Roles in Groups
Benne and Sheats (1948) identified three broad types of roles people play in small groups: task roles,
building and maintenance roles, and self-centered roles.
Task Roles: Focus is on completing group’s goal
Coordinator: Relates statements made by one group member to another
“Krista’s comment relate well to what Erik was saying.”
Energizer: Stimulates group to take action
“How many of you are willing to bring in a video on conflict for the next class?
Elaborator: Expands upon another’s ideas
“I think what Kristina and Jennifer are suggesting is that we first explain nonverbal before we turn to verbal
communication.”
Evaluator-critic: Assesses the group’s work by higher standards
“This is okay, but I think Lisa needs to give more feedback.”
Information-giver: Provides helpful information
“Jake has some books about conflict we could use.”
Information-seeker: Asks for clarification
“Lisa D. or Laura, could you please tell me what you said about disconfirming responses?”
Recorder: Keep notes (minutes) about meeting
“Last class we did not get to J-P’s presentation. Dave and Michelle had just finished theirs.”
Procedural Technician: Takes responsibility for tasks
“I checked out the VCR for Adam and LeighAnne’s presentations.”
Group-Building/Maintenance Roles: Focus building relationships, maintaining
harmony
Encourager: Provides positive feedback
“I think what Heather was saying was totally right.”
Follower: Accepts ideas of others in group
“Let’s follow Cotton’s plan—he had the right idea.”
Compromiser: Attempts to reach a solution everyone finds acceptable
“Nicole, Beth, and Nimat have offered three great solutions. Why don’t we integrate them?”
Gatekeeper: Facilitates participation from everyone in group
“I don’t think we’ve heard from Monique yet.”
Harmonizer: Reduces conflict and tension (often through humor)
“After that exam, we deserve a free meal!”
Observer: Evaluates group progress
“I think we’ve learned a lot so far. Sara and Heather gave us great information.”
Self-centered Roles: Focus is to prevent group from reaching goals; to disrupt
Aggressor: Acts antagonistic towards other group members and their ideas
“Playing desert survival is the dumbest idea I’ve ever heard.”
Dominator: Monopolizes group speaking time
Interrupting—“I’m going to tell you the six reasons why this is a bad idea.”
Blocker: Refuses to cooperate with other’s ideas
“I refuse to play Desert Survival.”
Help-Seeker: Acts helpless to avoid work
“I don’t think I can put together a bibliography. Why don’t you do it for me?”
Loafer: Avoids work
“Why don’t we just go have drinks instead of finishing this project.”
Special Interest Advocate: Presents own viewpoint and needs
“I can’t meet tomorrow. I need to sleep late and call my mom.”
Self-confessor: Discusses topics only of importance to self and not the group
“I really like coffee. Yesterday I went to Kiva Han. Their coffee is better than what you get elsewhere . . .”
Example “A” Small Group Analysis Paper
Small Group Movie Analysis: Little Miss Sunshine
As we progress through life, all people will have many experiences with different groups
consisting of different individuals. As we encounter different groups, we should recollect that the
groups we are a part of have some form of a goal that is meant to be accomplished but will not
necessarily come easy. It is also important to have the proper knowledge on how to approach
different group members, work through challenging situations and problem-solving, as well as
retaining experiences and information we have obtained from that group. The reason why I
choose the film Little Miss Sunshine was because it was focused on family and as stated in our
textbook, “families tend to occupy a central position in the lives of most people.” Meaning
seeing each character in a constant family setting it would be clear to follow along with the
characteristics of each character. With that being said, the film features a family of 6 who goes
on an 800-mile road trip to take the youngest family Olive to Little Miss Sunshine competition.
The family consists of Sheryl, an overworked mother, and Richard who is Sheryl’s husband who
is optimistic and has hopes of becoming a motivational speaker with his “9-step” program.
(Which was unsuccessful) Olive and Dwayne are the children of the family. Olive has dreams of
winning in Miss America, and after receiving a phone call, she qualifies to compete in the Little
Miss Sunshine competition in California. Dwayne is Sheryl’s son from a previous relationship
who has vowed to not speak until he can attend flight school. Frank is Sheryl’s brother who
recently moved in with the family after a recent suicide attempt. He attempted suicide after being
left and rejected by a former male student that he fell in love with. He lost his job and has been
living in a mental institution, Sheryl has taken responsibility to watch him until he “gets better.”
Lastly, Grandpa is Richard’s father, who was removed from his retirement home due to snorting
Example “A” Small Group Analysis Paper
cocaine. It is later discovered he has an addiction and dies later in the film. Upon receiving the
phone call about Olive’s eligibility to compete in the competition, the family takes a tumultuous
road trip in an old beat down family van (which causes a lot of troubles.) During the trip the
family makes many self-discoveries, ultimately bringing the family closer together, as Olive
reaches her dream to compete. While viewing the film many concepts arose relating to small
groups, including how they develop and function as a healthy group. As well as roles that
individuals play and how the group solves problems systematically.
Type of Group
A group is defined as “a collection of about three to 20 people who feel a sense of
belonging and attempt to influence each other to accomplish a common purpose.” (Sellnow. 109)
The type of group displayed in the film was a family, more specifically both an extended and
blended family. This being because Richard’s father, Grandpa lives with them, as well as
Sheryl’s brother Frank. Sheryl’s son Dwayne, from a previous relationship, lives with the family
also. Although throughout the film the Hoover’s displayed interactions and behaviors of
dysfunction, as the film progressed, they displayed social and emotional support towards each
other. Being with monitoring Frank’s suicidal tendencies, Richard’s ambition to having his “9step” pitch be pushed through to become a life coach, Dwayne wanting to become a test pilot,
and Olive wanting to compete in the Little Miss Sunshine competition.
Healthy Group Guidelines
According to our textbook, heathy groups are “formed around a constructive purpose,”
and are characterized by different elements. (Sellnow 116) The first of which is how ethical the
group’s goal is. The primary goal of the film was to allow Olive to reach her dream of
Example “A” Small Group Analysis Paper
performing in (and potentially winning) the Little Miss Sunshine competition. Although there
was plenty of turmoil along the way of the trip, I would overall rate this goal of the group a 5,
due to most of their actions being honorable. For instance, upon trying to leave from a diner,
Sheryl decides she wants to have a turn driving, however, the van’s gearshift is jammed. They
push their van to a mechanic who tells them that their “clutch is shot” and the only way they will
be able to switch gears is if the car is moving at 20 mph. Knowing that they have made a promise
to Olive to make it to the competition by Sunday, after every stop, they push the car by hand
until it reaches 20 mph to continue driving. Another event of the film that displayed honorability
was when the Hoover family was at the hospital after Grandpa’s death. Although taking
Grandpa’s body away from the hospital was not the most honest thing to do, Richard stated he
knew that “Grandpa more than anyone would want to see olive perform in the competition.”
With that being said, the decision to continue even with Grandpa’s corpse in their trunk,
although outrageous, in a sense proves honorable for the family to keep their promise to Olive.
The second characteristic of a healthy group is interdependence. Interdependent groups
“rely on each other’s skill and knowledge to accomplish the ultimate group goal.” (Sellnow 116)
I would rate the Hoover family with a 4. For instance, Frank is now completely dependent on
Sheryl to provide for him. After his attempt at suicide due to being rejected by the student he fell
in love with, he lived in an institution and had no job. Although, Sheryl and Richard did not have
the finances to afford to take care of Frank they still took him in. Similarly, with Richard’s
father, Grandpa. He was removed from his retirement home for snorting heroin, yet they have
taken him in, and he relies on the support of the family. Moreover, Grandpa has been the main
individual involved in training olive for her competitions.
Example “A” Small Group Analysis Paper
The next characteristic is cohesiveness, which is “the force that brings the group closer
together.” Furthermore, cohesiveness involves how well the group respects one another and how
well they work together. (Sellnow 116) I would rate the Hoover family a 3 on cohesiveness. The
reason being is that at the beginning of the film Dwayne did not want to participate in the road
trip or go to the Little Miss Sunshine competition. Sheryl had to bribe him into going by stating
that if he came along, she would allow him to enroll in flight school upon returning. Another
instance of the family having low cohesiveness was a scene where Dwayne finds out that he is
colorblind, and Frank informs him that you cannot be colorblind and be a pilot. This enrages
Dwayne to a point to where Richard is forced to pull over the van. After getting out of the van
Dwayne begins speaking and shouting for the first time in 8 months. He runs down a hill and
begins refusing to continue onto the competition, as well as expressing his anger and frustrations
towards his family and the trip. He calls them all “losers” and exclaims they all have serious
issues dealing with “divorce, bankrupt and suicide.” One of the turning points of the family’s
cohesiveness is when Sheryl asks Olive to go and speak to Dwayne. Olive hugs Dwayne and
after apologizing to everyone he rejoins the group and they continue their journey.
Another characteristic of a healthy group is how they develop and abide by productive
norms. Norms are defined as, “expectations about the way group members are to behave.”
(Sellnow 117) I would rate the Hoover family a 2 with norms. For example, in one scene of the
film, Grandpa begins questioning Dwayne about whether he is sexually active or if he uses drugs
while they are on the road. He begins using vulgar language, which upsets Richard because
Olive is in the van as well. Richard tells Grandpa to not use that language around Olive and he
just responds by saying, “eh, she has her headphones on.” Olive then turns around the ask
Grandpa and Dwayne what they were talking about and he tells her “politics.” After watching
Example “A” Small Group Analysis Paper
this scene, it is inferable that Grandpa is an explicit individual and that is normal for him to
potentially speak that way around anyone.
The next characteristic of healthy groups is accountability. Accountability means “all
group members are held responsible for adhering to the group norms and working toward the
group’s goal” (Sellnow 118) I would rate the Hoover family a 2 on being accountable. During
one scene of the film, the family takes a stop at a gas station. Most of them get out of the van,
and Olive asks Sheryl if she can get out and practice more for her routine. Sheryl tells Olive,
“yes”, but to make sure she does not go too far as Sheryl goes to the restroom and Richard tries
to reach stan from a payphone. After getting into contact with Stan Richard discovers that his
plan fell through with the company he tried to partner with. Once he tells Sheryl she gets upset
and they begin arguing, and both become frantic to leave the gas station. They leave the gas
station without Olive, and they only realize when Dwayne writes a note to Frank stating,
“Where’s Olive?”
The last Characteristic of healthy groups is synergy. Synergy is defined as, “the
multiplying force of a group of individuals working together that results in a combined effort
greater than any other parts.” I would rate the Hoover family a 4 concerning synergy. In different
parts of the film, each character became more determined in getting to the competition on time.
For instance, in the scene of the film when the family arrives at the hotel where the competition
is being held the realize it is exactly 3 o’clock. Frank bursts through the van’s door as it falls off
and begins sprinting to the registration desk to register olive into the competition. Frank is joined
by the rest of the family when they catch up to him and they are told they cannot enroll Olive
into the competition because it is “now 3:04.” Richard begins to beg on his knees explaining how
Example “A” Small Group Analysis Paper
much of a rough trip they have gone through to get to the competition. They are eventually
enrolled by a man named Mr. Kirby who can see the frustration in the family’s expressions.
Stages of Group Development
Stages of group development focuses on how members of a group communicate with one
another as they progress to reach their goal. The first stage of group development is forming,
which is characterized by “orientation, testing, and dependence.” (Sellnow 119) During this
stage, members try to figure out what their goal is and how they will achieve that goal. From
viewing the beginning of the film is it evident to see that the hoover family is not fond of one
another. For instance, when Olive asks Frank why he was away and why he has bands around his
wrist he opens to her about how he attempted to commit suicide due to being rejected by his
male student. In this scene, Richard is bothered by Frank telling her the details of his incident,
but Sheryl encourages the conversation, while Grandpa interjects with derogatory terms towards
Frank. As well as when Sheryl receives the phone call about the competition and brings up flying
or taking a road trip everyone is reluctant to go. However, with Olive being the youngest they all
eventually attest to the promise that Sheryl made to Olive. It can be inferred that another reason
why Sheryl was adamant about going on a road trip was to bring the family closer together, case
in point, Dwayne not speaking to anyone for months because he wants to go to flight school.
The next stage of group development is storming, which is characterized by conflict and
power plays.” (Sellnow 119) In the film, Richard attributes to this characteristic, due to an
interaction with olive and Frank. In the scene of the film when the Hoover Family is at the diner,
Olive decides to order “waffles a la mode.” Not knowing what a la mode means Frank begins to
explain to Olive that she will get ice cream along with her waffles. In the middle of explaining
Richard tells Frank to “shut-up” and tells Olive that ice cream will make her fat, and she should
Example “A” Small Group Analysis Paper
not want to be fat because all the Miss America girls are skinny, implying that she would not win
the competition if she is not “skinny” enough. Olive becomes discouraged after hearing this and
refuses to eat her ice cream. This upsets Sheryl, however upon receiving their food Grandpa and
Frank induce Olive to eat some ice cream.
The next stage of group development is norming, and is characterized by “cohesion,
collaboration trust and motivation to achieve the group goal.” (Sellnow 119) One scene of the
movie that correlates with norming is when Grandpa passes away in the hospital. While the
Hoover family is waiting to hear an update on Grandpa, Sheryl begins to break down crying. She
tells Olive and Dwayne, “no matter what happens to Grandpa he loves them, and she loves them
very much” as well. Dwayne writes to olive to “go hug mom” and the all gather in for a group
hug. After finding out that Grandpa did not make it, they are faced with a problem of the hospital
not being able to hold Grandpa’s body overnight until returning from the competition. Knowing
they will not be able to continue; Richard decides to take Grandpa’s body. They then plot a way
to remove Grandpa’s body from the hospital room and place him in their trunk.
The next stage of group development is performing which is characterized by, “harmony,
productivity, and problem-solving. The Hoover displayed performing in the scene prior to Olive
competing in the “talent” section of the competition. Upon watching the other girls compete and
perform Richard and Dwayne become uncomfortable in letting Olive perform. One reason being
they feel the young girls are dressed and act too mature and do not want Olive to be viewed that
way. Additionally, they do not want Olive to get embarrassed while performing in front of the
crowd considering the talents of the other girls. They run to the dressing room to convince Sheryl
to not let Olive perform however Sheryl knows this Olive’s dream, and replies by saying, “just
let olive be olive.” Subsequently, they decide to let her fulfill her dream and perform.
Example “A” Small Group Analysis Paper
The last stage(s) in group development is adjourning and transforming. Adjourning is
characterized by “celebrating goal accomplishment and disengagement. The entire family is now
in the performance room of the competition to see Olive perform, and before starting she
dedicates her performance to Grandpa and states, “he taught me this routine.” Olive’s music
begins to play, and it is the song “Super Freak” by Rick James. Once the audience becomes
familiar with the lyrics of the song and sees Olive’s dance moves, some begin to leave, while
others are disturbed. However, the Hoovers stand and begin cheering on Olive, later even joining
her on stage and dancing with her, knowing that she feels accomplished. After causing “chaos”
to the competition they are all removed and taken to a police station, to where they have vow to
never register Olive in a beauty pageant in the state of California. Leading into the transforming
stage, the family leaves happily as they begin to make their journey back home.
Roles in Groups
Roles in groups display how everyone will perform and behave within the group. There
are three types of roles people play in small groups; task roles, building and maintenance roles,
and self-centered roles. Task Roles, “focus in on completing the group’s goal.” Sheryl displayed
the role of an energizer in the film. After receiving the call about the Little Miss Sunshine
competition in California she immediately began thinking of how the family would get there,
even though they were short on finances. She wanted to ensure she kept her promise to Olive that
she would be able to compete in the competition. Richard presented an evaluator-critic role at the
beginning of the film. After Olive expressed how badly she wanted to join the competition,
Richard asked Olive if she is sure she wants to participate, and tells her, “there is no point in
entering unless you know for sure you’re going to win.”
Example “A” Small Group Analysis Paper
Group Building and Maintenance Roles focus on building relationships and maintain
harmony. In some scenes of the film, Grandpa demonstrated an encourager role. After everyone
is aware of the news that Richard’s “9-step” pitch fell through, Grandpa approaches him at the
front of the van. Seeing that Richard is down, Grandpa tells him that despite what happened that
he is “proud of him for taking a risk” and gives him a pat on the back. Grandpa also showed an
encourager role towards olive after they got done practicing in his hotel room for the
competition. Olive asks Grandpa if he thinks that she’s ready for the competition, and he tells her
“you are going to blow them out of the water.” She also asks if she was a loser because her dad
“hates losers.” Grandpa responds by stating, “you are not a loser, the only people who are losers
are those who are so afraid of not winning they don’t even try.” Which they both clarify that she
has been trying.
Lastly, self-centered roles focus on preventing the group from reaching goals. Richard
exhibited a blocker role towards Sheryl in their hotel room. Sheryl wanted to discuss their
financial situation since finding out that Richard’s plan did not work out and how they were
depending on the pitch as a financial break. Richard tried to avoid the conversation by stating,
“let’s just get through this and go home.” After becoming frustrated with accepting failure
Richard decides to go find Stan at a convention being held in the same town. During the
confrontation between Richard and Stan, Stan displayed an aggressor role. Richard questions
Stan about his promise that Richard’s pitch would sell, in which Stan responds “it’s not the
program it’s you. No one has heard of you and nobody cares.” He concludes by telling Richard
he needs to move on.
Systemic Problem Solving
Example “A” Small Group Analysis Paper
During systemic problem solving, members of a group construct steps or patterns to
follow to be able to tackle a problem that the group is facing. The first step to systemic problem
solving is to identify and define the problem. The purpose of this step is to allow the group to
“define the problem in a way that all the group members understand.”(Sellnow 133) One of the
underlying problems of the film was Dwayne’s feelings towards his family with his reluctance to
speak until he could attend flight school. It is known and inferred early in the film that Dwayne
dislikes his family, hence him wanting to join a flight school to “fly” away from his family. On
one side, Richard encourages Dwayne’s refusal to speak by stating, “I think we all can learn
something from what Dwayne is doing……. He’s pursuing that dream with focus and
discipline.” However, Sheryl does not wat Dwayne to go to flight school, and both she and Frank
are bothered by the fact that Dwayne has taken this route to achieve what he wants.
Step two of systemic problem solving is to analyze the problem. To analyze the problem
the group needs to, “find out as much as possible about it.” (Sellnow 133) Upon arriving at the
Hoover home, Dwayne is sharing his room with Frank who notices that something is off about
Dwayne. He questions him about his ability to speak which Dwayne clarifies that he can speak
he just chooses not to. Frank asks him why and he points to a picture of Friedrich Nietzsche who
has influenced Dwayne’s self- fulfillment decisions. A reason being why Frank is intrigued by
Dwayne’s action is because they both could be considered outcasts. Since Frank is gay, he
probably understands why Dwayne would rather not associate with his family that does not
support his dream.
Step three of systemic problem solving is to determine the criteria for judging solutions.
During this step members of the group use criteria to get closer to evaluate the problem. When
Sheryl received the phone call about the competition, she knew it would not be a good idea to
Example “A” Small Group Analysis Paper
leave either Frank, Dwayne or Grandpa behind for their safety and sanity. Furthermore, she
knows she must find a way to encourage them to go on the trip, so to get Dwayne to come along
she tells him she will allow him to enroll in flight school after they return. Upon which he agrees
to go with his family on that condition. Along the way of the trip, after Grandpa’s passing,
Dwayne reaches his breaking point when he finds out he is color blind. Olive tests to see if
Dwayne is color blind using a test booklet she got from the hospital. After realizing he cannot
see the letter “A” during the test, Frank informs him that he cannot be a pilot if he is color blind.
This enrages Dwayne into a panic manner to where Richard is forced to pull over. Dwayne runs
out of the van and screams in anger, speaking for the first time in months.
Step four of systemic problem solving is to generate a host of solutions. During this step,
groups fail to create a solution due to criticisms of ideas expressed initially. Amid Dwayne’s
tantrum, he calls his family “losers” and does not want to continue to the competition This upset
Sheryl and she tells him, “like it or not, we’re still your family, for better or worse.” In which
Dwayne responds, “you’re not my family, I hate you people”, and begs for his mom to just leave
him alone on the side of the road. After hearing this news Dwayne is devasted and it can be
inferred that going on the trip was in vain to him because he will not be able to fulfill his dream.
Step five of systemic problem solving is to evaluate solutions and decide. During this
step, the group evaluates each solution and eliminates any solutions that do not meet the criteria.
Although Sheryl does not give Dwayne the option to stay behind even when Frank offered to
stay behind with him, Dwayne had to realize that he has either give up his dream or put it on
hold. He gets back into the van and the family continues to the competition
Step six of systemic problem solving is implementing the agreed upon and assess it.
During this step the group determines the effectiveness of the solution and take into
Example “A” Small Group Analysis Paper
consideration if they want to revisit and “assess its success” (Sellnow 136) While talking to
Frank on a dock during the competition Dwayne makes a realization that “life is just one big
beauty contest”, meaning life will present many challenges. He declares to Frank that he will
find a way to reach his goal of being a pilot because people should “do what they love and forget
the rest.” In which Frank simply replies that he is “glad Dwayne is talking again.”
In summary, the film Little Miss Sunshine displayed an example of a family were
different members of the group had their own goals that collided and intertwined with one
another. In the end, differences had to be put aside to allow Olive to complete her goal, even if it
ended in consequence for the family, they knew it would best for the family. After completing
this assignment, I have learned that small group communication takes a lot of trial and error
assists in completing whatever goal the group is trying to accomplish. Additionally, I have
learned that there are different types of small groups who have goals that are characterized by
being healthy or unhealthy, as well as everyone plays a role in the group. Small groups go
through stages of development as well, to produce cohesion and understanding to reach their
goals, whereupon the group can determine whether they would like to continue as a group.
Lastly, I have learned that groups must work systemically to solve problems within the group
that may hinder them from reaching their goal. During this process, the group must analyze,
evaluate and assess solutions to their problem to figure out if it will be beneficial to solve the
problem.
Work Cited
Example “A” Small Group Analysis Paper
“Communication in Groups/ Group Leadership and Problem Solving.” COMM5: Speech
Communication, by Deanna D. Sellnow et al., Cengage, 2018, pp. 108–139.
Dayton, Johnathan and Valerie Faris, directors. Little Miss Sunshine. 20th Century Fox, 2006.
13
Communicate!
Kathleen S. Verderber
Northern Kentucky University
Rudolph F. Verderber
Distinguished Teaching Professor of Communication,
University of Cincinnati
Deanna D. Sellnow
University of Kentucky
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Kathleen S. Verderber, Rudolph
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Communicate!, Thirteenth Edition
Brief Contents
Contents iv
Preface xiii
PART
I
FOUNDATIONS OF COMMUNICATION
Chapter
1
Communication Perspectives
1
Chapter
2
Perception of Self and Others
23
Chapter
3
Communicating Verbally
47
Chapter
4
Communicating Nonverbally
66
Chapter
5
Listening and Responding
87
PART
II
INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
Chapter
6
Communicating Across Cultures
111
Chapter
7
Understanding Interpersonal Relationships
133
Chapter
8
Communication Skills in Interpersonal Relationships:
Providing Emotional Support, Managing Privacy, and
Negotiating Conflict
157
Interviewing
185
Appendix
PART
III
GROUP COMMUNICATION
Chapter
9
Communicating in Groups
207
Chapter
10
Problem Solving in Groups
224
PART
IV
PUBLIC SPEAKING
Chapter
11
Developing and Researching a Speech Topic
250
Chapter
12
Organizing Your Speech
275
Chapter
13
Adapting Verbally and Visually
304
Chapter
14
Overcoming Speech Apprehension by Practicing Delivery
332
Chapter
15
Informative Speaking
363
Chapter
16
Persuasive Speaking
388
References 419
Index 430
iii
Contents
Brief Contents iii
Preface xiii
PART
Chapter
I
FOUNDATIONS OF COMMUNICATION
1
Communication Perspectives
1
The Communication Process
3
Participants
Messages
Context
Channels
Interference (Noise)
Feedback
A Model of the Basic Communication Process
Communication Settings
Communication Principles
Communication Has Purpose
Communication Is Continuous
Communication Messages Vary in Conscious Thought
Communication Is Relational
Communication Is Guided by Culture
Communication Has Ethical Implications
Communication Is Learned
Increasing Our Communication Competence
Develop Communication Skills Improvement Goals
Chapter
2
10
10
11
11
11
12
14
15
15
18
Perception of Self and Others
23
The Perception Process
24
Attention and Selection
Organization of Stimuli
Interpretation of Stimuli
Perceptions of Self: Self-Concept and Self-Esteem
24
25
26
26
Forming and Maintaining a Self-Concept
26
Developing and Maintaining Self-Esteem
28
The Influence of Gender and Culture on Self-Perceptions
Changing Self-Perceptions
Accuracy and Distortion of Self-Perceptions
The Effects of Self-Perceptions on Communication
iv
3
3
4
5
5
7
8
8
30
31
31
34
Contents
Presenting Self to Others
Self-Monitoring
Social Construction of Self
Perception of Others
Observing Others
Using Stereotypes
Emotional State
Perceiving Others’ Messages
Improving the Accuracy of Social Perceptions
Chapter
3
38
38
39
40
41
48
49
49
51
52
52
55
58
Communicating Nonverbally
66
Characteristics of Nonverbal Communication
68
Types of Nonverbal Communication
69
Use of Body: Kinesics
Use of Voice: Vocalics
Use of Space: Proxemics
Use of Time: Chronemics
Self-Presentation Cues
Guidelines for Improving Nonverbal Communication
Sending Nonverbal Messages
Interpreting Nonverbal Messages
5
37
The Nature and Purposes of Language
Use Clear Language
Use Language That Makes Your Messages Memorable
Use Linguistic Sensitivity
Chapter
36
36
47
Improving Language Skills
4
35
Communicating Verbally
Purposes of Language
The Relationship Between Language and Meaning
Cultural and Gender Influences on Language Use
Chapter
v
69
71
73
75
76
79
79
82
Listening and Responding
87
What Is Listening?
88
Types of Listening
88
Appreciative Listening
Discriminative Listening
Comprehensive Listening
Empathic Listening
Critical Listening
89
89
90
90
90
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Contents
Steps in the Listening Process
Attending
Understanding
Remembering
Evaluating
Responding
Conversation and Analysis
PART
Chapter
II
91
93
97
98
100
102
INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
6
Communicating Across Cultures
Culture and Communication
Intercultural Communication
Dominant Cultures and Co-Cultures
Cultural Identity
Identifying Cultural Norms and Values
Individualism–Collectivism
Uncertainty Avoidance
Power Distance
Masculinity–Femininity
Barriers to Effective Intercultural Communication
7
111
112
112
113
116
117
117
121
121
122
123
Anxiety
Assuming Similarity or Difference
Ethnocentrism
Stereotypes and Prejudice
Incompatible Communication Codes
Incompatible Norms and Values
123
123
124
125
126
127
Intercultural Communication Competence
127
Adopt Correct Attitudes
Acquire Knowledge About Other Cultures
Develop Culture-Specific Skills
Chapter
91
Understanding Interpersonal Relationships
Types of Relationships
Acquaintances
Friends
Close Friends or Intimates
Disclosure and Feedback in Relationship Life Cycles
The Open Pane
The Secret Pane
The Blind Pane
The Unknown Pane
Communication in the Stages of Relationships
Beginning Relationships
Developing Relationships
127
128
129
133
134
134
136
137
141
141
142
142
142
143
143
144
Contents
Maintaining Relationships
Deteriorating and Dissolving Relationships
Dialectics in Interpersonal Relationships
Relational Dialectics
Managing Dialectical Tensions
Conversation and Analysis
Chapter
8
Communication Skills in Interpersonal Relationships: Providing
Emotional Support, Managing Privacy, and Negotiating Conflict
Comforting Messages
Skills for Comforting
Gender and Cultural Considerations in Comforting
Managing Privacy and Disclosure in Relationships
Effects on Intimacy
Expectations of Reciprocity
Information Co-Ownership
Guidelines and Communication Strategies for Disclosure
Communication Strategies for Managing Privacy
145
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149
149
151
152
157
158
158
160
161
164
164
165
165
171
Negotiating Different Needs, Wants, and Preferences in Relationships
172
Communicating Personal Needs, Wants, and Preferences: Passive,
Aggressive, and Assertive Behavior
Cultural Variations in Passive, Aggressive, and Assertive Behavior
173
174
Managing Conflict in Relationships
176
Styles of Conflict
Guidelines for Collaboration
176
178
Conversation and Analysis
Appendix
vii
Interviewing
Structuring Interviews
179
185
186
The Interview Protocol
Effective Questions
Order and Time Constraints in Interview Protocols
186
187
188
Guidelines for Conducting Information Interviews
189
Doing Research About Interviewees
Conducting an Information Interview
189
190
Conducting Employment Interviews
191
Preparing for the Interview
Conducting the Interview
191
191
Interviewing Strategies for Job Seekers
192
Applying for the Job
Electronic Cover Letters and Résumés
Preparing to Be Interviewed
Guidelines for Job Interviewees
192
194
196
197
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Contents
Conversation and Analysis
Following Up After the Interview
200
Strategies for Interviews with the Media
200
Before the Interview
During the Interview
PART
Chapter
III
201
201
GROUP COMMUNICATION
9
Communicating in Groups
Characteristics of Healthy Groups
Healthy Groups Have Ethical Goals
Healthy Groups Are Interdependent
Healthy Groups Are Cohesive
Healthy Groups Develop and Abide by Productive Norms
Healthy Groups Are Accountable
Healthy Groups Are Synergetic
Stages of Group Development
Forming
Storming
Norming
Performing
Adjourning
Types of Groups
Families
Social Friendship Groups
Support Groups
Interest Groups
Service Groups
Work Groups
Evaluating Group Dynamics
Chapter
198
10
Problem Solving in Groups
The Problem-Solving Process
Step One: Identify and Define the Problem
Step Two: Analyze the Problem
Step Three: Determine Criteria for Judging Solutions
Step Four: Identify Alternative Solutions
Step Five: Evaluate Solutions and Decide
Step Six: Implement the Agreed-Upon Solution
Shared Leadership
Task Roles
Maintenance Roles
Procedural Roles
207
208
208
210
210
210
212
213
213
213
214
214
214
214
215
215
216
216
217
217
217
219
224
225
226
226
227
228
229
230
230
230
231
232
Contents
Making Meetings Effective
Guidelines for Meeting Leaders
Guidelines for Meeting Participants
Chapter
IV
235
238
239
Communicating Group Solutions
242
242
243
243
PUBLIC SPEAKING
11
Developing and Researching a Speech Topic
Identify Topics
List Subjects
Brainstorm and Concept Map for Topic Ideas
Analyze the Audience
Identify Audience Analysis Information Needs
Gather Audience Data
252
252
253
254
254
255
257
Select a Topic
258
Write a Speech Goal
259
Locate and Evaluate Information Sources
Personal Knowledge, Experience, and Observation
Secondary Research
Primary Research
259
259
261
262
262
264
Evaluate Sources
265
Identify and Select Relevant Information
267
Factual Statements
Expert Opinions
Elaborations
12
250
Analyze the Setting
Identify Your General Goal
Phrase a Specific Goal Statement
Chapter
235
Conversation and Analysis
Written Formats
Oral Formats
Virtual Reports
PART
ix
267
268
268
Draw Information from Multiple Cultural Perspectives
269
Record Information
269
Prepare Research Cards
269
Cite Sources in Speeches
270
Organizing Your Speech
275
Developing the Body of the Speech
276
Determining Main Points
Writing a Thesis Statement
276
279
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Contents
Outlining the Body of the Speech
Selecting and Outlining Supporting Material
Preparing Section Transitions and Signposts
Creating the Introduction
Gaining Attention
Establishing Listener Relevance
Stating the Thesis
Establishing Your Credibility
Setting a Tone
Creating a Bond of Goodwill
Crafting the Conclusion
Summary
Clincher
Chapter
13
287
289
290
290
290
291
291
292
292
294
Reviewing the Outline
296
Adapting Verbally and Visually
Relevance
Common Ground
Speaker Credibility
Information Comprehension and Retention
Adapting to Cultural Differences
Adapting to Audiences Visually
Types of Presentational Aids
Criteria for Choosing Presentational Aids
Designing Effective Presentational Aids
Methods for Displaying Presentational Aids
Posters
Whiteboards or Chalkboards
Flip Charts
Handouts
Document Cameras
CD/VCR/DVD Players and LCD Projectors
Computer-Mediated Slide Show
14
287
Listing Sources
Adapting to Your Audience Verbally
Chapter
280
284
286
Overcoming Speech Apprehension by Practicing Delivery
Public Speaking Apprehension
Symptoms and Causes
Managing Your Apprehension
Characteristics of an Effective Delivery Style
Use a Conversational Style
Be Animated
Effective Use of Your Voice
Speak Intelligibly
Use Vocal Expressiveness
304
305
305
306
307
309
312
315
316
323
323
326
326
326
327
327
328
328
328
332
333
333
334
336
336
336
337
337
338
Contents
Effective Use of Your Body
Facial Expressions
Gestures
Movement
Eye Contact
Posture
Poise
Appearance
Delivery Methods
Impromptu Speeches
Scripted Speeches
Extemporaneous Speeches
Rehearsal
Preparing Speaking Notes
Handling Presentational Aids
Recording, Analyzing, and Refining Speech Delivery
Chapter
15
341
342
342
343
343
343
344
345
346
346
346
346
347
347
349
351
Sample Informative Speech
353
Informative Speaking
Intellectually Stimulating
Relevant
Creative
Memorable
Address Diverse Learning Styles
Methods of Informing
Description
Definition
Comparison and Contrast
Narration
Demonstration
Common Informative Speech Frameworks
Process Speech Frameworks
Expository Speech Frameworks
Sample Informative Speech
16
341
Criteria for Evaluating Speeches
Characteristics of Effective Informative Speaking
Chapter
xi
Persuasive Speaking
363
364
364
365
365
366
367
368
368
369
369
370
370
371
371
372
379
388
How We Process Persuasive Messages:
The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)
389
Writing Persuasive Speech Goals as Propositions
390
Types of Persuasive Goals
Tailoring Your Proposition to Your Audience
390
391
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Contents
Developing Arguments (Logos) That Support Your Proposition
Finding Reasons to Use as Main Points
Selecting Evidence to Support Reasons
Types and Tests of Arguments
Avoiding Fallacies in Your Reasons and Argument
398
Cueing Your Audience Through Credibility (Ethos): Demonstrating Goodwill
400
Motivating Your Audience to Act Through Incentives
401
Organizational Patterns for Persuasive Speeches
INDEX
431
393
394
395
397
Increasing Audience Involvement Through Emotional Appeals (Pathos)
Using Incentives to Satisfy Unmet Needs
Creating Incentives That Outweigh Costs
REFERENCES 419
393
401
403
403
Statement of Reasons
Comparative Advantages
Criteria Satisfaction
Refutative
Problem-Solution
Problem-Cause-Solution
Motivated Sequence
404
404
404
405
405
406
406
Sample Persuasive Speech
409
Preface
We are delighted to welcome Deanna D. Sellnow, Ph.D., to the author team
for Communicate! A proven textbook author, Dr. Sellnow is the Gifford Blyton
Endowed Professor and Director of Undergraduate Studies in Communication at
the University of Kentucky. Her scholarly interests include instructional communication, educational assessment, popular culture, and gender communication.
A past president of the Central States Communication Association, she has
taught a wide variety of communication courses and enjoys directing basic
communication courses. Dr. Sellnow’s voice blends well with ours, as her writing
has an appealing conversational quality that keeps the reader’s interest. While
the contributions she has made to this book will not be evident to those of you
who are reading the book for the first time, those of you familiar with Dr Sellnow’s
work will recognize and appreciate her influence. We look forward to a long and
successful collaboration.
To Students
Congratulations! You are beginning to study communication, a subject that is important and useful to you in all parts of your life. When you want to establish or improve
a relationship, when you need to work with others on a group project for class or for
a cause you support, or when you are required to make a presentation at work, your
success will depend on how effective you are at communicating in those settings.
Most of you have probably never studied communication formally. Rather, you’ve
learned the communication skills and strategies you use every day informally, in your
home and from your friends. By taking this communication course and learning tested
communication skills, you’ll strengthen your existing abilities and improve your relationships. You can improve the likelihood that your group project is successful by
understanding the predictable patterns of group process and communication. And you
can more effectively overcome stage fright and give better presentations when you
have studied public speaking and know how to plan and deliver a formal speech. So
again, we say, congratulations! You’ll find that this course will be instantly relevant to
your day-to-day living. We are confident that by the end of this term you will be glad
you spent your time and money on it.
The textbook you’re reading, Communicate!, was one of the first college texts
about human communication. A lot has changed since Rudy wrote that first edition.
Over the years we have worked to make sure that students, like you, have a book that
is easy and enjoyable to read and learn from. We have also worked hard to make sure
that the information, theories, and skills discussed and relevant to the real relationships and communication situations you face. So every three years we examine the
book in light of how the world has changed. Just ten years ago, cell phones were not in
wide use, texting wasn’t a verb, many social networking sites and YouTube didn’t exist,
and “to twitter” simply meant to speak excitedly about something. Despite these huge
changes in the way we communicate, this textbook is as up-to-date and useful as the
first edition was because we work hard to make sure that the information we present
reflects what it takes to be an effective communicator today.
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Preface
Communicate! is written with six specific goals in mind:
1. To explain important communication concepts, frameworks, and theories that
have been consistently supported by careful research so that you can understand
the conceptual foundations of human communication.
2. To teach specific communication skills that research has shown facilitate effective
relationships.
3. To describe and encourage you to adopt the ethical frameworks that can guide
competent communication.
4. To increase awareness of how culture affects communication practices.
5. To stimulate critical and creative thinking about the concepts and skills you learn.
6. To provide tools for practice and assessment that enable you to monitor how well
you are learning communication concepts and skills.
So we hope you will read and enjoy this textbook and that it will be a resource you
will want to maintain in your personal library. We appreciate it when students who are
using our text take time to share their reactions to the book with us. So we encourage you to email us with questions, comments, and suggestions. Our email address is
Communicate.Authors@cengage.com.
To Instructors
Thank you for considering and using Communicate! We are grateful for the colleagues
who have used previous editions of this text and to those of you who are considering
using this edition. We believe that the revisions we have made will surprise and delight
those of you who have used Communicate! in the past. We also believe that those of
you who are looking for a different textbook will find Communicate! is precisely the
learning tool that will encourage your students to read and think about the important
role of communication in their lives.
As we prepared this edition, we were acutely aware of how our students’ lives
are changing and how these changes are influencing their learning process and the
nature of communication in their lives. So we have revised the text with these new
realities in mind while at the same time retaining the hallmarks that have made this
textbook useful to students and instructors in the past. And, as with every new edition, we have incorporated the suggestions of colleagues who use the text, and we’ve
reviewed the latest scholarship so that this new edition reflects what users want and
what recent scholarship has discovered about human communication. In the sections
that follow, we detail what’s new and highlight the continuing features that have made
Communicate! a perennial favorite with both students and faculty.
New to This Edition
• Pop Comm! articles, found in each chapter, highlight how the communication
concepts addressed in this book play out in popular culture. Each article demonstrates the universal and omnipresent role of communication in our culture and
how communication practices change and evolve. Many articles spotlight how
the uses of new technologies are changing basic communication processes. Topics
include online mourning, the ghostwriting of online dating profiles, managing
privacy on social networking sites, the dark side of online social groups, and the
persuasive messages of infomercials.
• Relevant Communicate! pedagogy has been revamped to facilitate active learning
and assessment. Chapter-opening questions prompt students to consider what
Preface
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
they already know and to engage with the main ideas of each chapter as they
read (pre-assessment). Review questions in the margins throughout the chapters
and activities at the ends of chapters encourage students to think critically about
what they’re learning (formative assessment). And end-of-part and online quizzes
help students determine how well they’ve absorbed chapter content (summative
assessment).
New and updated examples throughout the text highlight student-friendly topics,
such as pop culture and new technologies.
Chapter 1, “Communication Perspectives,” now includes a section on communication settings that distinguishes among intrapersonal, interpersonal, small group,
and public communication.
Chapter 2, “Perception of Self and Others,” introduces the important role media
images play in distorting one’s self-perception, the relationship between selfperceptions and communication apprehension, and how perception is shaped via
images constructed on social networking sites such as Facebook and MySpace.
Reflecting the fact that today we rely heavily on computer-mediated communication, Chapter 4, “Communicating Nonverbally,” includes a discussion of how
nonverbal messages that clarify meaning and convey emotions can be communicated in online environments.
Because listening and responding is a foundational element of communication in any setting, we moved the discussion of this topic forward to Chapter 5,
“Listening and Responding,” in Part I of the book. This chapter now includes a
section on the types of listening, which distinguishes among appreciative, discriminative, comprehensive, empathic, and critical listening purposes. In addition,
we added a section on responding effectively to public speakers in the form of
speech critiques.
Chapter 6, “Communicating Across Cultures,” has been updated to reflect what
we know today about dominant cultures and co-cultures, including the distinction
among sex, gender, and sexual orientation.
For this edition, we have reworked the two interpersonal chapters, which now focus,
first, on understanding relationships and, second, on specific skills. Chapter 7,
“Understanding Interpersonal Relationships,” walks readers through the types
of interpersonal relationships, the role of disclosure and feedback in relationship
life cycles, communication in the various relationship stages, and the dialectical
tensions inherent in interpersonal relationships. In Chapter 8, “Communication
Skills in Interpersonal Relationships,” we describe communication skills for
comforting, managing the competing urges between self-disclosure and privacy
management, and conflict management styles.
Many instructors have indicated that they simply don’t have time to teach the
chapter on interviewing in their courses. Still, because we believe effective interviewing skills are so important, we have retained the content in the form of an
internal appendix, “Interviewing.” So, even if teachers cannot include the content in their courses, students can still benefit from learning about it on their own.
The content of this appendix has been refined so that it first focuses on developing
good questions and then proposes some guidelines for conducting both information and employment interviews. Tips for presenting oneself in employment and
media interviews are also discussed.
The unit on group communication has been extensively revised. For this edition,
Chapter 9, “Communicating in Groups,” focuses on understanding the characteristics of groups, stages of development, different types of groups, and guidelines
for communicating effectively in groups. In Chapter 10, “Problem Solving in
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Preface
Groups,” we focus specifically on the nature of effective problem solving, including leadership, member responsibilities, and formats for sharing results with
others.
• As in the previous edition, the unit on public speaking continues to describe the
process for preparing and presenting public speeches using the Speech Plan Action
Steps. The chapters in this part include many important revisions. Chapter 11,
“Developing and Researching a Speech Topic,” now includes a discussion of
concept mapping as a means by which students can generate topic ideas. In
Chapter 12, “Organizing Your Speech,” we added narrative order as a method for
arranging main points. Chapter 13, “Adapting Verbally and Visually,” includes a
section about addressing diverse learning styles when adapting to an audience. In
addition, we expanded the discussion of visual aids to include guidelines for using
audio and audiovisual presentational aids. And Chapter 14, “Overcoming Speech
Apprehension by Practicing Delivery,” offers an expanded discussion of public
speaking apprehension and ways to overcome it.
• New to Chapter 15, “Informative Speaking,” are a discussion of learning styles as
they relate to effective informative speaking, revised informative speech critique
forms, and a new sample student speech, “Understanding Hurricanes.”
• Finally, in Chapter 16, “Persuasive Speaking,” we have expanded our discussion
of reasoning fallacies to include the either-or and straw person fallacies, we have
expanded the discussion of organizational patterns to include both the refutative
and problem-cause-solution patterns as options, and we offer a new sample student speech, “Sexual Assault Policy a Must,” which uses the motivated sequence
pattern.
Hallmark Features
• Communication Skill boxes provide a step-by-step guide for each of the communication skills presented in the text. Each of these boxes includes the definition
of the skill, a brief description of its use, the steps for enacting the skill, and
an example that illustrates the skill. A convenient tear-out chart at the beginning of the book provides a summary of all the Communication Skill boxes. The
Skill Building activities, adjacent to each Communication Skill box, reinforce
and provide an immediate opportunity for students to practice the skills. Students
can complete these activities online and then compare their answers with models
provided by the authors.
• Conversation and Analysis communication scenarios offer print and video
exemplars of important concepts. Transcripts of these conversations appear in the
text and online—students can download the transcripts to use for note taking as
they view the videos. Once they have analyzed the conversation by answering a
series of critical-thinking questions, they can compare their assessments with the
authors’.
• The principles of effective speech making are organized into five Speech Plan
Action Steps, presented in Chapters 11–14. The activities that accompany each of
these action steps guide students through an orderly process that results in better
speeches. Communicate!’s online resources provide students with the opportunity
to view examples of each activity prepared by other students and to complete
many of the action steps with Speech Builder Express. (See the section Student
Resources for more about these online resources.)
Preface
• Sample student speeches appear in the text, each accompanied by an audience adaptation plan, an outline, and a transcript and analysis. Two of the three sample speeches
in this edition are new. Students can use their online resources to view videos of these
speeches, see the transcript and two different kinds of outlines and sample note cards,
prepare their own critiques, and compare their critiques to the authors’.
• In Parts I and II, Communicate On Your Feet speech assignments encourage
students to begin building their public-speaking skills immediately while also
addressing the needs of instructors who assign prepared speeches throughout the
course. In Part IV, these assignments correspond to the speech types discussed in
Chapters 15–16. In this edition, we have added a number of new assignments so
that each chapter now includes at least one.
• Exercises that were called “Observe and Analyze” and “Test Your Competence”
in previous editions are now called Skill Learning Activities and are grouped
at the ends of chapters. Some of these exercises challenge students to observe
events related to concepts they are learning, use the theories and concepts from
the chapter to analyze what happened, and, in some cases, improve what occurred
by applying the communication skills they’ve learned. Other activities provide
opportunities for students to self-evaluate or practice specific skills. Students can
use their online resources to complete these activities and download worksheets
and data collection forms.
• Self-Reviews appear at the end of each part to encourage students to commit
to improving their skills in interpersonal, group, and public communication.
In accord with the findings of learning motivation research, students have the
opportunity to inventory their current skill levels and set specific goals for skill
improvement. The Self-Reviews can be completed online and, if requested, emailed
to the instructor.
• Diverse Voices articles give voice to the communication experiences of people
from a wide range of social and cultural backgrounds. Each article, which presents
the personal thoughts and experiences of the writer on topics related to chapter
concepts, helps students understand and appreciate the relationship between culture and communication. Six of these articles are new to this edition.
• What Would You Do? A Question of Ethics boxes are short case studies that
appear near the end of chapters. These cases, several of which are new to this
edition, present ethical challenges and require students to think critically, sorting
through a variety of ethical dilemmas faced by communicators. Conceptual
material presented in Chapter 1 lays groundwork for the criteria on which students
may base their assessments, but each case focuses on issues raised in a specific
chapter.
Teaching and Learning Resources
Communicate! is accompanied by a full suite of integrated materials that will make
teaching and learning more efficient and effective. Note to faculty: If you want your
students to have access to the online resources for this book, please be sure to order
them for your course. The content in these resources can be bundled with every new
copy of the text or ordered separately. If you do not order them, your students will not
have access to the online resources.
Availability of resources may differ by region. Check with your local Cengage Learning representative for details.
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Preface
Student Resources
• The Premium Website for Communicate! provides students with one-stop access to
all the integrated technology resources that accompany the book. These resources
include Speech Builder Express™ 3.0, InfoTrac College Edition, interactive versions
of the Skill Learning activities, interactive video activities, Web Resources links,
and self-assessments. All resources are mapped to show both key discipline learning concepts as well as specific chapter learn lists.
• The Communicate! interactive video activities feature the Conversation and
Analysis communication scenario clips presented in the text so students can see
and hear how the skills they are studying can be used to create effective conversations in various circumstances. Students can answer the critical-thinking questions
that accompany each video and then compare their answers to the authors’. This
online resource also features videos of the sample informative and persuasive student speeches included in the book. Each speech is accompanied by a transcript, a
preparation outline and a speaking outline, note cards, a speech critique checklist,
and critical-thinking questions.
• Many of the Speech Plan Action Steps can be completed with the Speech Builder
Express 3.0 organization and outlining program. This interactive Web-based
tool coaches students through the speech organization and outlining process. By
completing interactive sessions, students can prepare and save their outlines—
including a plan for visual aids and a works cited section—formatted according
to the principles presented in the text. Text models reinforce students’ interactive
practice.
• InfoTrac College Edition with InfoMarks. This virtual library features more than
18 million reliable, full-length articles from 5,000 academic and popular periodicals
that can be retrieved almost instantly. They also have access to InfoMarks—stable
URLs that can be linked to articles, journals, and searches to save valuable time
when doing research—and to the InfoWrite online resource center, where students
can access grammar help, critical-thinking guidelines, guides to writing research
papers, and much more.
• Speech StudioTM Online Video Upload and Grading Program improves the learning comprehension of public speaking students. This unique resource empowers
instructors with a new assessment capability that is applicable for traditional,
online, and hybrid courses. With Speech Studio, students can upload video files
of practice speeches or final performances, comment on their peers’ speeches, and
review their grades and instructor feedback. Instructors create courses and assignments, comment on and grade student speeches with a library of comments and
grading rubrics, and allow peer review. Grades flow into a gradebook that allows
instructors to easily manage their course from within Speech Studio.
• A Guide to the Basic Course for ESL Students can be bundled and is designed to
assist the nonnative speaker. The Guide features FAQs, helpful URLs, and strategies
for accent management and speech apprehension.
• Service Learning in Communication Studies: A Handbook is an invaluable resource
for students in the basic course that integrates, or will soon integrate, a servicelearning component. This handbook provides guidelines for connecting servicelearning work with classroom concepts and advice for working effectively with
agencies and organizations. It also provides model forms and reports and a directory of online resources.
Availability of resources may differ by region. Check with your local Cengage Learning representative for details.
Preface
Instructor Resources
• The Instructor’s Resource Manual with Test Bank by Katrina Bodey, University of
North Carolina, Chapel Hill, changes from the twelfth edition to the thirteenth edition,
sample syllabi, chapter-by-chapter outlines, summaries, vocabulary lists, suggested
lecture and discussion topics, classroom exercises, assignments, and a comprehensive test bank with answer key and rejoinders. In addition, this manual includes
the Spotlight on Scholars boxes that were in the textbook in past editions. These
boxes feature the work of eight eminent communication scholars, putting a face on
scholarship by telling each scholar’s “story.” These boxes can be used as discussion
starters, as enrichment for students who are interested in communication scholarship, or in any other way instructors would like to integrate them into the course.
Available online only. Access at the Communicate! Instructor Companion Website.
• Special-Topic Instructor’s Manuals. Written by Deanna Sellnow, University of
Kentucky, these three brief manuals provide instructor resources for teaching public speaking online, with a service-learning approach, and with a problem-based
learning approach that focuses on critical thinking and teamwork skills. Each
manual includes course syllabi; icebreakers; information about learning cycles
and learning styles; and public speaking basics such as coping with anxiety, outlining, and speaking ethically.
• The Teaching Assistant’s Guide to the Basic Course, based on leading communication teacher training programs, covers general teaching and course management
topics as well as specific strategies for communication instruction—for example,
providing effective feedback on performance, managing sensitive class discussions, and conducting mock interviews.
• The PowerLecture CD-ROM contains an electronic version of the Instructor’s
Resource Manual, ExamView® Computerized Testing, and predesigned Microsoft
PowerPoint presentations. The PowerPoint presentations contain text and images
and can be used as they are or customized to suit your course needs.
• Communication Scenarios for Critique and Analysis on Video and DVD include
the communication scenarios included in the Communicate! interactive videos as
well as additional scenarios covering interpersonal communication, interviewing,
and group communication.
• Launch your lectures with ABC News DVDs: Human Communication, Interpersonal
Communication, and Public Speaking. Footage from Nightline, World News Tonight,
and Good Morning America provides context and real-life examples of communication theories and practices. Footage includes discussion of dozens of communication
topics—including family “virtual visitation,” cell phone spam, and professional nonverbal communication—as well as significant speeches by public figures.
• The BBC News and CBS News DVDs: Human Communication, Interpersonal
Communication, and Public Speaking, provide footage of news stories that relate
to current topics in human and interpersonal communication, and footage of
famous historical and contemporary public speeches, as well as clips that relate to
current topics in speech communication. Available Spring 2010.
• The Student Speeches for Critique and Analysis on Video and DVD offer a
variety of sample student speeches, including those featured in the Communicate!
interactive videos, that your students can watch, critique, and analyze on their
own or in class. All of the speech types are included, as well as speeches featuring
nonnative English speakers and the use of visual aids.
Availability of resources may differ by region. Check with your local Cengage Learning representative for details.
xix
xx
Preface
• ABC News DVD: Speeches by Barack Obama. This DVD includes nine famous
speeches by President Barack Obama, from 2004 to the present day, including his
speech at the 2004 Democratic National Convention; his 2008 speech on race,
“A More Perfect Union”; and his 2009 inaugural address. Speeches are divided into
short video segments for easy, time-efficient viewing. This instructor supplement
also features critical-thinking questions and answers for each speech, designed to
spark class discussion.
• The Media Guide for Interpersonal Communication provides faculty with media
resource listings focused on general interpersonal communication topics. Each
listing provides compelling examples of how interpersonal communication concepts are illustrated in particular films, books, plays, Web sites, or journal articles.
Discussion questions are provided.
Availability of resources may differ by region. Check with your local Cengage Learning representative for details.
Preface
Acknowledgments
This thirteenth edition of Communicate! has benefitted from the work of many people
we would like to recognize.
First, we thank our colleagues who reviewed the book and offered their insights
and suggestions including Karen Anderson, University of North Texas; Thomas Bovino,
Suffolk County Community College; Jon Croghan, Northwestern State University;
Sheryl Davis, Kaiser University; James Floss, Humboldt State University; Thomas
Gaines, Johnson & Wales University; King Godwin, Grambling State University; Daria
Heinemann, Kaiser University; Tracey Holley, Tarleton State University; Keri Keckley,
Crowder College; Nancy Levin, Palm Beach Community College; and Charlotte Toguchi,
Kapiolani Community College.
We also want to thank Zach Leitch, Debbie Sellnow, and Rick Sellnow, who read
the previous edition of this text and suggested where examples needed to be updated
so that today’s 21st-century students would find illustrations they could relate to.
We are fortunate to have the best editorial team in Communication Studies today.
We are grateful for the support of Lyn Uhl, our senior publisher; Monica Eckman,
executive editor; Colin Solan, editorial assistant; Jessica Badiner, media editor; Bryant
Chrzan, marketing manager; Christine Dobberpuhl, marketing communications manager; Rosemary Winfield, senior content product manager; Linda Helcher, art director;
Kristin Jobe, project manager at Elm Street Publishing Services; Barbara Armentrout,
copy editor; Rokusek Design, designer; Dean Dauphinais, permissions acquisitions
manager for images; Raquel Sousa, photo researcher; and Margaret ChamberlainGaston, permissions acquisitions manager for text. We give special thanks to Rebekah
Matthews, assistant editor, who in addition to her usual duties helped us write the new
Pop Comm! feature. As always, we are indebted to Greer Lleuad, senior development
editor, who is simply the best in the business. We trust and respect her opinions and
advice unconditionally. We simply could not have done this book without her.
We also thank our families for their continued patience, understanding, and support.
Finally, we thank God for the many ways that our lives have been blessed. We
hope this book helps readers glimpse what Martin Buber called the “I-Thou” respect
and love that we believe God planned us to have in our human relationships.
Kathleen S. Verderber
and
Deanna D. Sellnow
xxi
Martin Barraud/Getty Images
1
Communication Perspectives
Questions you’ll be able to answer after reading this chapter:
• How does the communication process work?
• What characterizes each of the communication settings you will study in
this course?
• What are the basic principles of communication?
• What major ethical issues face communicators?
• What is communication competence and what can you do to achieve it?
• What is communication apprehension and how does it relate to
communication competence?
Mimi and Marcus finished talking with the fifth car salesperson.
“From what I could understand, most of the basic features we need are about
the same,” said Mimi. “So, for me, it comes down to who we feel most comfortable
with.”
“Yeah, that’s pretty much the way I see it. And from that standpoint, I’d pick
Carrie,” Marcus responded.
“She really seemed nice, didn’t she?” asked Mimi. “She seemed friendly and—
unlike Paul—she talked to both of us, not just you.”
Marcus replied, “She talked about features, price, and financing options that
were tailored to our specific needs—unlike Dempsey, who spent most of his time
talking about luxury features that cost more than we can afford.”
2
Chapter 1
Communication Perspectives
Mimi added, “Yeah, and Gloria was so disorganized . . . ”
“And she was so focused on getting through her presentation that she didn’t
even notice when you tried to ask a question!” Marcus interjected.
“I sort of liked Steve,” Mimi continued, “but when we suggested that the price
range he was quoting was out of our budget, he wasn’t much help. Once he got
off his ‘script,’ he seemed lost.”
“Well,” Marcus replied, “not only did Carrie offer a car with features we can use
and a financing plan we can afford, she also led me to believe that we could call
her with questions later about when and where to service our vehicle.”
“OK,” Mimi said as she nodded. “So we agree; we’re buying our car from
Carrie!”
Why was Carrie successful? Was it the car she was promoting or her specialized
expertise in the automobile business? Not necessarily. From this conversation, it
appears that Carrie’s success was due to her ability to communicate with Mimi
and Marcus. Carrie’s success is not unusual. Time and time again, studies have
concluded that, for almost any job, employers seek oral communication skills, teamwork skills, and interpersonal abilities (College learning for the new global century,
2008; Hansen & Hansen, 2007; Young, 2003). For example, an article on the role
of communication in the workplace reported that in engineering, a highly technical
field, speaking skills were very important for 72 percent of the employers surveyed
(Darling & Dannels, 2003, p. 12). A survey by the National Association of Colleges
and Employers (Koncz, 2008) reported the top 10 personal qualities and skills that
employers seek from college graduates. The number one skill was communication,
including face-to-face speaking, presentational speaking, and writing. Other skills
ranked in the top 10 that you will learn about and practice in this course include
teamwork skills (number three), analytical skills (number five), interpersonal skills
(number eight), and problem-solving skills (number nine). The employers also said
these very skills are, unfortunately, the ones many new graduates lack. So this
course can significantly increase your ability to get a job and be successful in your
chosen career.
How effectively you communicate with others is important not only to your career, but also to your personal relationships. Your ability to make and keep friends, to
be a good family member, to have satisfying intimate relationships, to participate in
or lead groups, and to prepare and present speeches depends on your communication
skills. During this course, you will learn about the communication process and have
an opportunity to practice basic communication skills that will help you improve your
relationships.
In this chapter, we begin by explaining the process of communication. Next, we
describe several communication settings and how we’ll address improving communication skills for them in this book. From there, we describe several fundamental
principles of communication. Finally, we discuss communication competence, the
role managing communication apprehension plays in achieving it, and a strategy for
improving your communication skills.
Chapter 1
Communication Perspectives
3
The Communication Process
Communication is the process of creating or sharing meaning in informal conversation, group interaction, or public speaking. To understand how this process works, we
begin by describing its essential elements: participants (who), messages (what), context
(where), channels (how), interference (distractions), and feedback (reaction).
How does the
communication
process work?
Participants
The participants are the individuals who assume the roles of senders and receivers
during an interaction. As senders, participants form and transmit messages using verbal symbols, visual images, and nonverbal behavior. As receivers, they interpret the
messages that have been transmitted to them.
Messages
Messages are the verbal utterances, visual images, and nonverbal behaviors to which
meaning is attributed during communication. To understand how messages are created
and received, we need to understand meanings, symbols, encoding and decoding, and
form (organization).
Meanings
Meanings include the thoughts in your mind as well as the interpretations you make
of another’s message. Meanings are the ways participants make sense of messages. It is
important to realize that meanings are not transferred from one person to another, but
are created together in an exchange. Some communication settings enable participants
to verify that they have shared meanings; in other settings this is more difficult. For
instance, if Sarah says to Tiffany that many female celebrities are unhealthily underweight, through the exchange of verbal messages, they can together come to some degree
of understanding of what that means. But if Sarah is giving a speech on the subject to an
audience of 200 people, Tiffany’s ability to question Sarah and negotiate a mutual meaning is limited. If Sarah shows a slideshow of before-and-after photographs of some of the
celebrities she is referring to, she can make the meaning clear even for a large audience.
communication
the process of creating
or sharing meaning in
informal conversation,
group interaction, or public
speaking.
participants
individuals who assume the
roles of senders and receivers
during an interaction.
messages
Symbols
To express yourself, you form messages made of verbal symbols (words), nonverbal
cues (behaviors), and visual images. Symbols are words, sounds, and actions that represent specific ideas and feelings. As you speak, you choose word symbols to express
your meaning. At the same time, you also use facial expressions, eye contact, gestures,
and tone of voice—all symbolic, nonverbal cues—in an attempt to express your meaning. Your listeners make interpretations or attribute meaning to the messages they
receive. When you offer your messages through a variety of symbols, the meaning you
are trying to convey becomes clearer.
verbal utterances, visual
images, and nonverbal
behaviors to which
meaning is attributed during
communication.
Encoding and decoding
Encoding is the process of putting your thoughts and feelings into words, nonverbal
cues, and images. Decoding is the process of interpreting another’s message. Ordinarily
you do not consciously think about either the encoding or the decoding process. Only
when there is a difficulty, such as speaking in a second language or having to use an
easier vocabulary with children, do you become aware of encoding. You may not think
about decoding until someone seems to speak in circles or uses unfamiliar technical
words and you have difficulty interpreting or understanding what is being said. Have
you ever taken a course where the instructor used lots of unfamiliar technical words?
If so, how did that affect the decoding process for you?
words, sounds, and actions
that are generally understood
to represent ideas and
feelings.
meanings
thoughts in our minds and
interpretations of others’
messages.
symbols
encoding
the process of putting our
thoughts and feelings into
words and nonverbal cues.
decoding
the process of interpreting
another’s message.
4
Chapter 1
Communication Perspectives
Form (Organization)
When the meaning we wish to share is complex, we may need to organize it in sections
or in a certain order. Message form is especially important when one person talks without interruption for a relatively long time, such as in a public speech or when reporting
an event to a colleague at work. Visual images also need to be organized and in good
form if they are to aid understanding.
Context
The context is composed of the (1) physical, (2) social, (3) historical, (4) psychological,
and (5) cultural situations in which a communication encounter occurs, including what
precedes and follows what is said. According to noted German philosopher Jürgen
Habermas, the ideal speech situation is impossible to achieve, but considering its contexts as we communicate with others can move us closer to that goal (Littlejohn &
Foss, 2007 p. 335). The context affects the expectations of the participants, the meaning these participants derive, and their subsequent behavior.
context
the setting in which
communication occurs,
including what precedes and
follows what is said.
Physical context
The physical context includes the location, the environmental conditions (temperature, lighting, and noise level), the distance between communicators, and the time
of day. Each of these factors can affect the communication. For instance, the meaning shared in a conversation may be affected by whether it is held in a crowded
company cafeteria, an elegant candlelit restaurant, over the telephone, or on the
Internet.
Today, more and more of our communication exchanges occur in technologically
mediated spaces. When you call someone on your cell phone, for instance, you are
in different physical places and your conversation will be influenced by the physical contexts each of you occupy as well as by the quality of your phone connection.
Moreover, the messages and meaning are affected by whether the technology used is
synchronous or asynchronous. Synchronous technologies allow us to exchange messages in real time, while asynchronous technologies allow delays between sending,
receiving, and responding to messages. Telephone calls are synchronous, and voice
mail messages and e-mail are typically asynchronous. Instant messages (IMs) and text
messages may be either synchronous or asynchronous.
physical context
a communication
encounter’s location,
environmental conditions
(temperature, lighting, noise
level), distance between
communicators, seating
arrangements, and time of
day.
Social context
The social context is the nature of the relationship between the participants. Whether
communication takes place among family members, friends, acquaintances, work
associates, or strangers influences what and how messages are formed, shared, and
interpreted. For instance, most people change how they interact when talking with their
parents or siblings as compared to how they interact when talking with their friends.
social context
Historical context
The historical context is the background provided by previous communication episodes between the participants. It influences understandings in the current encounter.
For instance, suppose one morning Chad tells Shelby that he will pick up the rough
draft of a paper they had given to their professor for feedback to help prepare the final
manuscript. When Shelby joins Chad for lunch in the cafeteria, she says, “Did you
get it?” Another person listening to the conversation would have no idea what the
it is. Yet Chad quickly replies, “It’s on my desk.” Shelby and Chad would understand
each other because the content of their previous conversation provides the context for
understanding what “it” is in this exchange.
the nature of the relationship
that exists between the
participants.
historical context
the background provided
by previous communication
episodes between the
participants that influence
understandings in the current
encounter.
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Communication Perspectives
Psychological context
The psychological context includes the moods and feelings each person brings to the
interpersonal encounter. For instance, suppose Corinne is under a lot of stress. While
she is studying for an exam, a friend stops by and pleads with her to take a break and
go to the gym with her. Corinne, who is normally good-natured, may explode with an
angry tirade. Why? Because her stress level provides the psychological context within
which she hears this message and it affects how she responds.
Cultural context
The cultural context includes the values, beliefs, orientations, underlying assumptions,
and rituals prevalent among people in a society (Samovar, Porter, & McDaniel, 2007).
Culture penetrates into every aspect of our lives, affecting how we think, talk, and
behave. Each of us belongs to many cultural groups, though we may differ in how much
we identify with each group. Mina, for example, was born in Taiwan but was raised in
Boston, where she attended Chinese elementary school. She is also a college student
and a Democrat. Each of these groups helps characterize her cultural setting. When two
people from different cultures interact, misunderstandings may occur because of the
cultural variations between them. For example, the role of a “good student” in many
Asian cultures typically means being quiet, respectful, and never challenging others’
views, but the good-student role in U.S. classrooms often includes being talkative,
assertive, and debating the views expressed by others. The Pop Comm article in this
chapter describes how the cultural ritual of mourning is changing in the U.S.A.
Leland Bobbe/Photonica/Getty images
Channels are both the route traveled by the message and the means of transportation.
Messages are transmitted through sensory channels. Face-to-face communication has
three basic channels: verbal symbols, nonverbal cues, and visual images. Technologically
mediated communication uses these same channels, though nonverbal cues such as
movements, touch, and gestures are represented by visual symbols like emoticons (textual
images that symbolize the sender’s mood, emotion, or facial expressions) and acronyms
(abbreviations that stand in for common
phrases). For example, in a face-to-face interaction, Barry might express his frustration
about a poor grade on an assignment by verbally noting why he thought the grade was
unfair, by visually showing the assignment
along with the grading criteria for it, and by
nonverbally raising his voice and shaking
his fist. In an online interaction, he might
insert a frowning-face emoticon (/) or the
acronym “POed” to represent those nonverbal
behaviors.
Interference (noise) is any stimulus that
hinders the process of sharing meaning.
Interference can be physical or psychological.
Physical interference includes the
sights, sounds, and other stimuli in the environment that draw people’s attention away
from intended meaning. For instance, while a
psychological context
the mood and feelings
each person brings to a
conversation.
cultural context
the values, attitudes, beliefs,
orientations, and underlying
assumptions prevalent
among people in a society.
channel
both the route traveled by the
message and the means of
transportation.
interference (noise)
any stimulus that interferes
with the process of sharing
meaning.
physical interference
Channels
Interference (Noise)
5
sights, sounds, and other
stimuli in the environment that
draw people’s attention away
from intended meaning.
Did you know that 2.5 billion
text messages are sent each
day in the United States?
6
Chapter 1
Communication Perspectives
CHIP EAST/Reuters/Landov
Mourning in the United
States, 21st-Century Style
Mourning is a universal human communication activity. It is the process of celebrating the
life of someone while grieving his or her death.
Mourning rituals and traditions vary by culture
and religion and change over time. So it is not
surprising that mourning in the United States
psychological
interference
internal distractions based on
thoughts, feelings, or emotional
reactions to symbols.
internal noise
thoughts and feelings
that compete for attention
and interfere with the
communication process.
Pop Comm!
in the 21st century is adapting past practices to
modern life.
Mourning rituals include norms for how the
body of the deceased is dealt with, burial and
commemorative rituals, symbols of mourning,
and comforting practices. In the past, personally
washing, dressing, and preparing the body for
burial enabled mourners to present the deceased
as they would like the person to be remembered.
Burial and commemorative rituals gave family,
friends, and the larger community an opportunity to gather, exchange memories of the
deceased, comfort those closest to the deceased,
and receive comfort in return. Graves were
places where those close to the deceased could
go to “talk” to the departed and recall memories.
Family members would often withdraw into their
homes for a period of time to grieve. Friends and
community members would visit with the family in their home during this intense period of
mourning. Those closest to the person who had
died chose or were expected to wear symbols of
their status as mourners. Mourning clothes and
tokens served as signals to others in the community that the person so dressed was in mourning
and should be accorded extra gentleness.
Today, in the U.S.A. most families do not personally prepare the body of their loved one for burial
friend is giving you instructions on how to work the new MP3 player, your attention
may be drawn away by the external noise of your favorite TV show, which is on in the
next room. External noise does not have to be a sound, however. Perhaps, while your
friend is giving instructions, your attention is drawn momentarily to an attractive man
or woman. Such visual distractions are also physical interference.
Psychological interference includes internal distractions based on thoughts or feelings and can fall into two categories: internal noise and semantic noise. Internal noise
refers to the thoughts and feelings that compete for attention and interfere with the communication process. If you have ever tuned out the lecture your professor is giving and
tuned into a daydream or a past conversation, then you have experienced internal noise.
Semantic noise refers to the distractions aroused by certain symbols that take our attention away from the main message. If a friend describes a 40-year-old secretary as “the
girl in the office,” and you think girl is an odd and condescending term for a 40-year-old
Chapter 1
or wear special mourning clothes. Increasingly, one
or more members of the family may honor their
loved one by preparing a commemorative Web
page that memorializes the life of the departed. Web
sites such as Legacy.com, MyDeathSpace.com, and
Memory-Of.com have been around for over a decade
to facilitate the creation of interactive online memorials. An article in The Boston Globe recounted the
story of Shawn Kelley who created a “moving tribute” to his brother Michael, a National Guardsman
killed in Afghanistan. The 60-second video features
a slide show of Michael growing up, from a toddler
to a clean-cut teen, while quiet classical music plays
softly and a voice-over recounts Michael’s attributes
and interests. Shawn reported that it made him feel
good to be able to “talk” about his brother, and over
a year later he was still visiting the site to watch the
video and to view the messages left by family members and friends (Plumb, 2006). Today the rituals
traditionally associated with funerals and memorial
services such as eulogies, visitations, and expressions of condolence now often take place online.
Interactive memorial Web sites also have
become a “place” where mourners can “visit” with
their departed loved one and connect with other
mourners, activities that traditionally occurred
at a funeral or memorial service. Most Web sites
that host memorial Web pages allow visitors to
leave messages of condolence, share stories about
the deceased, and leave messages directed to the
deceased. Denise McGrath, a mother who created
“R.I.P. Tony,” a memorial Web page for her teenage son on MySpace explained that it was “just a
Communication Perspectives
7
place for his friends to go” (Plumb, 2006). Today
Legacy.com hosts over 50,000 permanent memorials and reports being visited by over 10 million
users each month (Plumb, 2009).
The somber mourning clothes of past generations have given way to newer ways of marking
oneself as in mourning. Today family members
and friends may wear T-shirts imprinted with
pictures of the deceased. This practice is most
common when the departed is young and died a
violent death. According to Montana Miller, professor of popular culture at Bowling Green State
University, the tradition of wearing commemorative t-shirts originated with West Coast gangs in
the early 1990s (Moser, 2005).
Not only are people using T-shirts to signal
mourning, but they are also designing decals to
place on cars and bikes to memorialize those who
have died. In a highly mobile society, decals are
visual markers that can not only memorialize
a loved one who has died but can also connect
mourners to others who have suffered a similar
loss. When one 17-year-old was shot and killed,
hundreds of people in his town put memorial
decals in their car windows. Four years later the
young man’s mother reported that seeing those
decals continued to help her with her grieving
process (Moser, 2005).
Although we may no longer personally prepare the dead for burial or wear somber formal
mourning clothes, we still need to connect and
communicate with others as we grieve, and we
continue to evolve new methods for doing so.
woman, you might not even hear the rest of what your friend has to say. Whenever we
react emotionally to a word or a behavior, we are experiencing semantic noise.
Feedback
Feedback is the reactions and responses to a message that indicate to the sender whether
and how that message was heard, seen, and interpreted. In face-to-face communication, we can express feedback verbally through words or nonverbally through body
language. In online interactions, we can express feedback verbally through words or
nonverbally through emoticons and acronyms. We continuously give feedback when we
are listening to another, if only by paying attention, giving a confused look, or showing
signs of boredom. Or we may give direct verbal feedback by saying, “I don’t understand
the point you are making” or “That’s a great comment you just made.” In online interactions, we might use an acronym like CC (I understand) or WDYM (What do you mean?).
semantic noise
distractions aroused by certain
symbols that take our attention
away from the main message.
feedback
reactions and responses to
messages.
8
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Communication Perspectives
S e n ding C h a nn e
l
Noise
Noise
Encoder
Decoder
Meaning
Meaning
Decoder
Encoder
Noise
Participants
Figure 1.1
A model of communication
between two individuals
F e e d b a ck C h a n
ne
l
Context
A Model of the Basic Communication Process
Skill Learning Activity 1.1
What characterizes
each of the
communication
settings discussed
in this book?
communication setting
the different communication
environments within which
people interact, characterized
by the number of participants
and the extent to which
the interaction is formal
or informal; also called
communication contexts.
Figure 1.1 illustrates the communication process between two people. In the minds
of these people are meanings, thoughts, and feelings that they intend to share.
These thoughts and feelings are created and shaped by the people’s values, culture,
environment, experiences, occupation, sex, interests, knowledge, and attitudes. To
communicate a message, the sender encodes thoughts and feelings into messages that
are sent using one or more channels.
The receiver decodes or interprets the symbols in an attempt to understand the
speaker’s meaning. This decoding process is affected by the receiver’s total field of
experience—that is, by all the same factors that shape the encoding process. Feedback
completes the process so that the sender and receiver can arrive at a similar understanding of the message.
The model depicts the context as the area around the participants. This may include
the physical, social, historical, psychological, and cultural contexts that permeate all
parts of the process. Similarly, the model shows that during conversation physical and
psychological interference (noise), including internal and semantic distractions, may
interfere at various points and therefore affect the people’s ability to arrive at similar
meanings. As you might imagine, the process becomes more complex when more than
two people are conversing or when someone is speaking to a large and diverse audience.
intrapersonal
communication
the interactions that occur in
a person’s mind when he or
she is talking with himself or
herself.
Communication Settings
The basic communication process describes how meanings are shared and in this
course you will learn skills that will help you communicate effectively regardless
Chapter 1
Communication Perspectives
interpersonal
communication
informal interaction between
two people who have an
identifiable relationship with
each other.
small group
communication
two to 20 people who
participants come together
for the specific purpose of
solving a problem or arriving
at a decision.
public communication
one participant, the speaker,
delivers a prepared message
to a group or audience who
has assembled to hear the
speaker.
Karen Kapoor/Getty Images
of the type of interaction you are experiencing. But there are also important skills
to learn that are specific to a particular communication setting. Communication
settings differentiate interactions based on the number of participants and the
extent to which the interaction is characterized by formal or informal exchanges.
Also called communication contexts by some scholars these classifications describe
the different communication environments within which we interact. (Littlejohn &
Foss, 2008, pp. 52–53). In this book, you will learn skills that will help you in
intrapersonal settings, interpersonal settings, small group settings, and public communication settings.
Intrapersonal communication refers to the interactions that occur in your mind
when you are talking with yourself. While we may occasionally think out loud, we
usually don’t verbalize our internal dialog. When you sit in class and think about what
you’ll do later that day, you are communicating intrapersonally. Similarly, when you
send yourself a reminder note as an e-mail or text message, you are communicating intrapersonally. A lot of our intrapersonal communication occurs subconsciously
(Kellerman, 1992). When we drive into the driveway “without thinking,” we are
communicating intrapersonally on a subconscious level. The study of intrapersonal
communication often focuses on its role in shaping self-perceptions and in managing
communication apprehension, that is, the fear associated with communicating with
others (McCroskey, 1977). Our study of intrapersonal communication will focus on
self-talk as a means to improve your self-concept and self-esteem and, ultimately,
your communication competence in a variety of situations.
Interpersonal communication is characterized by informal interaction between
two people who have an identifiable relationship with each other (Knapp & Daly, 2002).
Talking to a friend between classes, visiting on th...
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