation
because the leader has less ability to influence the nature of the
situation. In other words, leaders can’t show dynamism as much
when the organization restricts them.
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Fiedler’s Leadership contingency view
Situational control
The extent to which a leader can determine what
his or her group is going to do, as well as the
outcomes of the group’s actions and decisions.
*Team effectiveness depends on an appropriate
match between a leader’s style, essentially a trait
measure, and the demands of the situation.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
13-16
The least –preferred coworker (LPC) scale,
used by Fiedler, asks respondents to describe
the person with whom they have been able to
work least well.
Instrument measures a person’s leadership style.
*Fiedler argues that high-LPC leaders (those describing their LPC very
positively) have a relationship-motivated style, whereas low-LPC leaders
have a task motivated style. Because LPC is a style and does not change
across settings, the leaders’ actions vary depending on the degree of
situational control. Specifically, a task-motivated leader (low LPC) tends to
be nondirective in high- and low control situations, and directive in those
in between. A relationship-motivated leader tends to be the opposite.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
13-17
*The figure shows the task-motivated leader as being more effective when the
situation is high and low control, and the relationship-motivated leader as being
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more effective when the situation is moderate control.
Fiedler’s Situation Control
Variables
Leader /Member
Relations
(good/poor):
Task Structure
(high/low):
Position Power
(strong/weak):
Members support
for leader.
Spells out leader’s
task goals and
procedures.
Leader’s task
expertise, and
reward/punishment
authority
*Consider an experienced and well-trained production supervisor of a group that is
responsible for manufacturing a part for a personal computer. The leader is highly
supported by his group members and can grant raises and make hiring and firing
decisions. This supervisor has very high situational control and is operating in situation 1
in Figure 13.2. For such high-control situations, a task-oriented leader style is predicted
as the most effective.
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House’s path-goal theory of leadership
Assumes that a leader’s key function is to
adjust his or her behaviors to complement
situational contingencies.
*House argues that when the leader is able to compensate for things
lacking in the setting, subordinates are likely to be
satisfied with the leader. For example, the leader could help remove
job ambiguity or show how good performance could lead to an
increase in pay. Performance should improve as the paths by which
(1) effort leads to performance—expectancy—and (2) performance
leads to valued rewards—instrumentality—becomes clarified.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
13-20
*The figure shows four types of leader behavior (directive, supportive, achievementoriented, and participative) and two categories of situational contingency variables
(follower attributes and work-setting attributes). The leader behaviors are adjusted to
complement the situational contingency variables in order to influence subordinate
satisfaction, acceptance of the leader, and motivation for task performance. 13-21
Directive leadership
Spelling out the what and how of subordinates’
tasks.
Supportive leadership
Focuses on subordinate needs, well-being , and
promotion of a friendly work environment.
*Directive leadership is predicted to have a positive impact on subordinates
when the task is ambiguous; it is predicted to have just the opposite effect
for clear tasks. In addition, the theory predicts that when ambiguous tasks
are being performed by highly authoritarian and closed minded
subordinates, even more directive leadership is called for.
Supportive leadership is predicted to increase the satisfaction of subordinates
who work on highly repetitive tasks or on tasks considered to be unpleasant,
stressful, or frustrating. In this situation the leader’s supportive behavior helps
compensate for adverse conditions.
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Achievement oriented leadership
Emphasizes setting challenging goals,
stressing excellence in performance,
and showing confidence in people’s
ability to achieve high standards of
performance.
Participative leadership
Focuses on consulting with subordinates,
and seeking and taking their suggestions
into account before making decisions.
*Achievement-oriented leadership is predicted to encourage subordinates to strive for
higher performance standards and to have more confidence in their ability to meet
challenging goals.
Participative leadership is predicted to promote satisfaction on nonrepetitive tasks that
allow for the ego involvement of subordinates.
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Hersey and Blanchard Situational
Situational Leadership Theory
There is no single best way to lead.
Assess Readiness
The extent to which the people have the ability and willingness
to accomplish a specific task.
Implement appropriate leadership response.
*Readiness is the extent to which people have the ability and willingness to
accomplish a specific task. Hersey and Blanchard argue that ―situational‖
leadership requires adjusting the leader’s emphasis on task behaviors—for
instance, giving guidance and direction—and relationship behaviors—for
example, providing socioemotional support—according to the readiness of
followers to perform their tasks.
This situational leadership approach requires that the leader develop the
capability to diagnose the demands of situations and then choose and
implement the appropriate leadership response. The model gives specific
attention to followers and their feelings about the task at hand and suggests
that effective leaders focus on emerging changes in the level of readiness of
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the people involved in the work.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
13-25
*The figure identifies four leadership styles: delegating, participating, selling, and
telling. Each emphasizes a different combination of task and relationship
behaviors by the leader. The figure also suggests the following situational
matches as the best choice of leadership style for followers at each of four
readiness levels.
The model requires the leader to diagnose the demands of the situation
implement the response that is most effective in the situation.
A “telling” style (S1) is best for low follower readiness (R1). The direction provided
by this style defines roles for people who are unable and unwilling to take
responsibility themselves; it eliminates any insecurity about the task that must
be done.
A “selling” style (S2) is best for low-to-moderate follower readiness (R2). This style
offers both task direction and support for people who are unable but willing
to take task responsibility; it involves combining a directive approach with
explanation and reinforcement in order to maintain enthusiasm.
A “participating” style (S3) is best for moderate-to-high follower readiness (R3).
Able but unwilling followers require supportive behavior in order to increase
their motivation; by allowing followers to share in decision making, this style
helps enhance the desire to perform a task.
A “delegating” style (S4) is best for high readiness (R4). This style provides little in
terms of direction and support for the task at hand; it allows able and willing
followers to take responsibility for what needs to be done.
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In your current or former job, did your manager
behave the same way with each of the people
he/she managed?
A=Yes, B=No
If no, what was different about the relationships
between the manager and each employee?
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
13-27
Substitutes for leadership
Makes a leader’s influence either unnecessary or
redundant in that they replace a leader’s influence.
Romance of leadership
People attribute romantic, almost magical, qualities to
leadership.
*First, studies involving Mexican, U.S., and Japanese workers suggests both similarities
and differences between various substitutes in the countries examined. Again, there
were subtle but important differences across the national samples. Second, a systematic
review of 17 studies found mixed results for the substitutes theory. The review
suggested a need to broaden the list of substitutes and leader behaviors.
Symbolic treatment of leadership occurs particularly when performance is either
extremely high or extremely low or when the situation is such that many people could
have been responsible for the performance. This refers to the concept of romantic
leadership.
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Leadership categorization theory
Implicit leadership theories - preconceived notions about the
attributes (e.g., traits and behaviors) associated with leaders.
They reflect the structure and content of ―cognitive
categories‖ used to distinguish leaders from nonleaders.
Attributes or leadership prototypes are mental images of the
characteristics that make a ―good‖ leader, that a ―real‖
leader would possess.
*Implicit leadership theories reflect the structure and content of
―cognitive categories‖ used to distinguish leaders from
nonleaders.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
13-29
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
13-30
Followership
The behaviors of individuals acting in relation
to leaders.
Implicit followership theories (IFT)
Preconceive notions about prototypical and
antiprototypical followership behaviors and
characteristics.
*Table 13.2 is an 18-item implicit followership theory (IFT) scale that contains
two main factors: followership prototype and followership antiprototype.
Followership prototype consists of factors associated with good followers,
including being ―industrious,‖ having enthusiasm, and being a good
organizational citizen. Followership antiprototype consists of behaviors
associated with ineffective followership, including conformity,
insubordination, and incompetence.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
13-31
Social construction approaches
Individual behavior is ―constructed‖ in context, as
people act and interact in situations.
Passive followership beliefs - beliefs that followers should
be passive, deferent and obedient to authority.
Proactive followership beliefs - beliefs that followers should
express opinions, take initiative, and constructively
question and challenge leaders.
*Social constructions are influenced by two things: the individuals’ implicit
theories about how they should act, and the nature of the situation in which
they find themselves.
Some followers hold passive beliefs, viewing their roles in the classic sense of
following—as passive, deferential, and obedient to authority (i.e., a passive
belief). Others hold proactive beliefs, viewing their role as expressing
opinions, taking initiative, and constructively questioning and challenging
leaders (i.e., a proactive belief). These proactive followership beliefs more
closely resemble leading (e.g., followers acting as leaders) than following.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
13-32
Charismatic leaders
Leaders who, by force of their personal
abilities, are capable of having a profound
and extraordinary effect on followers.
*Findings show that charismatic leaders are high in need for power
and have high feelings of self-efficacy and conviction in the moral
rightness of their beliefs. Their need for power motivates them to
want to be leaders, and this need is then reinforced by their
conviction of the moral rightness of their beliefs. The feeling of selfefficacy, in turn, makes these individuals believe they are capable
of being leaders. These traits also influence such charismatic
behaviors as role modeling, image building, articulating simple and
dramatic goals, emphasizing high expectations, showing
confidence, and arousing follower motives.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
13-33
Transactional leadership
Involves leader-follower exchanges necessary for
achieving routine performance that is agreed
upon by leaders and followers.
•Uses various kinds of rewards in exchange for
mutually agreed-upon accomplishment.
•Watches for deviations from rules and standards and
taking corrective action.
•Intervenes only if standards not met.
•Laissez faire style – avoids making decisions.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
13-34
Dimensions of transformational leadership
Charisma
Inspiration
Intellectual stimulation
Individualized consideration
*Charisma provides vision and a sense of mission, and it instills pride
along with follower respect and trust.
Inspiration communicates high expectations, uses symbols to focus
efforts, and expresses important purposes in simple ways.
Intellectual stimulation promotes intelligence, rationality, and careful
problem solving.
Individualized consideration provides personal attention, treats
each employee individually, and coaches and advises.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
13-35
Charismatic/transformational leadership is
not uniformly better
Approaches with special emphasis on vision
often emphasize training.
Dark-side charismatic leaders can have
negative effects on followers.
*Charismatic and transformational leadership is important not only
at the top of an organization. A number of experts argue that for
an organization to be successful, it must apply at all levels of
organizational leadership.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
13-36
Leadership-Membership Exchange Theory
Shows that leaders develop differentiated
relationships with subordinates in their work
groups.
Leadership is generated when leaders and
followers are able to develop ―incremental
influence‖ with one another that produces
behavior above and beyond what is required
by the work contract.
*The LMX approach continues to receive increasing emphasis in
organizational behavior research literature worldwide. The
evidence for the benefits of high-quality relationships is robust, and
the implications for both managers and employees are quite clear.
Relationships matter, and working to develop them— whether you
are a leader or a follower—is critical in terms of both organizational
and personal career outcomes.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
13-37
What is moral leadership?
What is shared leadership?
How do you lead across cultures?
How do you lead organizational change?
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
14-2
Authentic leadership
Involves both owning one‘s personal experiences
values, thoughts, emotions, and beliefs, AND
acting in accordance with one‘s true self
expressing what you really think and believe and
acting accordingly.
*Those high in authenticity are thought to have optimal self-esteem, or
genuine, true, stable, and congruent self-esteem, as opposed to fragile
self-esteem based on outside responses. Leaders who desire authentic
leadership should have genuine relationships with followers and
associates and display transparency, openness, and trust.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
14-3
Leader’s positive personality
traits can influence
followers.
Self-efficacy
An individual‘s belief about the likelihood
of successfully completing a specific task.
Optimism
The expectation of positive outcomes.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
14-4
Hope
The tendency to look for alternative
pathways to reach a desired goal.
Resilience
The ability to bounce back from failure and
keep forging ahead.
*An increase in any one of the following traits (self-efficacy,
optimism, hope and resilience) is seen as increasing the others.
These are important traits for a leader to demonstrate and are
believed to positively influence his or her followers.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
14-5
Spiritual Leadership
Includes values, attitudes, and behaviors, required to
intrinsically motivate the leader and others to have a
sense of spiritual survival through calling and
membership.
A causal leadership approach for organizational
transformation, designed to create an intrinsically
motivated, learning organization.
*The leader and followers experience meaning in their lives, believe they
make a difference, and feel understood and appreciated. Such a sense
of leader and follower survival tends to create value congruence across
the strategic, empowered team and at the individual level; it ultimately
encourages higher levels of organizational commitment, productivity, and
employee well-being.
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Servant leadership
Based on the premise that a primary purpose of business should
be to create a positive impact on the organization‘s employees
as well as the community.
Best demonstrated by those with a vision and a desire to serve
others first rather than by those seeking leadership roles.
*Initially introduced by John Greenleaf in 1970. The servant leader is attuned
to basic spiritual values and, in serving these, assists others including
colleagues, the organization, and society. Viewed in this way servant
leadership is not a unique example of leadership but rather a special kind of
service. The servant leader helps others discover their inner spirit, earns and
keeps the trust of their followers, exhibits effective listening skills, and places
the importance of assisting others over self-interest.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
14-7
“It begins with the natural feeling that one wants
to serve, to serve first. Then conscious choice
brings one to aspire to lead….‖
- John Greenleaf
( View an interesting blog on the emergent
leadership philosophy of Servant-Leadership )
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
14-8
How strong are your leadership values?
Take a quick survey based on Mick Yates‘
4E‘s Leadership Framework, and receive
immediate feedback results.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
14-9
Transformational Leadership
Emphasizes values, vision, and intellectual
stimulation.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
14-10
*The figure summarizes the similarities and differences among ethical, authentic, spiritual, and
transformational leadership. A key similarity cutting across all these dimensions is role modeling.
Altruism, or concern for others, and integrity are also important similarities. Leaders influence
others by appealing to transcendent values. In terms of differences, authentic leaders stress
authenticity and self-awareness and tend to be more transactional than do the other leaders.
Ethical leaders emphasize moral concerns, while spiritual leaders stress visioning, hope, and faith,
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as well as work as a vocation.
Shared leadership
A dynamic, interactive influence process through
which individuals in teams lead one another.
Evidenced in self-directed work teams when shared
and vertical leadership is used in work settings.
*The key distinction between shared leadership and traditional models of
leadership is that the influence process involves more than just downward
influence on subordinates by an appointed or elective leader. Rather, leadership
is broadly distributed among a set of individuals instead of centralized in the
hands of a single individual who acts in the role of a superior.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
14-12
Necessary conditions for successful team
performance:
Efficient, goal-directed effort.
Adequate resources.
Competent, motivated performance.
A productive, supportive climate.
Commitment to continuous improvement and
adaptation.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
14-13
Self-Leadership Activities
A individual‘s portfolio of self-influence strategies that positively
influence individual behavior, and thought processes.
Behavior-focused (self observation, goal setting)
Self-rewards (reinforcing attainment of goals)
Constructive-thought-pattern (self analysis, positive self-talk, mental
imagery of tasks to accomplish).
*Behavior-focused strategies tend to increase self-awareness, leading to the
handling of behaviors involving necessary but not always pleasant tasks.
Self-rewards can be quite useful in moving behaviors toward goal attainment.
Constructive thought patterns focus on the creation or alteration of cognitive
thought processes.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
14-14
GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational
Behavior Effectiveness Research Program)
Comprehensive, cross-cultural research study found
that attributes and entities of different cultures can
predict the most effective organizational practices,
leader attributes and behaviors that are most effective
in that culture.
*The GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness
Research Program) is an ambitious program that involves about 17,000
managers from 951 organizations functioning in 62 nations throughout the
world, 140 or so country co-investigators, as a coordinating team and a
number of research associates.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
14-15
*The figure summarizes a variety of leadership assumptions are evident in the
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Globe theoretical model.
GLOBE Leadership Dimensions
Charismatic/value based
Team-oriented
Participative
Humane-oriented
Autonomous
Self-protective
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Cultural Dimensions Associated
with Leader’s Effectiveness
Assertiveness
Institutional collectivism
Future orientation
In-group collectivism
Gender egalitarianism
Performance orientation
Uncertainty avoidance
Humane orientation
Power distance
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Key applications of GLOBE
Dimensions of effective leadership must be
matched with the culturally ‗endorsed‘
leadership style.
Terms such as Integrity and team-oriented are
important desirable leadership dimensions across
most cultures.
*In many respects the GLOBE perspective on leadership highlights the
difficulty in prescribing exactly what a leader should do in our increasingly
global economy. As your career progresses and you become more
engaged in cross cultural leadership, it will be important for you to go
beyond a universalist view to study cultural expectations. Each culture is
unique, and the pattern of cultural expectations for leaders is also unique.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
14-19
Change leadership
Deals with the idea that an organization must
master the challenges of change while creating a
satisfying, healthy, and effective workplace for its
employees.
*For over a decade firms have dealt with a ―new economy [that] has ushered in
great business opportunities—and great turmoil.‖ The terms turmoil and
turbulence are particularly salient in the current economic environment. In
addition to the traditional challenges, the forces of globalization provide a
number of problems and opportunities, and the new economy is constantly
springing surprises on even the most experienced organizational executives.
Flexibility, competence, and commitment are the rules of the day. People in the
new workplace must be comfortable dealing with adaptation and
continuous change, along with greater productivity, willingness to learn from
the successes of others, total quality, and continuous improvement. 14-20
Context
Collection of opportunities and constraints
that affect the occurrence and meaning of
behavior as well as the relationships among
variables.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
1221
Contexts for Leadership Action
Stability
Crisis
Sudden threats to high priority goals require action with little or no
response time.
Dynamic Equilibrium
Programmed change efforts shift with priorities.
Near the Edge of Chaos
Transition zone poised between order and chaos.
*For many managers the current recession is such a crisis and calls for dramatic
action and active leadership where charismatic and transformational
leadership can be particularly important. Although the situation appears
dire, leaders are aware of factors contributing to the crisis and can develop
action plans to try and weather the storm.
While globally operating high-tech firms are classic examples of those at the
edge of chaos, more conventional analyses of today‘s corporations have
suggested that many firms are moving toward the edge of chaos. Why? By
moving forward with a balance of exploration, and exploitation, they find
superior performance. Poised near the edge of chaos, firms stress innovation,
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responsiveness, and adaptability over routine efficiency.
*Four situational contexts, the desired leadership, and how to measure success.
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Patterning of attention
Involves isolating and communicating
important information from a potentially
endless stream of events, actions and
outcomes.
*The term patterning is used to stress the establishment of a norm where
the leader is expected to ask questions, raise issues, and help gather
information for unit members. The leader is not telling others what
the goal is or how to reach it. Nor
is the leader stressing an ideology or a moral position. The leader is
merely stimulating discussion among others in the setting. This
discussion, in turn, produces new knowledge and information as
individuals develop coping strategies.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Transformational change
Radically shifts the fundamental character of
an organization.
Incremental change
Builds on the existing ways of operating, to enhance or
extend them in new directions.
*Organizations experiencing transformational change undergo significant shifts in
basic characteristics, including the overall purpose/mission, underlying values and
beliefs, and supporting strategies and structures. In today’s business environments,
transformational changes are often initiated by a critical event, such as a new CEO, a
new ownership brought about by merger or takeover, or a dramatic failure in operating
results.
Typical incremental changes include the introduction of new products, technologies,
systems, and processes. Although the nature of the organization remains relatively the
same, incremental change builds on the existing ways of operating to enhance or extend
them in new directions. The capability of improving continuously through incremental
change is an important asset in today’s demanding business environment. 14-25
Unplanned change
Can occur spontaneously or randomly.
Planned change
The result of specific efforts led by change agent.
Performance gap
Represents problems to be solved or opportunities to
be explored.
*Most planned changes are efforts intended to deal with
performance gaps in ways that benefit an organization and
its members.
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*In the figure, targets include organizational purpose, strategy, structure, and people, as
well as objectives, culture, tasks, and technology. When considering these targets, it
must be recognized that they are highly intertwined in the workplace. Changes in any
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one are likely to require or involve changes in others.
Power change strategies
Utilized to mobilize power, exert influence
over others, and get people to support
planned change efforts.
*Force–coercion, rational persuasion, and
shared power are three strategies used for
planned change.
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Force-coercion strategy
Uses authority, rewards, or punishments as
primary inducements to change.
*The leader acts unilaterally to ―command‖ change through the formal
authority of his or her position, to induce change via an offer of
special rewards, or to bring about change through threats of
punishment. People respond to this strategy mainly out of the fear of
being punished if they do not comply with a change directive or out
of the desire to gain a reward if they do. Coercion compliance is
usually temporary and continues only as long as the leader is
present.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Rational persuasion strategy
Attempt to bring about change through the
use of special knowledge, empirical support,
or rational arguments.
*This strategy assumes that rational people will
be guided by reason and self-interest in
deciding whether or not to support a change.
Expert power is mobilized to convince others
that the change will leave them better off
than before.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Shared-power strategy
Actively involves the people who will be
affected by a change in planning and
making key decisions relating to this change.
*Sometimes called a normative-reeducative
approach, this strategy tries to develop directions
and support for change through involvement and
empowerment. It builds essential foundations, such
as personal values, group norms, and shared
goals, so that support for a proposed change
emerges naturally.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Resistance to change
Any attitude or behavior that indicates
unwillingness to make or support a desired
alteration.
*It is helpful to view resistance to change as feedback that
the change agent can use to facilitate gaining change
objectives. The essence of this constructive approach to
resistance is to recognize that when people resist change,
they are defending something important that appears to be
threatened by the change attempt.
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What People resist about change
Resistance to the change itself.
Resistance to the change strategy.
Resistance to the change agent.
*• Benefit—The change should have a clear relative advantage for the people
being asked to change; it should be perceived as ―a better way.‖
• Compatibility—The change should be as compatible as possible with the
existing values and experiences of the people being asked to change.
• Complexity—The change should be no more complex than necessary; it must
be as easy as possible for people to understand and use.
• Triability—The change should be something that people can try on a step-bystep basis and make adjustments as things progress.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Approaches to dealing with resistance
Education and communication
Participation and involvement
Facilitation and support
Negotiation and agreement
Manipulation and cooptation
Explicit and implicit coercion
*Regardless of the chosen strategy, it is always best to remember
that the presence of resistance typically suggests that something
can be done to achieve a better fit among the change, the
situation, and the people affected. A good leader deals with
resistance to change by listening to feedback and acting
12accordingly.
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