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“Who Am I?”
22 points
APA format.
The paper has 9 topics to address and should be between 3 and 5 double spaced
pages (excluding title page and reference page). You will not be deducted if paper
goes over. The paper should focus on your individual experiences, as well as an
assessment of yourself. Papers will be graded on how well you address each
guideline including clarity, organization, analysis and depth.
Remember, APA submissions are in paragraph response. Do not provide numbers or
the letters (a) and (b), etc. when you are addressing this APA assignment. Simply
address “a” in paragraph form and make it very obvious that you are introducing
your family system.
You will move on to the second paragraph and again, do not label as “b”. Simply
address what is asked in this section and make it very obvious. I am numbering and
labeling alphabetically for clarity purposes only. The centered APA topic that will go
above these two paragraphs can remain as “Family of origin”.
(1). Family of origin (3 points)
Family of origin refers to the significant caretakers and siblings that a person grows
up with.
a). Introduce family system: Biological family, adopted family, caregivers.
b). Enmeshed/Disengaged/Healthy balance between the two?
Quote the definition of enmeshed and disengaged regarding family relationships.
You are to describe if you feel your family was enmeshed or disengaged, or if you
feel your family had a healthy balance between the two. You are to research the
meaning of enmeshed and disengaged families. Remember to place your quote in
quotation marks followed by the authors name. Otherwise I will not know that you
are quoting the definition as instructed.
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(2). 4 Types of parenting styles (2 points)
Remember, APA submissions are in paragraph response. Do not provide numbering
or the letters (a) and (b), etc. when you are addressing this APA assignment. Simply
address “a” in paragraph form and make it very obvious that you are introducing the
topic of “Parenting styles”. As APA format requires, you will center the title of what
you are addressing in the upcoming paragraph. For this section you may use the
topic “Parenting styles”.
You are to address this entire APA paper in this manner. Always have a title above
the section that you are about to address.
Did you know…:
“In psychology today, there are four major recognized parenting styles:
authoritative, neglectful, permissive, and authoritarian.
Authoritative Parenting is a parenting style that is child-centered, in that parents closely
interact with their children, while maintaining high expectations for behavior and
performance, as well as a firm adherence to schedules and discipline.
Uninvolved parenting, sometimes referred to as neglectful parenting, is a style
characterized by a lack of responsiveness to a child's needs. Uninvolved parents make
few to no demands of their children and they are often indifferent, dismissive or even
completely neglectful
Permissive parenting is a type of parenting style characterized by low demands with high
responsiveness. Permissive parents tend to be very loving yet provide few guidelines and
rules. These parents do not expect mature behavior from their children and often seem
more like a friend than a parental figure.
Authoritarian parenting is a style characterized by high demands and low responsiveness.
Parents with an authoritarian style have very high expectations of their children yet
provide very little in the way of feedback and nurturance. Mistakes tend to be punished
harshly. When feedback does occur, it is often negative.
* Authoritarian parents, however, exert control through power and coercion. They have
power because they exert their will over their children. Interestingly, authoritative parents
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tend to be Stricter and MORE consistent than authoritarian parents. They set fewer rules
but are better at enforcing them.
Each parenting style carries different characteristics and brings about different reactions
in the children in which they are used on. It is important to keep in mind that every parent
- child relationship is different, so there is not one sure fire way to go about parenting.”
https://my.vanderbilt.edu/developmentalpsychologyblog/2013/12/types-ofparenting-styles-and-how-to-identify-yours/
a). Select the parenting style in which you were most closely raised as a child. Give 2
or more examples of how the way you were raised is reflected in one or more of the
4 styles of parenting.
(3). Influences/Motivation that fueled your field of choice. (2 points)
Influences can be positive or negative. What or who influenced you, or motivated
you to seek your degree and work in the field that you are seeking? Explain in
paragraph form.
(4). Address Socialization and culture. (4 points)
Remember, APA submissions are in paragraph response. Do not provide the letters
(a) and (b), etc. when you are addressing this APA assignment. Simply address “a” in
paragraph form and make it very obvious that you are addressing cultural traditions
in the first paragraph, the second paragraph will address gender socialization, the
third will address broad and narrow socialization, and in the fourth paragraph you
will address socialization in regard to mass media. Make sure you address all that is
asked.
As we know, society, culture and values all affect or influence human behavior and
its environment. Society dictates norms, social status and the sense of “belonging” to
one’s community. After reading the Socialization article by Dr. Maheshwari, address
the 4 topics below in 4 different paragraphs.
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a). Share some your cultural traditions.
b). Were you “Gender socialized”?
If yes, provide examples.
If no, provide example.
c). Does “Broad socialization”, or “Narrow socialization” apply to your childhood?
Provide at least one example.
d). How does mass media socialize the youth negatively, and did you experience the
negative or positive effects of mass media?
As you address these two questions, do not forget the power of the beauty industry
and how the industry sets the tone for what “successful” is supposed to look like!
(5). Oppression (2 points)
Remember, APA submissions are in paragraph response. Do not provide the letters
(a) and (b), etc. when you are addressing this APA assignment. Simply address “a” in
paragraph form and make it very obvious that you are addressing what is being
asked in this section.
a). State (quote from a creditable source), the definition of oppression.
Share your experience with oppression. This can be personal or observed.
(6). Address Individual, Institutional and/or Structural discrimination.
(2 points)
Share your experience(s) with one or more. This can be personal or observed.
(7). Share your connection/experience with Privilege and/or Power.
(2 points)
When thinking about privilege and power think about if you have been treated a
particular way due to being male or female, or due to the color of your skin.
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Examples: Have you talked your way out of a speeding ticket by using your sex
appeal? Females in general have been tagged with the reputation of being able to
turn up their sex appeal in order to escape a ticket through flirtatious behavior.
Have you been seated at a good or bad table at a restaurant due to your age, your
sex or the color of your skin? Have you been hired or not considered for a job due to
your age, sex or the color of your skin?
(8). Address Social Class. (3 points)
Remember, APA submissions are in paragraph response. Do not provide the letters
(a) and (b), etc. when you are addressing this APA assignment. Simply address “a, b
and c” in paragraph form and make it very obvious that you are addressing what is
being asked in each section. You may address this section in one paragraph as long
as you are covering all that is required.
a). Do you agree with the articles statement regarding lower class parents
and conformity? Explain why or why not.
b). Do you agree with the article’s statement regarding middle-class parents
and conformity? Explain why or why not.
c). Were you affected by conformity or self-reliance? Explain.
(9). Conclusion (2 points)
How do all facets within this paper influence who you are today? Think about how
the components that you have described in the above sections have helped to shape
or mold you. People circulate in and throughout our lives and influence/impact us
one way or another. Negative influences may make us vow to never be like them,
while positive influences may cause us to work harder to achieve our goals. Some
people kicked us when we were down, while others helped to carry our loads. The
conclusion section is worth 2 points. Make sure you address this section with
thought, effort and clarity.
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You need to know:
In the past, Critical Thinking assignment #2 had an element of birth order that the
student was to address. This element is now addressed in Critical Thinking
assignment #1. The power-point instructions for Critical Thinking #2 still include
birth order directions. You are not required to address birth order in Critical
Thinking Assignment #2.
•
No Abstract page necessary
•
•
1-point deduction if the Title/cover page is not APA.
1-point deduction if the Reference page is not APA
The reference page must have at least 4 APA references.
•
I have provided articles in order for you to gain an understanding of the
concepts that you are to address. You may use these articles on your
reference page. However, if you do not cite them with correct APA formatting
then you will not earn credit for the references.
Examples of suitable references:
•
➢ Research 4 parenting styles and use as a reference. You must provide
a creditable reference, meaning your information must come from a
book, journal or creditable article or information source. It is not
simply a statement or opinion.
➢ You can quote the definition of “Oppression” and explain how you
were/are influenced by oppression or not.
➢ What about privilege and/or power regarding society? Find a
creditable definition that relates these two words to society and your
relationship with these two words.
•
•
Late submissions – 2.2 deduction for every day late.
Every 3 grammatical errors = .5 points deducted (Contractions are
grammatical errors.)
•
Contact Emily Wood in the Troy Writing lab for guidance with APA
formatting. edwood@troy.edu
Malone – Room 115
334-983-6556-ext.465
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Extracted with permission from Readings for Diversity and Social Justice. Edited by Maurianne Adams,
etc., Published 2000.
Discrimination Comes in Many Forms: Individual, Institutional, and Structural by Fred L.
Pincus
Discrimination is a critical term in understanding problems associated with diversity.
Historically, of course, discrimination has been a major cause of the lack of diversity in higher
education and the rest of society. In the 1990s, race and gender discrimination still permeate the
institutions and structure of the United States even though most white Americans view
discrimination as relatively unimportant.
Several years ago, I wrote that there were three different levels of discrimination- individual,
institutional, and structural (Pincus 1994). Individual discrimination refers to the behavior of
individual members of one race/ethnic/gender group that is intended to have a differential and/or
harmful effect on the members of another race/ethnic/gender group. Institutional discrimination,
on the other hand, is quite different because it refers to the policies of the dominant
race/ethnic/gender institutions and the behavior of individuals who control these institutions and
implement policies that are intended to have a differential and/or harmful effect on minority
race/ethnic/gender groups. Finally, structural discrimination refers to the policies of dominant
race/ethnic/gender institutions and the behavior of the individuals who implement these policies
and control these institutions, which are race/ethnic/gender neutral in intent but which have a
differential and/or harmful effect on minority race/ethnic/gender groups.
In these definitions, the term dominant refers to groups that have most of the power in society. In
the United States, this refers to whites, especially white males. The term minority refers to
groups that lack power; it does not refer to groups that are small. In the United States, people of
color and women are minority groups as are certain non-Christian religious groups like Jews and
Muslims. People of color also happen to be a numerical minority, but women are not.
Individual versus Institutional Discrimination
Although both individual and institutional discrimination involve an intention to harm, the level
of behavior is quite different. Individual discrimination involves the actions of an individual or
small group of individuals. The following are some examples: a lone employer who rejects all
Black job applicants, a landlord who refuses to rent an apartment to a single woman, a police
officer who beats a Mexican immigrant suspect, a group of teenagers who decide to paint a
swastika on a Jewish temple--these are all examples of individuals acting against other
individuals because of their group membership.
With institutional discrimination, on the other hand, the discriminatory behavior is
embedded in important social institutions. Jim Crow segregation in the South during the first
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half of the twentieth century is one clear example. State laws mandated the separation of Blacks
and Whites in all areas of life. Using any of the one-hour segments of the Eyes on The Prize
documentary on the Civil Rights movement is an excellent way to illustrate the historical nature
of institutional discrimination.
A 1933 Gallup Poll, for example, posed the following question: "How serious a problem do you
think discrimination against blacks is where you live?" Almost two-thirds of the Whites said that
discrimination was not too serious or not at all serious. Less than one-third said it was somewhat
serious or very serious. Black responses were the opposite of the White responses, with twothirds of the Blacks viewing discrimination as very or somewhat serious and less than one-third
viewing it as not serious (Gallup 1993).
The events surrounding the Rodney King beating by five White Los Angeles police officers in
1991 and the resulting riot provide a good vehicle to discuss these issues. If the beating was an
isolated incident of several officers brutalizing a Black suspect, we could call it individual
discrimination. However, it gradually became clear that leadership of the Los Angeles Police
Department tolerated and often condoned antiblack activities. The atmosphere was so lax that
officers felt free to use racial slurs on their car radios even though they knew that they were
being recorded. The beating, then, becomes an example of institutional discrimination because it
involved policies of the entire department.
The 1992 trial and acquittal of the officers involved in King's beating illustrates institutional
discrimination in the criminal justice system. The defense requested a change of venue and the
trial was moved to a conservative, predominantly white community of an all- White jury
eventually acquitted the officers. It is hard to find a clearer case of how institutional
discrimination in the criminal justice system hurts Blacks. The Los Angeles riots broke out
immediately after the acquittal.
Ironically, a very similar situation occurred in Miami in 1980 after several White and Hispanic
police officers were accused of beating Black motorist Arthur McDuffey to death. This trial was
also moved from Miami to a predominantly white area of Florida; the police officers were
acquitted, and a riot ensued. The events surrounding the Miami riot are documented in one of the
Eyes on the Prize II segments....
The struggles of women to enter the Virginia Military Institute (VMI) and the Citadel are good
examples of institutional discrimination because both state-supported institutions denied
admission to women until 1996. Virginia even established a "separate but equal" program for
women at Mary Baldwin College, a private women's institution. In June 1996, the U.S. Supreme
Court ruled that VMI's all-male policy was unconstitutional because the institution received
public funds. Although not directly involved in the decision, The Citadel subsequently
announced that it would begin admitting women. VMI administrators and alumni, on the other
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hand, said that they would explore privatizing the institution to retain its all-male admissions
policy (Lederman 1996; Mitchell 1996). This is reminiscent of how many southern states tried to
avoid racial integration in the 1950s by closing their public schools and creating private allWhite schools.
Institutional discrimination does not just involve the public sector, however. Two large
restaurant chains provide examples of how intentional discrimination still exists in the private
sector as well. Shoney's Inc., with over eighteen hundred restaurants in thirty-six states, had an
unwritten policy of denying employment to Blacks in positions that involved customer contactincluding waiters, waitresses, and managers. Exceptions were made for restaurants in black
communities. Ray Danner, the founder of Shoney's, felt that this was good business because he
believed that Whites would not want to eat at a restaurant where they would have to interact with
Blacks. In 1992, Shoney's agreed to a $132.5 million out-of-court settlement to end a lawsuit and
agreed to hire more Blacks (Feagin and Vera 1995; Watkins 1993).
In another nationally publicized case, the Denny's chain, with over fifteen hundred restaurants
around the country agreed to a $46 million out-of-court settlement. In 1993, six Black Secret
Service officers were denied service at a Denny's restaurant in Annapolis and filed a complaint.
This could have been an example of individual discrimination by a single employer. However,
after word of the incident got out, more than four thousand other Blacks complained of similar
treatment at other Denny's restaurants around the country. This, then, was an example of
institutional discrimination because the entire restaurant chain had a "blackout" policy which
called for denying service to Blacks when they became "too numerous." Waiters and waitresses
also were instructed to ask black customers for payment in advance under certain conditions
(Peagin and Vera 1995; Labaton 1994).
Who can practice discrimination? A person from any race/ethnic/gender group can carry out acts
of individual discrimination. A woman employer can refuse to hire a man just as easily as a
White can refuse to hire a Hispanic. Similarly, a Black can attack an Asian for simply being
Asian, just as the Ku Klux Klan can burn a cross in front of a black church. The key issue is the
intent to treat unequally or to cause harm because of group membership.
Institutional discrimination, on the other hand, is usually carried out by the dominant group
against minority groups because it is the dominant group, by definition, that generally controls
the social institutions. Government policies do not discriminate against Whites because Whites
developed the policies and often implement them. Large private employers are overwhelmingly
White, as are real estate developers and the owners of banks. It is theoretically possible,
however, for a minority-run local government to practice institutional discrimination against
Whites.
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Using these examples of individual and institutional discrimination would be more problematic if
one used the term racism. Often, racism is defined as a system of beliefs, policies, and practices
designed to maintain White superiority. By this definition, Blacks cannot be racist because they
lack power and are the victims of racism; that is, the Black who attacks a White is not practicing
racism....
The question here is whether or not members of minority groups can act negatively toward
members of the dominant group, and the answer is clearly yes. Using the term individual
discrimination allows the focus to be on how both dominant and minority group members can act
in nasty ways toward one another. Although it is possible for women and minorities to practice
institutional discrimination against White males, it occurs much less frequently than individual
discrimination because white males tend to control most of the social institutions.
At some point during the discussion, a student is bound to ask if affirmative action is an example
of institutional discrimination against Whites. I generally say no and argue that affirmative action
is intended to create a more level playing field by eliminating the unfair (and often illegal)
privilege that has been enjoyed--and that is still being enjoyed--by many Whites....
Institutional versus Structural Discrimination
Structural discrimination is a more controversial but also a more fascinating concept to discuss
because it involves behavior that is race and gender neutral in intent. In fact, the issue of intent is
the main distinction between institutional and structural discrimination. Many scholars would not
even call this race/gender neutral behavior discrimination. However, I think it is important to
emphasize the negative effects on minority groups....
Consider the lending practices of banks, for example. There is voluminous evidence that Blacks
and Hispanics are less likely than Whites to get loans or home mortgages. There are several
explanations for this finding, some of which suggest intentional institutional discrimination. The
U.S. Justice Department has sued two banks for denying loans to qualified Blacks and Hispanicsthe Decatur Federal Loan Association of Atlanta and the Shawmut National Corporation of New
England. Both banks agreed to out-of-court settlements (Labaton 1993).
In addition, the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago analyzed almost two thousand mortgage
applications made in the Boston area in 1990. They found that Blacks and Hispanics with bad
credit histories were twice as likely to be rejected for mortgages as Whites with bad credit
histories. This was attributed to "the existence of a cultural affinity between white lending
officers and white applicants, and a cultural gap between white loan officers and marginal
minority applicants" (Bradsher 1995, Dl 8). In other words, the white loan officers didn't trust
minority applicants.
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However, even if banks act in a race-neutral manner toward each customer by only considering
their "creditworthiness," Blacks and Hispanics would still be less likely than Whites to get loans
because of their lower incomes; that is, their creditworthiness is not as strong as it is for Whites. I
call this legal lending policy structural discrimination because it has a negative impact on lowincome minority groups....
Do banks have any community responsibility other than making a profit and treating people in a
color-blind manner? Chicago's South Shore Bank, for example, has a relatively good record of
serving several poor communities (Moberg, 1993) ....
The issue of seniority in employment also brings up the question of structural discrimination.
When faced with the need to reduce their workforce, many employers lay off those workers who
have been employed for fewer years. However, because minorities often tend to be the last hired,
they will be disproportionately represented among those who are laid off. Hence the apparently
race-neutral concept of seniority is an example of structural discrimination because it has
negative impacts on minority populations.
I would also describe many of the policies of the Contract With America, the Republican Party's
1994 election platform, as structural discrimination. The proposed cuts in Medicaid, food stamps,
school lunches, and the Women, Infants, and Children nutrition program would have a
disproportionately negative impact on poor people of color and on women....
This can lead to a discussion of the relative values of budget balancing versus providing services
to the poor. Are there ways to balance the budget without hurting poor people of color? Perhaps
reducing the number of new bombers or submarines would be an alternative method....
Well-intentioned people who carry out structurally discriminatory policies still hurt minority
groups. Being gender-blind or color-blind is not enough.
Policy Implications
Some students will ask, "What difference does it make whether something is institutional or
structural discrimination?" I respond by saying that there are important policy implications about
the distinctions between these two concepts. If one is trying to decide how to combat institutional
discrimination, it is necessary to convince the leaders or policy-makers of the particular
institution that it is wrong (immoral, illegal) to purposely treat minority groups in negative waysfor example, banks refusing to lend to qualified blacks, or Republicans taking food out of the
mouths of minority children. In addition, one might try to embarrass the perpetrators for their
antiminority actions through publicizing their actions; clearly, neither Shoney's nor Denny's
benefited from the publicity.
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These arguments, however, are irrelevant to eliminating structural discrimination. For the banks,
it is necessary to make the argument that equality is as important as profits or that there should
be a better balance between the two. For Republicans, it is necessary to confront the negative
consequences of the Contract with America along with the potential gains. The issue for
structural discrimination is whether the goals of the race/gender-neutral policies are worth the
negative effects.
Though all three types of discrimination are still serious problems, it is harder to deal with
structural discrimination than with the other two. After all, structural discrimination is not
intentional, and it is not even illegal; it is carrying on business as usual. Confronting structural
discrimination requires the reexamination of basic cultural values and fundamental principles of
social organization. Isn't that what education is supposed to be all about?
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References
Bradsher, K. (1995). 'A Second Ped Bank Study Pinds Disparities in Mortgage Lending." The
New York Times, July 13, Dl, DiS.
Feagin, J. R., and H. Vera. (1995). White Racism. New York: Routledge.
Gallup, G. Jr. (1993). The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion 1993. Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly
Resources, Inc.
Labaton, 5. (1994). "Denny's Restaurants to Pay $54 Million in Race Bias Suits." The New York
Times, May25, Al, AlS.
Lederman, D. (1996). "Supreme Court Rejects VMI's Exclusion of Women." Chronicle of
Higher Education, July 5, A21, A26-27.
Mitchell, P T. (1996). "VMI Should Go Coed or Go Public." Chronicle of Higher Education,
January 19, A48.
Moberg, D. (1993). "Banking on the Inner City." In These Times, June 28, 21-23.
Pincus, F. L. (1994). "From Individual to Structural Discrimination." In F. L. Pincus and H. J.
Ehrlich, Race and Ethnic Conflict: Contending Views on Prejudice, Discrimination and
Ethnoviolence. Boulder, Colo.: Westview
Watkins, 5. (1993). "Racism du Jour at Shoney's." The Nation, October 18, 42~28.
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INSTITUTIONAL DISCRIMINATION
Institutional discrimination is concerned with discrimination that has been incorporated into the
structures, processes and procedures of organizations, either because of prejudice or because of
failure to take into account the particular needs of different social identities.
Three features distinguish institutional discrimination from other random individual forms of bad
treatment.
1. Triggered by social identity: the discrimination impacts on groups (or individuals because they
are members of that group).
2. Systematic – it is built into to laws, rules and regulations. For example, selection criteria for
jobs or courses, laws such as the Minimum Wage, pension regularities, etc. It is reflected in
organizational cultures. i.e. ‘the way we do things round here’, including the use of authority
and discretion, e.g. how training opportunities are allocated, how flexibility in learning
practices is authorized. It is reflected in ways of describing ‘normality’, e.g. long working
hours, culture/expectations.
3. Institutional discrimination results in patterns: incidents of discrimination may appear isolated
or random but where institutional discrimination occurs they are part of a wider pattern of
events which often may be hidden. Patterns of discrimination can often be surfaced by
effective organizational information relating to social identity. For example:
• which groups of people get promoted in an organization?
• which groups of people get accepted onto a training course?
• which groups of people leave an organization after six months of employment?
Questions such as this may point to some people experiencing the organization in a different/more
negative way than others.
http://www.faculty.londondeanery.ac.uk/e-learning/diversity-equal-opportunities-and-humanrights/institutional-discrimination
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Dr. V.K. Maheshwari, Ph.D
Philosophical commentary on issues of today
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SOCIALIZATION- Concept, Types, and Agencies
Posted on January 4, 2016 by admin
Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A. (Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed,
Ph.D.
Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee,
India
The human infant comes into the world as biological organism is govern by instinctive needs. He
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is gradually molded into a social being and he learns social ways of acting and feeling. Without
this process of molding, the society could not continue itself, nor could culture exist, nor could
the individual become a person. Socialization makes it possible for us to fully function as human
beings. Without socialization, we could not have our society and culture. This process of molding
is called ‘Socialization’. Every man tries to adjust himself to the condition and environment
predominantly determined by the society of which he is a member. This process of adjustment
may be termed socialization.
The concept of Socialization
Human infants are born without any culture. They must be transformed by their parents,
teachers, and others into cultural and socially adept animals. The general process of acquiring
culture is referred to as socialization. Socialization is known as the process of inducting the
individual into the social world. The term socialization refers to the process of interaction
through which the growing individual learns the habits, attitudes, values and beliefs of the social
group into which he has been born.
Socialization is the process by which human infants begin to acquire the skills necessary to
perform as a functioning member of their society, and is the most influential learning process
one can experience. Unlike many other living species, whose behavior is biologically set, humans
need social experiences to learn their culture and to survive. . Many scientists say socialization
essentially represents the whole process of learning throughout the life course and is a central
influence on the behavior, beliefs, and actions of adults as well as of children.
Socialization, is a term used by sociologists, social psychologists, anthropologists, political
scientists, and educationalists to refer to the lifelong process of inheriting and disseminating
norms, customs, and ideologies, providing an individual with the skills and habits necessary for
participating within their own society. Socialization is thus “the means by which social and
cultural continuity are attained”.
Socialization is a process with the help of which a living organism is changed into a social being. It
is a process through which the younger generation learns the adult role which it has to play
subsequently. It is a continuous process in the life of an individual and it continues from
generation to generation. Socialization prepares people to participate in a social group by
teaching them its norms and expectations.
Socialization has three primary goals: teaching impulse control and developing a conscience,
preparing people to perform certain social roles, and cultivating shared sources of meaning and
value. Socialization is culturally specific, but this does not mean certain cultures are better or
worse than others. The process of learning one’s culture and how to live within it.
Socialization is, thus, a process of cultural learning whereby a new person acquires necessary
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skills and education to play a regular part in a social system. The process is essentially the same
in all societies, though institutional arrangements vary. The process continues throughout life as
each new situation arises. Socialization is the process of fitting individuals into particular forms of
group life, transforming human organism into social being sand transmitting established cultural
traditions.
“Socialization” is defined as the process by which we acquire our social identities and internalize
the values, norms, statuses, and roles of the social world. Schaefer: “Socialization is the process
whereby people learn the attitudes, values, and actions appropriate to individuals as members of
a particular culture”.
Socialization, according to MacIver, “is the process by which social beings establish wider and
profounder relationships with one another, in which they become more bound up with, and
perceptive of the personality of themselves and of others and build up the complex structure of
nearer and wider association.”
Kimball Young writes, “Socialization will mean the process of inducting the individual into the
social and cultural world; of making him a particular member in society and its various groups
and inducting him to accept the norms and values of that society…. Socialization is definitely a
matter of learning and not of biological inheritance.”
It is through the process of socialization that the new born individual is molded into a social
being and men find their fulfillment within society. Man becomes what he is by socialization.
Bogardus defines socialization as the “process of working together, of developing group
responsibility, of being guided by the welfare needs of others.”
According to Ogburn, “Socialization is the process by which the individual learns to conform to
the norms of the group.” Ross defined socialization as “the development of the we feeling in
associates and their growth in capacity and will to act together.” Through the process of
socialization the individual becomes a social person and attains personality.
Green defined socialization “as the process by which the child acquires a cultural content, along
with self-hood and personality”.
Arnett, outlined what he believes to be the three goals of socialization:
1.
impulse control and the development of a conscience
2.
role preparation and performance, including occupational roles, gender roles, and roles
in institutions such as marriage and parenthood
3.
the cultivation of sources of meaning, or what is important, valued, and to be lived for
In short, socialization is the process that prepares humans to function in social life. It should be
re-iterated here that socialization is culturally relative – people in different cultures and people
that occupy different racial, classed, gendered, sexual, and religious social locations are
socialized differently. This distinction does not and should not inherently force an evaluative
judgement. Socialization, because it is the adoption of culture, is going to be different in every
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culture and within different subcultures. Socialization, as both process or an outcome, is not
better or worse in any particular culture or subculture.
Characteristics/ Features of Socialization
The following are some the important features/ characteristic of Socialization –
Socialization takes place formally and informally:
Formal socialization takes through direct instruction and education in schools and colleges.
Family is, however, the primary and the most influential source of education. Children learn their
language, customs, norms and values in the family.
Socialization is a continuous and gradual, rather than a salutatory process:
Socialization is a life-long process. It does not cease when a child becomes an adult. In nature we
find that every species or organism follows a pattern of socialization. The same is the case with
human beings. Socialization occurs in orderly manner and follows a certain sequence which, in
general is the same for most children. The rate and speed of development may vary in individual
cases.
Socialization is a product of interaction of the organism and its environment.
But it is not possible to indicate exactly in what proportion heredity and environment contribute
to the of an Individual Socialization. The two-work hand in hand from the very conceptions. The
environment bears upon the new organism from the beginning. Among, the environmental
factors like nutrition, climate, the conditions in the home, the type of social organization in
which individual move and live, the roles they have to play and other.
Socialization is a continues process –
Socialization does not stop at any time. It continues from the moment of conception until the
individual reaches maturity. It takes place at a slow or a rapid rate but at a regular pace rather
than by leaps and bounds.
There may be a break in the continuity of growth due to illness, starvation or malnutrition or
other environmental factors or some abnormal conditions in the child’s life.
Socialization is rapid if there is more humanity among the- agencies of socialization:
Socialization takes place rapidly if the agencies’ of socialization are more unanimous in their
ideas and skills. When there is conflict between the ideas, examples and skills transmitted in
home and those transmitted by school or peer, socialization of the individual tends to be slower
and ineffective.
Socialization proceeds from general to specific responses-
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It is observed that general activity always precedes specific activity. The early responses of the
baby are very general in nature which is gradually replaced with specific ones. The earliest
emotional responses of the new born are generally diffused excitement and this slowly gives way
to specific emotional patterns of anger, joy, fear, etc. Babies wave their arms in general, random
movements before they are capable of such specific responses as reaching for an object held
before them.
Socialization involves changeThe human being is never static. From the moment of conception to the time of death, the
person is undergoing changes. Nature shapes most clearly Socialization through genetic
programming that may determine whole sequences of later. It refers to a Socialization
progressive series of orderly coherent changes.
Socialization is often predictablePsychologists have observed that each phase has certain Socialization common traits and
characteristics. We have seen that the rate of for each child Socialization is fairly constant. The
consequence is that it is possible for us to predict at an early age the range within which the
child is likely to fall.
Socialization is uniqueEach child is a unique individual. No two children can be expected to behave or develop in an
identical manner although they are of the same age. For example, in the same class, a child who
comes from a deprived environment cannot be expected to do as well in studies as a child of the
same ability whose parents put high value on education and encourage the child to study.
Socialization is an individualized process:
These individual differences arise because each child is controlled by a unique combination of
hereditary endowment and environmental factors. All children therefore do not reach the same
point of at the same Socialization age.
Socialization practices varied markedly from society to society.
The socialization practices were generally similar among people of the same society. This is not
surprising since people from the same culture and community are likely to share core values and
perceptions. During the early 1950′s, John and Beatrice Whitiing led an extensive field study of
early socialization practices in six different societies. They were the Gusii of Kenya, the
Rajputs of India, the village of Taira on the island of Okinawa in Japan, the Tarong of the
Philippines, the Mixteca Indians of central Mexico, and a New England community that was
given the pseudonym Orchardtown. All of these societies shared in common the fact that they
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were relatively homogeneous culturally.
Types of SocializationGroup socialization:
Group socialization holds that an individual’s peer groups, rather than parental figures,
influences his or her personality and behavior in adulthood. Adolescents spend more time with
peers than with parents. Therefore, peer groups have stronger correlations with personality
development than parental figures do. Entering high school is a crucial moment in many
adolescent’s lifespan involving the branching off from the restraints of their parents. When
dealing with new life challenges, adolescents take comfort in discussing these issues within their
peer groups instead of their parents.
Gender socialization:
Henslin contends that “an important part of socialization is the learning of culturally defined
gender roles.” Gender socialization refers to the learning of behavior and attitudes considered
appropriate for a given sex. Boys learn to be boys and girls learn to be girls. This “learning”
happens by way of many different agents of socialization.
Parents plays a very significant role in gender socialization. Sociologists have identified four ways
in which parents socialize gender roles in their children: Shaping gender related attributes
through toys and activities, differing their interaction with children based on the sex of the child,
and communicating gender ideals and expectations.
Anticipatory socialization and Re-socialization:
Anticipatory socialization refers to the processes of socialization in which a person “rehearses”
for future positions, occupations, and social relationships. Re-socialization refers to the process
of discarding former behavior patterns and reflexes, accepting new ones as part of a transition in
one’s life. This occurs throughout the human life cycle. Re-socialization can be an intense
experience, with the individual experiencing a sharp break with his or her past, as well as a need
to learn and be exposed to radically different norms and values.
Racial socialization and cultural socialization:
Racial socialization has been defined as “the developmental processes by which children acquire
the behaviors, perceptions, values, and attitudes of an ethnic group, and come to see
themselves and others as members of the group”. Cultural socialization refers to parenting
practices that teach children about their racial history or heritage and is sometimes referred to
as pride development.
Planned socialization and Natural Socialization:
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Planned socialization occurs when other people take actions designed to teach or train others—
from infancy on. Natural socialization occurs when infants and youngsters explore, play and
discover the social world around them.
Positive socialization and Negative socialization:
Positive socialization is the type of social learning that is based on pleasurable and exciting
experiences. We tend to like the people who fill our social learning processes with positive
motivation, loving care, and rewarding opportunities. Negative socialization occurs when others
use punishment, harsh criticisms or anger to try to “teach us a lesson;” and often we come to
dislike both negative socialization and the people who impose it on us.
Broad and Narrow Socialization:
Arnett proposed an interesting though seldom used distinction in types of socialization. Arnett
distinguishes between broad and narrow socialization. Broad socialization is intended to
promote independence, individualism, and self-expression; it is dubbed broad because this type
of socialization has the potential of resulting in a broad range of outcomes. Narrow socialization
is intended to promote obedience and conformity; it is dubbed narrow because there is a narrow
range of outcomes.
Primary and Secondary Socialization:
Primary socialization takes place early in life, as a child and adolescent. Primary socialization for a
child is very important because it sets the ground work for all future socialization. Primary
Socialization occurs when a child learns the attitudes, values, and actions appropriate to
individuals as members of a particular culture. It is mainly influenced by the immediate family
and friends.
Secondary socialization refers to the socialization that takes place throughout one’s life, both as
a child and as one encounters new groups that require additional socialization. Secondary
socialization refers to the process of learning what is the appropriate behavior as a member of a
smaller group within the larger society. Basically, it is the behavioral patterns reinforced by
socializing agents of society. Secondary socialization takes place outside the home. It is where
children and adults learn how to act in a way that is appropriate for the situations they are
in.[22] Schools require very different behavior from the home, and Children must act according
to new rules. New teachers have to act in a way that is different from pupils and learn the new
rules from people around them. Secondary Socialization is usually associated with teenagers and
adults, and involves smaller changes than those occurring in primary socialization.
Agencies of Socialization:
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Socialization is a process by which culture is transmitted to the younger generation and men
learn the rules and practices of social groups to which they belong. Every society builds an
institutional framework within which socialization of the child takes place. Culture is transmitted
through the communication they have with one another and communication thus comes to be
the essence of the process of culture transmission. In a society, there exists a number of
agencies to socialize the child.
To facilitate socialization different agencies play important roles. These agencies are however
interrelated.
Family:
The family is rightly called the cradle of social virtues. Family being a mini society acts as a
transmission belt between the individual and society. The family plays an outstanding role in the
socialization process. The family is the most important agent of socialization because it is the
center of the child’s life, as infants are totally dependent on others. Not all socialization is
intentional, it depends on the surrounding. Family plays the most important role in the
formation of personality. The family has informal control over its members It trains the younger
generation in such a way that it can take the adult roles in proper manner. As family is primary
and intimate group, it uses informal methods of social control to check the undesirable behavior
on the part of its members. The parents use both reward and punishment to imbibe what is
socially required from a child.
The process of socialization remains a process because of the interplay between individual life
cycle and family life cycle.
According to Robert. K. Merton, “it is the family which is a major transmission belt for the
diffusion of cultural standards to the oncoming generation”. The family serves as “the natural
and convenient channel of social continuity. The most profound effect is gender socialization;
however, the family also shoulders the task of teaching children cultural values and attitudes
about themselves and others. Children learn continuously from the environment that adults
create. Children also become aware of class at a very early age and assign different values to
each class accordingly.
In rural societies, children have most of their early social contact with the family. Today,
however, the family’s importance in the child’s life is changing. Although most children growing
up today will spend a great deal of time with people other than members of their families, this
does not mean that the participation of families in socialization has ended. Still the family
continues to be a major means of passing on values, attitudes, and behaviors.
The Day-care:
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Today, however, the family’s importance in the child’s life is changing. The family no longer
necessarily conforms to the stereotypical nuclear family with two parents and two or more
dependent children. Fewer families are consists of a working father, full-time homemaker
mother, and at least one child. There are more and more single-parent families, where mothers
with children under 6 years old are working. More and more children are receiving their early
and primary care from others in addition to their parents. For these children, day care is an
important agent of socialization the day-care are informal arrangements at the home of a
neighbor, large nurseries run by schools, churches, charities, corporations, and occasionally
employers.
Social Class
Kohn, explored differences in how parents raise their children relative to their social class. Kohn
found that lower class parents were more likely to emphasize conformity in their children
whereas middle-class parents were more likely to emphasize creativity and self-reliance. Ellis et.
al. proposed and found that parents value conformity over self-reliance in children to the extent
that conformity superseded self-reliance as a criterion for success in their own endeavors. In
other words, Ellis et. al. verified that the reason lower-class parents emphasize conformity in
their children is because they experience conformity in their day-to-day activities.
Peer Group:
A peer group is a social group whose members have interests, social positions and age in
common. This is where children can escape supervision and learn to form relationships on their
own. A peer group consists of friends and associates who are about the same age and social
status. Peer Group means a group in which the members share some common characteristics
such as age or sex etc. It is made up of the contemporaries of the child, his associates in school,
in playground and in street. The growing child learns some very important lessons from his peer
group. Since members of the peer group are at the same stage of socialization, they freely and
spontaneously interact with each other.
The members of peer groups have other sources of information about the culture and thus the
acquisition of culture goes on. They view the world through the same eyes and share the same
subjective attitudes. In order to be accepted by his peer group, the child must exhibit the
characteristic attitudes, the likes and dislikes.
As children get older, going to school brings them into regular contact with other children of
their age. As early as first or second grade, children form social groups. In these early
peer groups, children learn to share toys and other scarce resources (such as the teacher’s
attention). Peers may reinforce behaviors that are stressed by parents and schools. Youthful
concerns may center on popular music and movies, sports, sex, or illegal activities. Conflict arises
when standards of the peer group differ from the standards of the child’s family. Parents and
teachers, on the other hand, want children to do schoolwork, help at home, and “stay out of
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trouble.”
The influence of the peer group typically peaks during adolescence however peer groups
generally only affect short term interests unlike the family which has long term influence In our
society, adolescents are heavily influenced by their peers when it comes to dress, musical fads,
cheating, and drug use. In making their future life plans, however, they are influenced more by
their parents than by their peers. Girls seem to be somewhat more influenced in their future life
plans by peers than are boys. Peer groups may provide social rewards–praise, prestige, and
attention–to individuals for doing things adults disapprove of.
Language:
Depending on the language and situation at any given time, people will socialize
differently. People learn to socialize differently depending on the specific language and culture in
which they live. A specific example of this is code switching. This is where immigrant children
learn to behave in accordance with the languages used in their lives: separate languages at home
and in peer groups (mainly in educational settings.
Political Parities/ Nationalism:
Every society tries to influence how young people grow up. Much of this influence is expressed
through parents, schools, and peers, but it is worth considering for a moment how children
become exposed to the political and economic ideas that are considered important for citizens
of a particular country.
Children learn political information and attitudes rapidly during the elementary school years.
One of the first things they learn is that they belong to some kind of a political unit. Even very
young children develop a sense of “we” in relation to their own country and learn to see other
countries in terms of “they.” Children also tend to believe that their own country and language
are superior to others. This bond may be the most critical socialization feature relating to the
political life of the nation. The family helps provide this basic loyalty to country, but the school
also shapes the political concepts that expand and develop children’s early feelings of
attachment. Political orientations develop early and reach nearly adult levels by the end of
elementary school, but there are still some critical changes that occur at other points during the
life cycle. High school students become more aware of differences between political parties and
tend to become more active politically.
Religion:
Religion has been an important factor in society. In the early society religion provided a bond of
unity. Though in modern society the importance of religion has diminished, yet it continues to
mold our beliefs and ways of life. In every family some or the other religious practices are
observed on one or the other occasion. The child sees his parents going to the temple and
performing religious ceremonies. He listens to religious sermons which may determine his
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course of life and shape his ideas.
Religion play a very important role in socialization. Agents of socialization differ in effects across
religious traditions. Some believe religion is like an ethnic or cultural category, making it less
likely for the individuals to break from religious affiliations and be more socialized in this setting.
Parental religious participation is the most influential part of religious socialization—more so
than religious peers or religious beliefs.
Educational Institutions:
Every civilized society therefore has developed a set of formalized agencies of education
(schools, colleges and universities) which have a great bearing on the socialization process. It is
in the educational institutions that the culture is formally transmitted and acquired.
The educational institutions not only help the growing child in learning language and other
subjects but also instill the concept of time, discipline, team work, cooperation and competition.
Through the means of reward and punishment the desired behavior pattern is reinforced.
Educational institution is a very important socializer and the means by which individual acquires
social norms and values (values of achievement, civic ideals, solidarity and group loyalty etc)
beyond those which are available for learning in the family and other groups.
Educational institutions try to impress upon children the importance of working for rewards, and
they try to teach neatness, punctuality, orderliness, and respect for authority. Teachers are
called upon to evaluate how well children perform a particular task or how much skill they have.
Thus, in school, children’s relationships with adults move from nurture and behavioral concerns
to performance of tasks and skills determined by others.
Mass Media:
The mass media are the means for delivering impersonal communications directed to a vast
audience. The term media comes from Latin meaning, “middle,” suggesting that the media’s
function is to connect people.
The mass media include many forms of communication–such as books, magazines, radio,
television, and movies–that reach large numbers of people without personal contact between
senders and receivers. Since mass media has enormous effects on our attitudes and behavior,
notably in regards to aggression, it is an important contributor to the socialization process.
The mass media of communication, particularly television, play an important role in the process
of socialization. The mass media of communication transmit information’s and messages which
influence the personality of an individual to a great extent. In the last few decades, children have
been dramatically socialized by one source in particular: television. Studies have found that
children spend more time watching TV than they spend in school.
Reports may vary, but children in the fifth to eighth grades view an average of 4 to 6 hours daily.
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Most of the research on the effects of television has been on the cognitive and behavioral results
of TV watching. The topic most often studied has been the influence of television on antisocial
behavior, especially violence. Current research supports the view that seeing violence on
television increases the chance that a child will be aggressive. Publicly available studies
unambiguously relate changes in behavior (such as food habits or drug use) to exposure to
television advertising. Research also suggests that young children obtain considerable political
and social information from television.
Winn (1977) suggests that the experience of watching television itself is limiting. When people
watch television, no matter what the program, they are simply watchers and are not having any
other experience. According to Winn, and many agree, children need to develop family
relationships, the capacity for self-direction, and the basic skills of communication (reading,
writing, and speaking); to discover their own strengths and limitations, and to learn the rules
that keep social interaction alive. Television works against all these goals by putting children in a
passive situation where they do not speak, interact, experiment, explore, or do anything else
active because they are watching a small moving picture on a machine. This research shows the
growing importance of television as a medium of socialization, although clearly it is only one
among a number of important influences.
In addition to this, communication media has an important effect in encouraging individuals to
support the existing norms and values or oppose or change them. They are the instrument of
social power. They influence us with their messages. The words are always written by someone
and these people too – authors and editors and advertisers – join the teachers, the peers and
the parents in the socialization process.
Legal system:
The state is an authoritarian agency. It makes laws for the people and lays down the modes of
conduct expected of them. The people have compulsorily to obey these laws. If they fail to
adjust their behavior in accordance with the laws of the state, they may be punished for such
failure. Thus, the state also molds our behavior.
Children are pressured from both parents and peers to conform and obey certain laws or norms
of the group/community. Parents’ attitudes toward legal systems influence children’s views as to
what is legally acceptable.
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