Roles in Groups Benne and Sheats (1948) identified three broad types of roles people play in small groups: task roles, building and maintenance roles, and self-centered roles. Task Roles: Focus is on completing group’s goal Coordinator: Relates statements made by one group member to another “Krista’s comment relate well to what Erik was saying.” Energizer: Stimulates group to take action “How many of you are willing to bring in a video on conflict for the next class? Elaborator: Expands upon another’s ideas “I think what Kristina and Jennifer are suggesting is that we first explain nonverbal before we turn to verbal communication.” Evaluator-critic: Assesses the group’s work by higher standards “This is okay, but I think Lisa needs to give more feedback.” Information-giver: Provides helpful information “Jake has some books about conflict we could use.” Information-seeker: Asks for clarification “Lisa D. or Laura, could you please tell me what you said about disconfirming responses?” Recorder: Keep notes (minutes) about meeting “Last class we did not get to J-P’s presentation. Dave and Michelle had just finished theirs.” Procedural Technician: Takes responsibility for tasks “I checked out the VCR for Adam and LeighAnne’s presentations.” Group-Building/Maintenance Roles: Focus building relationships, maintaining harmony Encourager: Provides positive feedback “I think what Heather was saying was totally right.” Follower: Accepts ideas of others in group “Let’s follow Cotton’s plan—he had the right idea.” Compromiser: Attempts to reach a solution everyone finds acceptable “Nicole, Beth, and Nimat have offered three great solutions. Why don’t we integrate them?” Gatekeeper: Facilitates participation from everyone in group “I don’t think we’ve heard from Monique yet.” Harmonizer: Reduces conflict and tension (often through humor) “After that exam, we deserve a free meal!” Observer: Evaluates group progress “I think we’ve learned a lot so far. Sara and Heather gave us great information.” Self-centered Roles: Focus is to prevent group from reaching goals; to disrupt Aggressor: Acts antagonistic towards other group members and their ideas “Playing desert survival is the dumbest idea I’ve ever heard.” Dominator: Monopolizes group speaking time Interrupting—“I’m going to tell you the six reasons why this is a bad idea.” Blocker: Refuses to cooperate with other’s ideas “I refuse to play Desert Survival.” Help-Seeker: Acts helpless to avoid work “I don’t think I can put together a bibliography. Why don’t you do it for me?” Loafer: Avoids work “Why don’t we just go have drinks instead of finishing this project.” Special Interest Advocate: Presents own viewpoint and needs “I can’t meet tomorrow. I need to sleep late and call my mom.” Self-confessor: Discusses topics only of importance to self and not the group “I really like coffee. Yesterday I went to Kiva Han. Their coffee is better than what you get elsewhere . . .” Example “A” Small Group Analysis Paper Small Group Movie Analysis: Little Miss Sunshine As we progress through life, all people will have many experiences with different groups consisting of different individuals. As we encounter different groups, we should recollect that the groups we are a part of have some form of a goal that is meant to be accomplished but will not necessarily come easy. It is also important to have the proper knowledge on how to approach different group members, work through challenging situations and problem-solving, as well as retaining experiences and information we have obtained from that group. The reason why I choose the film Little Miss Sunshine was because it was focused on family and as stated in our textbook, “families tend to occupy a central position in the lives of most people.” Meaning seeing each character in a constant family setting it would be clear to follow along with the characteristics of each character. With that being said, the film features a family of 6 who goes on an 800-mile road trip to take the youngest family Olive to Little Miss Sunshine competition. The family consists of Sheryl, an overworked mother, and Richard who is Sheryl’s husband who is optimistic and has hopes of becoming a motivational speaker with his “9-step” program. (Which was unsuccessful) Olive and Dwayne are the children of the family. Olive has dreams of winning in Miss America, and after receiving a phone call, she qualifies to compete in the Little Miss Sunshine competition in California. Dwayne is Sheryl’s son from a previous relationship who has vowed to not speak until he can attend flight school. Frank is Sheryl’s brother who recently moved in with the family after a recent suicide attempt. He attempted suicide after being left and rejected by a former male student that he fell in love with. He lost his job and has been living in a mental institution, Sheryl has taken responsibility to watch him until he “gets better.” Lastly, Grandpa is Richard’s father, who was removed from his retirement home due to snorting Example “A” Small Group Analysis Paper cocaine. It is later discovered he has an addiction and dies later in the film. Upon receiving the phone call about Olive’s eligibility to compete in the competition, the family takes a tumultuous road trip in an old beat down family van (which causes a lot of troubles.) During the trip the family makes many self-discoveries, ultimately bringing the family closer together, as Olive reaches her dream to compete. While viewing the film many concepts arose relating to small groups, including how they develop and function as a healthy group. As well as roles that individuals play and how the group solves problems systematically. Type of Group A group is defined as “a collection of about three to 20 people who feel a sense of belonging and attempt to influence each other to accomplish a common purpose.” (Sellnow. 109) The type of group displayed in the film was a family, more specifically both an extended and blended family. This being because Richard’s father, Grandpa lives with them, as well as Sheryl’s brother Frank. Sheryl’s son Dwayne, from a previous relationship, lives with the family also. Although throughout the film the Hoover’s displayed interactions and behaviors of dysfunction, as the film progressed, they displayed social and emotional support towards each other. Being with monitoring Frank’s suicidal tendencies, Richard’s ambition to having his “9step” pitch be pushed through to become a life coach, Dwayne wanting to become a test pilot, and Olive wanting to compete in the Little Miss Sunshine competition. Healthy Group Guidelines According to our textbook, heathy groups are “formed around a constructive purpose,” and are characterized by different elements. (Sellnow 116) The first of which is how ethical the group’s goal is. The primary goal of the film was to allow Olive to reach her dream of Example “A” Small Group Analysis Paper performing in (and potentially winning) the Little Miss Sunshine competition. Although there was plenty of turmoil along the way of the trip, I would overall rate this goal of the group a 5, due to most of their actions being honorable. For instance, upon trying to leave from a diner, Sheryl decides she wants to have a turn driving, however, the van’s gearshift is jammed. They push their van to a mechanic who tells them that their “clutch is shot” and the only way they will be able to switch gears is if the car is moving at 20 mph. Knowing that they have made a promise to Olive to make it to the competition by Sunday, after every stop, they push the car by hand until it reaches 20 mph to continue driving. Another event of the film that displayed honorability was when the Hoover family was at the hospital after Grandpa’s death. Although taking Grandpa’s body away from the hospital was not the most honest thing to do, Richard stated he knew that “Grandpa more than anyone would want to see olive perform in the competition.” With that being said, the decision to continue even with Grandpa’s corpse in their trunk, although outrageous, in a sense proves honorable for the family to keep their promise to Olive. The second characteristic of a healthy group is interdependence. Interdependent groups “rely on each other’s skill and knowledge to accomplish the ultimate group goal.” (Sellnow 116) I would rate the Hoover family with a 4. For instance, Frank is now completely dependent on Sheryl to provide for him. After his attempt at suicide due to being rejected by the student he fell in love with, he lived in an institution and had no job. Although, Sheryl and Richard did not have the finances to afford to take care of Frank they still took him in. Similarly, with Richard’s father, Grandpa. He was removed from his retirement home for snorting heroin, yet they have taken him in, and he relies on the support of the family. Moreover, Grandpa has been the main individual involved in training olive for her competitions. Example “A” Small Group Analysis Paper The next characteristic is cohesiveness, which is “the force that brings the group closer together.” Furthermore, cohesiveness involves how well the group respects one another and how well they work together. (Sellnow 116) I would rate the Hoover family a 3 on cohesiveness. The reason being is that at the beginning of the film Dwayne did not want to participate in the road trip or go to the Little Miss Sunshine competition. Sheryl had to bribe him into going by stating that if he came along, she would allow him to enroll in flight school upon returning. Another instance of the family having low cohesiveness was a scene where Dwayne finds out that he is colorblind, and Frank informs him that you cannot be colorblind and be a pilot. This enrages Dwayne to a point to where Richard is forced to pull over the van. After getting out of the van Dwayne begins speaking and shouting for the first time in 8 months. He runs down a hill and begins refusing to continue onto the competition, as well as expressing his anger and frustrations towards his family and the trip. He calls them all “losers” and exclaims they all have serious issues dealing with “divorce, bankrupt and suicide.” One of the turning points of the family’s cohesiveness is when Sheryl asks Olive to go and speak to Dwayne. Olive hugs Dwayne and after apologizing to everyone he rejoins the group and they continue their journey. Another characteristic of a healthy group is how they develop and abide by productive norms. Norms are defined as, “expectations about the way group members are to behave.” (Sellnow 117) I would rate the Hoover family a 2 with norms. For example, in one scene of the film, Grandpa begins questioning Dwayne about whether he is sexually active or if he uses drugs while they are on the road. He begins using vulgar language, which upsets Richard because Olive is in the van as well. Richard tells Grandpa to not use that language around Olive and he just responds by saying, “eh, she has her headphones on.” Olive then turns around the ask Grandpa and Dwayne what they were talking about and he tells her “politics.” After watching Example “A” Small Group Analysis Paper this scene, it is inferable that Grandpa is an explicit individual and that is normal for him to potentially speak that way around anyone. The next characteristic of healthy groups is accountability. Accountability means “all group members are held responsible for adhering to the group norms and working toward the group’s goal” (Sellnow 118) I would rate the Hoover family a 2 on being accountable. During one scene of the film, the family takes a stop at a gas station. Most of them get out of the van, and Olive asks Sheryl if she can get out and practice more for her routine. Sheryl tells Olive, “yes”, but to make sure she does not go too far as Sheryl goes to the restroom and Richard tries to reach stan from a payphone. After getting into contact with Stan Richard discovers that his plan fell through with the company he tried to partner with. Once he tells Sheryl she gets upset and they begin arguing, and both become frantic to leave the gas station. They leave the gas station without Olive, and they only realize when Dwayne writes a note to Frank stating, “Where’s Olive?” The last Characteristic of healthy groups is synergy. Synergy is defined as, “the multiplying force of a group of individuals working together that results in a combined effort greater than any other parts.” I would rate the Hoover family a 4 concerning synergy. In different parts of the film, each character became more determined in getting to the competition on time. For instance, in the scene of the film when the family arrives at the hotel where the competition is being held the realize it is exactly 3 o’clock. Frank bursts through the van’s door as it falls off and begins sprinting to the registration desk to register olive into the competition. Frank is joined by the rest of the family when they catch up to him and they are told they cannot enroll Olive into the competition because it is “now 3:04.” Richard begins to beg on his knees explaining how Example “A” Small Group Analysis Paper much of a rough trip they have gone through to get to the competition. They are eventually enrolled by a man named Mr. Kirby who can see the frustration in the family’s expressions. Stages of Group Development Stages of group development focuses on how members of a group communicate with one another as they progress to reach their goal. The first stage of group development is forming, which is characterized by “orientation, testing, and dependence.” (Sellnow 119) During this stage, members try to figure out what their goal is and how they will achieve that goal. From viewing the beginning of the film is it evident to see that the hoover family is not fond of one another. For instance, when Olive asks Frank why he was away and why he has bands around his wrist he opens to her about how he attempted to commit suicide due to being rejected by his male student. In this scene, Richard is bothered by Frank telling her the details of his incident, but Sheryl encourages the conversation, while Grandpa interjects with derogatory terms towards Frank. As well as when Sheryl receives the phone call about the competition and brings up flying or taking a road trip everyone is reluctant to go. However, with Olive being the youngest they all eventually attest to the promise that Sheryl made to Olive. It can be inferred that another reason why Sheryl was adamant about going on a road trip was to bring the family closer together, case in point, Dwayne not speaking to anyone for months because he wants to go to flight school. The next stage of group development is storming, which is characterized by conflict and power plays.” (Sellnow 119) In the film, Richard attributes to this characteristic, due to an interaction with olive and Frank. In the scene of the film when the Hoover Family is at the diner, Olive decides to order “waffles a la mode.” Not knowing what a la mode means Frank begins to explain to Olive that she will get ice cream along with her waffles. In the middle of explaining Richard tells Frank to “shut-up” and tells Olive that ice cream will make her fat, and she should Example “A” Small Group Analysis Paper not want to be fat because all the Miss America girls are skinny, implying that she would not win the competition if she is not “skinny” enough. Olive becomes discouraged after hearing this and refuses to eat her ice cream. This upsets Sheryl, however upon receiving their food Grandpa and Frank induce Olive to eat some ice cream. The next stage of group development is norming, and is characterized by “cohesion, collaboration trust and motivation to achieve the group goal.” (Sellnow 119) One scene of the movie that correlates with norming is when Grandpa passes away in the hospital. While the Hoover family is waiting to hear an update on Grandpa, Sheryl begins to break down crying. She tells Olive and Dwayne, “no matter what happens to Grandpa he loves them, and she loves them very much” as well. Dwayne writes to olive to “go hug mom” and the all gather in for a group hug. After finding out that Grandpa did not make it, they are faced with a problem of the hospital not being able to hold Grandpa’s body overnight until returning from the competition. Knowing they will not be able to continue; Richard decides to take Grandpa’s body. They then plot a way to remove Grandpa’s body from the hospital room and place him in their trunk. The next stage of group development is performing which is characterized by, “harmony, productivity, and problem-solving. The Hoover displayed performing in the scene prior to Olive competing in the “talent” section of the competition. Upon watching the other girls compete and perform Richard and Dwayne become uncomfortable in letting Olive perform. One reason being they feel the young girls are dressed and act too mature and do not want Olive to be viewed that way. Additionally, they do not want Olive to get embarrassed while performing in front of the crowd considering the talents of the other girls. They run to the dressing room to convince Sheryl to not let Olive perform however Sheryl knows this Olive’s dream, and replies by saying, “just let olive be olive.” Subsequently, they decide to let her fulfill her dream and perform. Example “A” Small Group Analysis Paper The last stage(s) in group development is adjourning and transforming. Adjourning is characterized by “celebrating goal accomplishment and disengagement. The entire family is now in the performance room of the competition to see Olive perform, and before starting she dedicates her performance to Grandpa and states, “he taught me this routine.” Olive’s music begins to play, and it is the song “Super Freak” by Rick James. Once the audience becomes familiar with the lyrics of the song and sees Olive’s dance moves, some begin to leave, while others are disturbed. However, the Hoovers stand and begin cheering on Olive, later even joining her on stage and dancing with her, knowing that she feels accomplished. After causing “chaos” to the competition they are all removed and taken to a police station, to where they have vow to never register Olive in a beauty pageant in the state of California. Leading into the transforming stage, the family leaves happily as they begin to make their journey back home. Roles in Groups Roles in groups display how everyone will perform and behave within the group. There are three types of roles people play in small groups; task roles, building and maintenance roles, and self-centered roles. Task Roles, “focus in on completing the group’s goal.” Sheryl displayed the role of an energizer in the film. After receiving the call about the Little Miss Sunshine competition in California she immediately began thinking of how the family would get there, even though they were short on finances. She wanted to ensure she kept her promise to Olive that she would be able to compete in the competition. Richard presented an evaluator-critic role at the beginning of the film. After Olive expressed how badly she wanted to join the competition, Richard asked Olive if she is sure she wants to participate, and tells her, “there is no point in entering unless you know for sure you’re going to win.” Example “A” Small Group Analysis Paper Group Building and Maintenance Roles focus on building relationships and maintain harmony. In some scenes of the film, Grandpa demonstrated an encourager role. After everyone is aware of the news that Richard’s “9-step” pitch fell through, Grandpa approaches him at the front of the van. Seeing that Richard is down, Grandpa tells him that despite what happened that he is “proud of him for taking a risk” and gives him a pat on the back. Grandpa also showed an encourager role towards olive after they got done practicing in his hotel room for the competition. Olive asks Grandpa if he thinks that she’s ready for the competition, and he tells her “you are going to blow them out of the water.” She also asks if she was a loser because her dad “hates losers.” Grandpa responds by stating, “you are not a loser, the only people who are losers are those who are so afraid of not winning they don’t even try.” Which they both clarify that she has been trying. Lastly, self-centered roles focus on preventing the group from reaching goals. Richard exhibited a blocker role towards Sheryl in their hotel room. Sheryl wanted to discuss their financial situation since finding out that Richard’s plan did not work out and how they were depending on the pitch as a financial break. Richard tried to avoid the conversation by stating, “let’s just get through this and go home.” After becoming frustrated with accepting failure Richard decides to go find Stan at a convention being held in the same town. During the confrontation between Richard and Stan, Stan displayed an aggressor role. Richard questions Stan about his promise that Richard’s pitch would sell, in which Stan responds “it’s not the program it’s you. No one has heard of you and nobody cares.” He concludes by telling Richard he needs to move on. Systemic Problem Solving Example “A” Small Group Analysis Paper During systemic problem solving, members of a group construct steps or patterns to follow to be able to tackle a problem that the group is facing. The first step to systemic problem solving is to identify and define the problem. The purpose of this step is to allow the group to “define the problem in a way that all the group members understand.”(Sellnow 133) One of the underlying problems of the film was Dwayne’s feelings towards his family with his reluctance to speak until he could attend flight school. It is known and inferred early in the film that Dwayne dislikes his family, hence him wanting to join a flight school to “fly” away from his family. On one side, Richard encourages Dwayne’s refusal to speak by stating, “I think we all can learn something from what Dwayne is doing……. He’s pursuing that dream with focus and discipline.” However, Sheryl does not wat Dwayne to go to flight school, and both she and Frank are bothered by the fact that Dwayne has taken this route to achieve what he wants. Step two of systemic problem solving is to analyze the problem. To analyze the problem the group needs to, “find out as much as possible about it.” (Sellnow 133) Upon arriving at the Hoover home, Dwayne is sharing his room with Frank who notices that something is off about Dwayne. He questions him about his ability to speak which Dwayne clarifies that he can speak he just chooses not to. Frank asks him why and he points to a picture of Friedrich Nietzsche who has influenced Dwayne’s self- fulfillment decisions. A reason being why Frank is intrigued by Dwayne’s action is because they both could be considered outcasts. Since Frank is gay, he probably understands why Dwayne would rather not associate with his family that does not support his dream. Step three of systemic problem solving is to determine the criteria for judging solutions. During this step members of the group use criteria to get closer to evaluate the problem. When Sheryl received the phone call about the competition, she knew it would not be a good idea to Example “A” Small Group Analysis Paper leave either Frank, Dwayne or Grandpa behind for their safety and sanity. Furthermore, she knows she must find a way to encourage them to go on the trip, so to get Dwayne to come along she tells him she will allow him to enroll in flight school after they return. Upon which he agrees to go with his family on that condition. Along the way of the trip, after Grandpa’s passing, Dwayne reaches his breaking point when he finds out he is color blind. Olive tests to see if Dwayne is color blind using a test booklet she got from the hospital. After realizing he cannot see the letter “A” during the test, Frank informs him that he cannot be a pilot if he is color blind. This enrages Dwayne into a panic manner to where Richard is forced to pull over. Dwayne runs out of the van and screams in anger, speaking for the first time in months. Step four of systemic problem solving is to generate a host of solutions. During this step, groups fail to create a solution due to criticisms of ideas expressed initially. Amid Dwayne’s tantrum, he calls his family “losers” and does not want to continue to the competition This upset Sheryl and she tells him, “like it or not, we’re still your family, for better or worse.” In which Dwayne responds, “you’re not my family, I hate you people”, and begs for his mom to just leave him alone on the side of the road. After hearing this news Dwayne is devasted and it can be inferred that going on the trip was in vain to him because he will not be able to fulfill his dream. Step five of systemic problem solving is to evaluate solutions and decide. During this step, the group evaluates each solution and eliminates any solutions that do not meet the criteria. Although Sheryl does not give Dwayne the option to stay behind even when Frank offered to stay behind with him, Dwayne had to realize that he has either give up his dream or put it on hold. He gets back into the van and the family continues to the competition Step six of systemic problem solving is implementing the agreed upon and assess it. During this step the group determines the effectiveness of the solution and take into Example “A” Small Group Analysis Paper consideration if they want to revisit and “assess its success” (Sellnow 136) While talking to Frank on a dock during the competition Dwayne makes a realization that “life is just one big beauty contest”, meaning life will present many challenges. He declares to Frank that he will find a way to reach his goal of being a pilot because people should “do what they love and forget the rest.” In which Frank simply replies that he is “glad Dwayne is talking again.” In summary, the film Little Miss Sunshine displayed an example of a family were different members of the group had their own goals that collided and intertwined with one another. In the end, differences had to be put aside to allow Olive to complete her goal, even if it ended in consequence for the family, they knew it would best for the family. After completing this assignment, I have learned that small group communication takes a lot of trial and error assists in completing whatever goal the group is trying to accomplish. Additionally, I have learned that there are different types of small groups who have goals that are characterized by being healthy or unhealthy, as well as everyone plays a role in the group. Small groups go through stages of development as well, to produce cohesion and understanding to reach their goals, whereupon the group can determine whether they would like to continue as a group. Lastly, I have learned that groups must work systemically to solve problems within the group that may hinder them from reaching their goal. During this process, the group must analyze, evaluate and assess solutions to their problem to figure out if it will be beneficial to solve the problem. Work Cited Example “A” Small Group Analysis Paper “Communication in Groups/ Group Leadership and Problem Solving.” COMM5: Speech Communication, by Deanna D. Sellnow et al., Cengage, 2018, pp. 108–139. Dayton, Johnathan and Valerie Faris, directors. Little Miss Sunshine. 20th Century Fox, 2006. 13 Communicate! Kathleen S. Verderber Northern Kentucky University Rudolph F. Verderber Distinguished Teaching Professor of Communication, University of Cincinnati Deanna D. Sellnow University of Kentucky Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States © 2010, 2008 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning Kathleen S. Verderber, Rudolph F. Verderber, and Deanna Sellnow ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 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Communicate!, Thirteenth Edition Brief Contents Contents iv Preface xiii PART I FOUNDATIONS OF COMMUNICATION Chapter 1 Communication Perspectives 1 Chapter 2 Perception of Self and Others 23 Chapter 3 Communicating Verbally 47 Chapter 4 Communicating Nonverbally 66 Chapter 5 Listening and Responding 87 PART II INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION Chapter 6 Communicating Across Cultures 111 Chapter 7 Understanding Interpersonal Relationships 133 Chapter 8 Communication Skills in Interpersonal Relationships: Providing Emotional Support, Managing Privacy, and Negotiating Conflict 157 Interviewing 185 Appendix PART III GROUP COMMUNICATION Chapter 9 Communicating in Groups 207 Chapter 10 Problem Solving in Groups 224 PART IV PUBLIC SPEAKING Chapter 11 Developing and Researching a Speech Topic 250 Chapter 12 Organizing Your Speech 275 Chapter 13 Adapting Verbally and Visually 304 Chapter 14 Overcoming Speech Apprehension by Practicing Delivery 332 Chapter 15 Informative Speaking 363 Chapter 16 Persuasive Speaking 388 References 419 Index 430 iii Contents Brief Contents iii Preface xiii PART Chapter I FOUNDATIONS OF COMMUNICATION 1 Communication Perspectives 1 The Communication Process 3 Participants Messages Context Channels Interference (Noise) Feedback A Model of the Basic Communication Process Communication Settings Communication Principles Communication Has Purpose Communication Is Continuous Communication Messages Vary in Conscious Thought Communication Is Relational Communication Is Guided by Culture Communication Has Ethical Implications Communication Is Learned Increasing Our Communication Competence Develop Communication Skills Improvement Goals Chapter 2 10 10 11 11 11 12 14 15 15 18 Perception of Self and Others 23 The Perception Process 24 Attention and Selection Organization of Stimuli Interpretation of Stimuli Perceptions of Self: Self-Concept and Self-Esteem 24 25 26 26 Forming and Maintaining a Self-Concept 26 Developing and Maintaining Self-Esteem 28 The Influence of Gender and Culture on Self-Perceptions Changing Self-Perceptions Accuracy and Distortion of Self-Perceptions The Effects of Self-Perceptions on Communication iv 3 3 4 5 5 7 8 8 30 31 31 34 Contents Presenting Self to Others Self-Monitoring Social Construction of Self Perception of Others Observing Others Using Stereotypes Emotional State Perceiving Others’ Messages Improving the Accuracy of Social Perceptions Chapter 3 38 38 39 40 41 48 49 49 51 52 52 55 58 Communicating Nonverbally 66 Characteristics of Nonverbal Communication 68 Types of Nonverbal Communication 69 Use of Body: Kinesics Use of Voice: Vocalics Use of Space: Proxemics Use of Time: Chronemics Self-Presentation Cues Guidelines for Improving Nonverbal Communication Sending Nonverbal Messages Interpreting Nonverbal Messages 5 37 The Nature and Purposes of Language Use Clear Language Use Language That Makes Your Messages Memorable Use Linguistic Sensitivity Chapter 36 36 47 Improving Language Skills 4 35 Communicating Verbally Purposes of Language The Relationship Between Language and Meaning Cultural and Gender Influences on Language Use Chapter v 69 71 73 75 76 79 79 82 Listening and Responding 87 What Is Listening? 88 Types of Listening 88 Appreciative Listening Discriminative Listening Comprehensive Listening Empathic Listening Critical Listening 89 89 90 90 90 vi Contents Steps in the Listening Process Attending Understanding Remembering Evaluating Responding Conversation and Analysis PART Chapter II 91 93 97 98 100 102 INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION 6 Communicating Across Cultures Culture and Communication Intercultural Communication Dominant Cultures and Co-Cultures Cultural Identity Identifying Cultural Norms and Values Individualism–Collectivism Uncertainty Avoidance Power Distance Masculinity–Femininity Barriers to Effective Intercultural Communication 7 111 112 112 113 116 117 117 121 121 122 123 Anxiety Assuming Similarity or Difference Ethnocentrism Stereotypes and Prejudice Incompatible Communication Codes Incompatible Norms and Values 123 123 124 125 126 127 Intercultural Communication Competence 127 Adopt Correct Attitudes Acquire Knowledge About Other Cultures Develop Culture-Specific Skills Chapter 91 Understanding Interpersonal Relationships Types of Relationships Acquaintances Friends Close Friends or Intimates Disclosure and Feedback in Relationship Life Cycles The Open Pane The Secret Pane The Blind Pane The Unknown Pane Communication in the Stages of Relationships Beginning Relationships Developing Relationships 127 128 129 133 134 134 136 137 141 141 142 142 142 143 143 144 Contents Maintaining Relationships Deteriorating and Dissolving Relationships Dialectics in Interpersonal Relationships Relational Dialectics Managing Dialectical Tensions Conversation and Analysis Chapter 8 Communication Skills in Interpersonal Relationships: Providing Emotional Support, Managing Privacy, and Negotiating Conflict Comforting Messages Skills for Comforting Gender and Cultural Considerations in Comforting Managing Privacy and Disclosure in Relationships Effects on Intimacy Expectations of Reciprocity Information Co-Ownership Guidelines and Communication Strategies for Disclosure Communication Strategies for Managing Privacy 145 148 149 149 151 152 157 158 158 160 161 164 164 165 165 171 Negotiating Different Needs, Wants, and Preferences in Relationships 172 Communicating Personal Needs, Wants, and Preferences: Passive, Aggressive, and Assertive Behavior Cultural Variations in Passive, Aggressive, and Assertive Behavior 173 174 Managing Conflict in Relationships 176 Styles of Conflict Guidelines for Collaboration 176 178 Conversation and Analysis Appendix vii Interviewing Structuring Interviews 179 185 186 The Interview Protocol Effective Questions Order and Time Constraints in Interview Protocols 186 187 188 Guidelines for Conducting Information Interviews 189 Doing Research About Interviewees Conducting an Information Interview 189 190 Conducting Employment Interviews 191 Preparing for the Interview Conducting the Interview 191 191 Interviewing Strategies for Job Seekers 192 Applying for the Job Electronic Cover Letters and Résumés Preparing to Be Interviewed Guidelines for Job Interviewees 192 194 196 197 viii Contents Conversation and Analysis Following Up After the Interview 200 Strategies for Interviews with the Media 200 Before the Interview During the Interview PART Chapter III 201 201 GROUP COMMUNICATION 9 Communicating in Groups Characteristics of Healthy Groups Healthy Groups Have Ethical Goals Healthy Groups Are Interdependent Healthy Groups Are Cohesive Healthy Groups Develop and Abide by Productive Norms Healthy Groups Are Accountable Healthy Groups Are Synergetic Stages of Group Development Forming Storming Norming Performing Adjourning Types of Groups Families Social Friendship Groups Support Groups Interest Groups Service Groups Work Groups Evaluating Group Dynamics Chapter 198 10 Problem Solving in Groups The Problem-Solving Process Step One: Identify and Define the Problem Step Two: Analyze the Problem Step Three: Determine Criteria for Judging Solutions Step Four: Identify Alternative Solutions Step Five: Evaluate Solutions and Decide Step Six: Implement the Agreed-Upon Solution Shared Leadership Task Roles Maintenance Roles Procedural Roles 207 208 208 210 210 210 212 213 213 213 214 214 214 214 215 215 216 216 217 217 217 219 224 225 226 226 227 228 229 230 230 230 231 232 Contents Making Meetings Effective Guidelines for Meeting Leaders Guidelines for Meeting Participants Chapter IV 235 238 239 Communicating Group Solutions 242 242 243 243 PUBLIC SPEAKING 11 Developing and Researching a Speech Topic Identify Topics List Subjects Brainstorm and Concept Map for Topic Ideas Analyze the Audience Identify Audience Analysis Information Needs Gather Audience Data 252 252 253 254 254 255 257 Select a Topic 258 Write a Speech Goal 259 Locate and Evaluate Information Sources Personal Knowledge, Experience, and Observation Secondary Research Primary Research 259 259 261 262 262 264 Evaluate Sources 265 Identify and Select Relevant Information 267 Factual Statements Expert Opinions Elaborations 12 250 Analyze the Setting Identify Your General Goal Phrase a Specific Goal Statement Chapter 235 Conversation and Analysis Written Formats Oral Formats Virtual Reports PART ix 267 268 268 Draw Information from Multiple Cultural Perspectives 269 Record Information 269 Prepare Research Cards 269 Cite Sources in Speeches 270 Organizing Your Speech 275 Developing the Body of the Speech 276 Determining Main Points Writing a Thesis Statement 276 279 x Contents Outlining the Body of the Speech Selecting and Outlining Supporting Material Preparing Section Transitions and Signposts Creating the Introduction Gaining Attention Establishing Listener Relevance Stating the Thesis Establishing Your Credibility Setting a Tone Creating a Bond of Goodwill Crafting the Conclusion Summary Clincher Chapter 13 287 289 290 290 290 291 291 292 292 294 Reviewing the Outline 296 Adapting Verbally and Visually Relevance Common Ground Speaker Credibility Information Comprehension and Retention Adapting to Cultural Differences Adapting to Audiences Visually Types of Presentational Aids Criteria for Choosing Presentational Aids Designing Effective Presentational Aids Methods for Displaying Presentational Aids Posters Whiteboards or Chalkboards Flip Charts Handouts Document Cameras CD/VCR/DVD Players and LCD Projectors Computer-Mediated Slide Show 14 287 Listing Sources Adapting to Your Audience Verbally Chapter 280 284 286 Overcoming Speech Apprehension by Practicing Delivery Public Speaking Apprehension Symptoms and Causes Managing Your Apprehension Characteristics of an Effective Delivery Style Use a Conversational Style Be Animated Effective Use of Your Voice Speak Intelligibly Use Vocal Expressiveness 304 305 305 306 307 309 312 315 316 323 323 326 326 326 327 327 328 328 328 332 333 333 334 336 336 336 337 337 338 Contents Effective Use of Your Body Facial Expressions Gestures Movement Eye Contact Posture Poise Appearance Delivery Methods Impromptu Speeches Scripted Speeches Extemporaneous Speeches Rehearsal Preparing Speaking Notes Handling Presentational Aids Recording, Analyzing, and Refining Speech Delivery Chapter 15 341 342 342 343 343 343 344 345 346 346 346 346 347 347 349 351 Sample Informative Speech 353 Informative Speaking Intellectually Stimulating Relevant Creative Memorable Address Diverse Learning Styles Methods of Informing Description Definition Comparison and Contrast Narration Demonstration Common Informative Speech Frameworks Process Speech Frameworks Expository Speech Frameworks Sample Informative Speech 16 341 Criteria for Evaluating Speeches Characteristics of Effective Informative Speaking Chapter xi Persuasive Speaking 363 364 364 365 365 366 367 368 368 369 369 370 370 371 371 372 379 388 How We Process Persuasive Messages: The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) 389 Writing Persuasive Speech Goals as Propositions 390 Types of Persuasive Goals Tailoring Your Proposition to Your Audience 390 391 xii Contents Developing Arguments (Logos) That Support Your Proposition Finding Reasons to Use as Main Points Selecting Evidence to Support Reasons Types and Tests of Arguments Avoiding Fallacies in Your Reasons and Argument 398 Cueing Your Audience Through Credibility (Ethos): Demonstrating Goodwill 400 Motivating Your Audience to Act Through Incentives 401 Organizational Patterns for Persuasive Speeches INDEX 431 393 394 395 397 Increasing Audience Involvement Through Emotional Appeals (Pathos) Using Incentives to Satisfy Unmet Needs Creating Incentives That Outweigh Costs REFERENCES 419 393 401 403 403 Statement of Reasons Comparative Advantages Criteria Satisfaction Refutative Problem-Solution Problem-Cause-Solution Motivated Sequence 404 404 404 405 405 406 406 Sample Persuasive Speech 409 Preface We are delighted to welcome Deanna D. Sellnow, Ph.D., to the author team for Communicate! A proven textbook author, Dr. Sellnow is the Gifford Blyton Endowed Professor and Director of Undergraduate Studies in Communication at the University of Kentucky. Her scholarly interests include instructional communication, educational assessment, popular culture, and gender communication. A past president of the Central States Communication Association, she has taught a wide variety of communication courses and enjoys directing basic communication courses. Dr. Sellnow’s voice blends well with ours, as her writing has an appealing conversational quality that keeps the reader’s interest. While the contributions she has made to this book will not be evident to those of you who are reading the book for the first time, those of you familiar with Dr Sellnow’s work will recognize and appreciate her influence. We look forward to a long and successful collaboration. To Students Congratulations! You are beginning to study communication, a subject that is important and useful to you in all parts of your life. When you want to establish or improve a relationship, when you need to work with others on a group project for class or for a cause you support, or when you are required to make a presentation at work, your success will depend on how effective you are at communicating in those settings. Most of you have probably never studied communication formally. Rather, you’ve learned the communication skills and strategies you use every day informally, in your home and from your friends. By taking this communication course and learning tested communication skills, you’ll strengthen your existing abilities and improve your relationships. You can improve the likelihood that your group project is successful by understanding the predictable patterns of group process and communication. And you can more effectively overcome stage fright and give better presentations when you have studied public speaking and know how to plan and deliver a formal speech. So again, we say, congratulations! You’ll find that this course will be instantly relevant to your day-to-day living. We are confident that by the end of this term you will be glad you spent your time and money on it. The textbook you’re reading, Communicate!, was one of the first college texts about human communication. A lot has changed since Rudy wrote that first edition. Over the years we have worked to make sure that students, like you, have a book that is easy and enjoyable to read and learn from. We have also worked hard to make sure that the information, theories, and skills discussed and relevant to the real relationships and communication situations you face. So every three years we examine the book in light of how the world has changed. Just ten years ago, cell phones were not in wide use, texting wasn’t a verb, many social networking sites and YouTube didn’t exist, and “to twitter” simply meant to speak excitedly about something. Despite these huge changes in the way we communicate, this textbook is as up-to-date and useful as the first edition was because we work hard to make sure that the information we present reflects what it takes to be an effective communicator today. xiii xiv Preface Communicate! is written with six specific goals in mind: 1. To explain important communication concepts, frameworks, and theories that have been consistently supported by careful research so that you can understand the conceptual foundations of human communication. 2. To teach specific communication skills that research has shown facilitate effective relationships. 3. To describe and encourage you to adopt the ethical frameworks that can guide competent communication. 4. To increase awareness of how culture affects communication practices. 5. To stimulate critical and creative thinking about the concepts and skills you learn. 6. To provide tools for practice and assessment that enable you to monitor how well you are learning communication concepts and skills. So we hope you will read and enjoy this textbook and that it will be a resource you will want to maintain in your personal library. We appreciate it when students who are using our text take time to share their reactions to the book with us. So we encourage you to email us with questions, comments, and suggestions. Our email address is Communicate.Authors@cengage.com. To Instructors Thank you for considering and using Communicate! We are grateful for the colleagues who have used previous editions of this text and to those of you who are considering using this edition. We believe that the revisions we have made will surprise and delight those of you who have used Communicate! in the past. We also believe that those of you who are looking for a different textbook will find Communicate! is precisely the learning tool that will encourage your students to read and think about the important role of communication in their lives. As we prepared this edition, we were acutely aware of how our students’ lives are changing and how these changes are influencing their learning process and the nature of communication in their lives. So we have revised the text with these new realities in mind while at the same time retaining the hallmarks that have made this textbook useful to students and instructors in the past. And, as with every new edition, we have incorporated the suggestions of colleagues who use the text, and we’ve reviewed the latest scholarship so that this new edition reflects what users want and what recent scholarship has discovered about human communication. In the sections that follow, we detail what’s new and highlight the continuing features that have made Communicate! a perennial favorite with both students and faculty. New to This Edition • Pop Comm! articles, found in each chapter, highlight how the communication concepts addressed in this book play out in popular culture. Each article demonstrates the universal and omnipresent role of communication in our culture and how communication practices change and evolve. Many articles spotlight how the uses of new technologies are changing basic communication processes. Topics include online mourning, the ghostwriting of online dating profiles, managing privacy on social networking sites, the dark side of online social groups, and the persuasive messages of infomercials. • Relevant Communicate! pedagogy has been revamped to facilitate active learning and assessment. Chapter-opening questions prompt students to consider what Preface • • • • • • • • • they already know and to engage with the main ideas of each chapter as they read (pre-assessment). Review questions in the margins throughout the chapters and activities at the ends of chapters encourage students to think critically about what they’re learning (formative assessment). And end-of-part and online quizzes help students determine how well they’ve absorbed chapter content (summative assessment). New and updated examples throughout the text highlight student-friendly topics, such as pop culture and new technologies. Chapter 1, “Communication Perspectives,” now includes a section on communication settings that distinguishes among intrapersonal, interpersonal, small group, and public communication. Chapter 2, “Perception of Self and Others,” introduces the important role media images play in distorting one’s self-perception, the relationship between selfperceptions and communication apprehension, and how perception is shaped via images constructed on social networking sites such as Facebook and MySpace. Reflecting the fact that today we rely heavily on computer-mediated communication, Chapter 4, “Communicating Nonverbally,” includes a discussion of how nonverbal messages that clarify meaning and convey emotions can be communicated in online environments. Because listening and responding is a foundational element of communication in any setting, we moved the discussion of this topic forward to Chapter 5, “Listening and Responding,” in Part I of the book. This chapter now includes a section on the types of listening, which distinguishes among appreciative, discriminative, comprehensive, empathic, and critical listening purposes. In addition, we added a section on responding effectively to public speakers in the form of speech critiques. Chapter 6, “Communicating Across Cultures,” has been updated to reflect what we know today about dominant cultures and co-cultures, including the distinction among sex, gender, and sexual orientation. For this edition, we have reworked the two interpersonal chapters, which now focus, first, on understanding relationships and, second, on specific skills. Chapter 7, “Understanding Interpersonal Relationships,” walks readers through the types of interpersonal relationships, the role of disclosure and feedback in relationship life cycles, communication in the various relationship stages, and the dialectical tensions inherent in interpersonal relationships. In Chapter 8, “Communication Skills in Interpersonal Relationships,” we describe communication skills for comforting, managing the competing urges between self-disclosure and privacy management, and conflict management styles. Many instructors have indicated that they simply don’t have time to teach the chapter on interviewing in their courses. Still, because we believe effective interviewing skills are so important, we have retained the content in the form of an internal appendix, “Interviewing.” So, even if teachers cannot include the content in their courses, students can still benefit from learning about it on their own. The content of this appendix has been refined so that it first focuses on developing good questions and then proposes some guidelines for conducting both information and employment interviews. Tips for presenting oneself in employment and media interviews are also discussed. The unit on group communication has been extensively revised. For this edition, Chapter 9, “Communicating in Groups,” focuses on understanding the characteristics of groups, stages of development, different types of groups, and guidelines for communicating effectively in groups. In Chapter 10, “Problem Solving in xv xvi Preface Groups,” we focus specifically on the nature of effective problem solving, including leadership, member responsibilities, and formats for sharing results with others. • As in the previous edition, the unit on public speaking continues to describe the process for preparing and presenting public speeches using the Speech Plan Action Steps. The chapters in this part include many important revisions. Chapter 11, “Developing and Researching a Speech Topic,” now includes a discussion of concept mapping as a means by which students can generate topic ideas. In Chapter 12, “Organizing Your Speech,” we added narrative order as a method for arranging main points. Chapter 13, “Adapting Verbally and Visually,” includes a section about addressing diverse learning styles when adapting to an audience. In addition, we expanded the discussion of visual aids to include guidelines for using audio and audiovisual presentational aids. And Chapter 14, “Overcoming Speech Apprehension by Practicing Delivery,” offers an expanded discussion of public speaking apprehension and ways to overcome it. • New to Chapter 15, “Informative Speaking,” are a discussion of learning styles as they relate to effective informative speaking, revised informative speech critique forms, and a new sample student speech, “Understanding Hurricanes.” • Finally, in Chapter 16, “Persuasive Speaking,” we have expanded our discussion of reasoning fallacies to include the either-or and straw person fallacies, we have expanded the discussion of organizational patterns to include both the refutative and problem-cause-solution patterns as options, and we offer a new sample student speech, “Sexual Assault Policy a Must,” which uses the motivated sequence pattern. Hallmark Features • Communication Skill boxes provide a step-by-step guide for each of the communication skills presented in the text. Each of these boxes includes the definition of the skill, a brief description of its use, the steps for enacting the skill, and an example that illustrates the skill. A convenient tear-out chart at the beginning of the book provides a summary of all the Communication Skill boxes. The Skill Building activities, adjacent to each Communication Skill box, reinforce and provide an immediate opportunity for students to practice the skills. Students can complete these activities online and then compare their answers with models provided by the authors. • Conversation and Analysis communication scenarios offer print and video exemplars of important concepts. Transcripts of these conversations appear in the text and online—students can download the transcripts to use for note taking as they view the videos. Once they have analyzed the conversation by answering a series of critical-thinking questions, they can compare their assessments with the authors’. • The principles of effective speech making are organized into five Speech Plan Action Steps, presented in Chapters 11–14. The activities that accompany each of these action steps guide students through an orderly process that results in better speeches. Communicate!’s online resources provide students with the opportunity to view examples of each activity prepared by other students and to complete many of the action steps with Speech Builder Express. (See the section Student Resources for more about these online resources.) Preface • Sample student speeches appear in the text, each accompanied by an audience adaptation plan, an outline, and a transcript and analysis. Two of the three sample speeches in this edition are new. Students can use their online resources to view videos of these speeches, see the transcript and two different kinds of outlines and sample note cards, prepare their own critiques, and compare their critiques to the authors’. • In Parts I and II, Communicate On Your Feet speech assignments encourage students to begin building their public-speaking skills immediately while also addressing the needs of instructors who assign prepared speeches throughout the course. In Part IV, these assignments correspond to the speech types discussed in Chapters 15–16. In this edition, we have added a number of new assignments so that each chapter now includes at least one. • Exercises that were called “Observe and Analyze” and “Test Your Competence” in previous editions are now called Skill Learning Activities and are grouped at the ends of chapters. Some of these exercises challenge students to observe events related to concepts they are learning, use the theories and concepts from the chapter to analyze what happened, and, in some cases, improve what occurred by applying the communication skills they’ve learned. Other activities provide opportunities for students to self-evaluate or practice specific skills. Students can use their online resources to complete these activities and download worksheets and data collection forms. • Self-Reviews appear at the end of each part to encourage students to commit to improving their skills in interpersonal, group, and public communication. In accord with the findings of learning motivation research, students have the opportunity to inventory their current skill levels and set specific goals for skill improvement. The Self-Reviews can be completed online and, if requested, emailed to the instructor. • Diverse Voices articles give voice to the communication experiences of people from a wide range of social and cultural backgrounds. Each article, which presents the personal thoughts and experiences of the writer on topics related to chapter concepts, helps students understand and appreciate the relationship between culture and communication. Six of these articles are new to this edition. • What Would You Do? A Question of Ethics boxes are short case studies that appear near the end of chapters. These cases, several of which are new to this edition, present ethical challenges and require students to think critically, sorting through a variety of ethical dilemmas faced by communicators. Conceptual material presented in Chapter 1 lays groundwork for the criteria on which students may base their assessments, but each case focuses on issues raised in a specific chapter. Teaching and Learning Resources Communicate! is accompanied by a full suite of integrated materials that will make teaching and learning more efficient and effective. Note to faculty: If you want your students to have access to the online resources for this book, please be sure to order them for your course. The content in these resources can be bundled with every new copy of the text or ordered separately. If you do not order them, your students will not have access to the online resources. Availability of resources may differ by region. Check with your local Cengage Learning representative for details. xvii xviii Preface Student Resources • The Premium Website for Communicate! provides students with one-stop access to all the integrated technology resources that accompany the book. These resources include Speech Builder Express™ 3.0, InfoTrac College Edition, interactive versions of the Skill Learning activities, interactive video activities, Web Resources links, and self-assessments. All resources are mapped to show both key discipline learning concepts as well as specific chapter learn lists. • The Communicate! interactive video activities feature the Conversation and Analysis communication scenario clips presented in the text so students can see and hear how the skills they are studying can be used to create effective conversations in various circumstances. Students can answer the critical-thinking questions that accompany each video and then compare their answers to the authors’. This online resource also features videos of the sample informative and persuasive student speeches included in the book. Each speech is accompanied by a transcript, a preparation outline and a speaking outline, note cards, a speech critique checklist, and critical-thinking questions. • Many of the Speech Plan Action Steps can be completed with the Speech Builder Express 3.0 organization and outlining program. This interactive Web-based tool coaches students through the speech organization and outlining process. By completing interactive sessions, students can prepare and save their outlines— including a plan for visual aids and a works cited section—formatted according to the principles presented in the text. Text models reinforce students’ interactive practice. • InfoTrac College Edition with InfoMarks. This virtual library features more than 18 million reliable, full-length articles from 5,000 academic and popular periodicals that can be retrieved almost instantly. They also have access to InfoMarks—stable URLs that can be linked to articles, journals, and searches to save valuable time when doing research—and to the InfoWrite online resource center, where students can access grammar help, critical-thinking guidelines, guides to writing research papers, and much more. • Speech StudioTM Online Video Upload and Grading Program improves the learning comprehension of public speaking students. This unique resource empowers instructors with a new assessment capability that is applicable for traditional, online, and hybrid courses. With Speech Studio, students can upload video files of practice speeches or final performances, comment on their peers’ speeches, and review their grades and instructor feedback. Instructors create courses and assignments, comment on and grade student speeches with a library of comments and grading rubrics, and allow peer review. Grades flow into a gradebook that allows instructors to easily manage their course from within Speech Studio. • A Guide to the Basic Course for ESL Students can be bundled and is designed to assist the nonnative speaker. The Guide features FAQs, helpful URLs, and strategies for accent management and speech apprehension. • Service Learning in Communication Studies: A Handbook is an invaluable resource for students in the basic course that integrates, or will soon integrate, a servicelearning component. This handbook provides guidelines for connecting servicelearning work with classroom concepts and advice for working effectively with agencies and organizations. It also provides model forms and reports and a directory of online resources. Availability of resources may differ by region. Check with your local Cengage Learning representative for details. Preface Instructor Resources • The Instructor’s Resource Manual with Test Bank by Katrina Bodey, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, changes from the twelfth edition to the thirteenth edition, sample syllabi, chapter-by-chapter outlines, summaries, vocabulary lists, suggested lecture and discussion topics, classroom exercises, assignments, and a comprehensive test bank with answer key and rejoinders. In addition, this manual includes the Spotlight on Scholars boxes that were in the textbook in past editions. These boxes feature the work of eight eminent communication scholars, putting a face on scholarship by telling each scholar’s “story.” These boxes can be used as discussion starters, as enrichment for students who are interested in communication scholarship, or in any other way instructors would like to integrate them into the course. Available online only. Access at the Communicate! Instructor Companion Website. • Special-Topic Instructor’s Manuals. Written by Deanna Sellnow, University of Kentucky, these three brief manuals provide instructor resources for teaching public speaking online, with a service-learning approach, and with a problem-based learning approach that focuses on critical thinking and teamwork skills. Each manual includes course syllabi; icebreakers; information about learning cycles and learning styles; and public speaking basics such as coping with anxiety, outlining, and speaking ethically. • The Teaching Assistant’s Guide to the Basic Course, based on leading communication teacher training programs, covers general teaching and course management topics as well as specific strategies for communication instruction—for example, providing effective feedback on performance, managing sensitive class discussions, and conducting mock interviews. • The PowerLecture CD-ROM contains an electronic version of the Instructor’s Resource Manual, ExamView® Computerized Testing, and predesigned Microsoft PowerPoint presentations. The PowerPoint presentations contain text and images and can be used as they are or customized to suit your course needs. • Communication Scenarios for Critique and Analysis on Video and DVD include the communication scenarios included in the Communicate! interactive videos as well as additional scenarios covering interpersonal communication, interviewing, and group communication. • Launch your lectures with ABC News DVDs: Human Communication, Interpersonal Communication, and Public Speaking. Footage from Nightline, World News Tonight, and Good Morning America provides context and real-life examples of communication theories and practices. Footage includes discussion of dozens of communication topics—including family “virtual visitation,” cell phone spam, and professional nonverbal communication—as well as significant speeches by public figures. • The BBC News and CBS News DVDs: Human Communication, Interpersonal Communication, and Public Speaking, provide footage of news stories that relate to current topics in human and interpersonal communication, and footage of famous historical and contemporary public speeches, as well as clips that relate to current topics in speech communication. Available Spring 2010. • The Student Speeches for Critique and Analysis on Video and DVD offer a variety of sample student speeches, including those featured in the Communicate! interactive videos, that your students can watch, critique, and analyze on their own or in class. All of the speech types are included, as well as speeches featuring nonnative English speakers and the use of visual aids. Availability of resources may differ by region. Check with your local Cengage Learning representative for details. xix xx Preface • ABC News DVD: Speeches by Barack Obama. This DVD includes nine famous speeches by President Barack Obama, from 2004 to the present day, including his speech at the 2004 Democratic National Convention; his 2008 speech on race, “A More Perfect Union”; and his 2009 inaugural address. Speeches are divided into short video segments for easy, time-efficient viewing. This instructor supplement also features critical-thinking questions and answers for each speech, designed to spark class discussion. • The Media Guide for Interpersonal Communication provides faculty with media resource listings focused on general interpersonal communication topics. Each listing provides compelling examples of how interpersonal communication concepts are illustrated in particular films, books, plays, Web sites, or journal articles. Discussion questions are provided. Availability of resources may differ by region. Check with your local Cengage Learning representative for details. Preface Acknowledgments This thirteenth edition of Communicate! has benefitted from the work of many people we would like to recognize. First, we thank our colleagues who reviewed the book and offered their insights and suggestions including Karen Anderson, University of North Texas; Thomas Bovino, Suffolk County Community College; Jon Croghan, Northwestern State University; Sheryl Davis, Kaiser University; James Floss, Humboldt State University; Thomas Gaines, Johnson & Wales University; King Godwin, Grambling State University; Daria Heinemann, Kaiser University; Tracey Holley, Tarleton State University; Keri Keckley, Crowder College; Nancy Levin, Palm Beach Community College; and Charlotte Toguchi, Kapiolani Community College. We also want to thank Zach Leitch, Debbie Sellnow, and Rick Sellnow, who read the previous edition of this text and suggested where examples needed to be updated so that today’s 21st-century students would find illustrations they could relate to. We are fortunate to have the best editorial team in Communication Studies today. We are grateful for the support of Lyn Uhl, our senior publisher; Monica Eckman, executive editor; Colin Solan, editorial assistant; Jessica Badiner, media editor; Bryant Chrzan, marketing manager; Christine Dobberpuhl, marketing communications manager; Rosemary Winfield, senior content product manager; Linda Helcher, art director; Kristin Jobe, project manager at Elm Street Publishing Services; Barbara Armentrout, copy editor; Rokusek Design, designer; Dean Dauphinais, permissions acquisitions manager for images; Raquel Sousa, photo researcher; and Margaret ChamberlainGaston, permissions acquisitions manager for text. We give special thanks to Rebekah Matthews, assistant editor, who in addition to her usual duties helped us write the new Pop Comm! feature. As always, we are indebted to Greer Lleuad, senior development editor, who is simply the best in the business. We trust and respect her opinions and advice unconditionally. We simply could not have done this book without her. We also thank our families for their continued patience, understanding, and support. Finally, we thank God for the many ways that our lives have been blessed. We hope this book helps readers glimpse what Martin Buber called the “I-Thou” respect and love that we believe God planned us to have in our human relationships. Kathleen S. Verderber and Deanna D. Sellnow xxi Martin Barraud/Getty Images 1 Communication Perspectives Questions you’ll be able to answer after reading this chapter: • How does the communication process work? • What characterizes each of the communication settings you will study in this course? • What are the basic principles of communication? • What major ethical issues face communicators? • What is communication competence and what can you do to achieve it? • What is communication apprehension and how does it relate to communication competence? Mimi and Marcus finished talking with the fifth car salesperson. “From what I could understand, most of the basic features we need are about the same,” said Mimi. “So, for me, it comes down to who we feel most comfortable with.” “Yeah, that’s pretty much the way I see it. And from that standpoint, I’d pick Carrie,” Marcus responded. “She really seemed nice, didn’t she?” asked Mimi. “She seemed friendly and— unlike Paul—she talked to both of us, not just you.” Marcus replied, “She talked about features, price, and financing options that were tailored to our specific needs—unlike Dempsey, who spent most of his time talking about luxury features that cost more than we can afford.” 2 Chapter 1 Communication Perspectives Mimi added, “Yeah, and Gloria was so disorganized . . . ” “And she was so focused on getting through her presentation that she didn’t even notice when you tried to ask a question!” Marcus interjected. “I sort of liked Steve,” Mimi continued, “but when we suggested that the price range he was quoting was out of our budget, he wasn’t much help. Once he got off his ‘script,’ he seemed lost.” “Well,” Marcus replied, “not only did Carrie offer a car with features we can use and a financing plan we can afford, she also led me to believe that we could call her with questions later about when and where to service our vehicle.” “OK,” Mimi said as she nodded. “So we agree; we’re buying our car from Carrie!” Why was Carrie successful? Was it the car she was promoting or her specialized expertise in the automobile business? Not necessarily. From this conversation, it appears that Carrie’s success was due to her ability to communicate with Mimi and Marcus. Carrie’s success is not unusual. Time and time again, studies have concluded that, for almost any job, employers seek oral communication skills, teamwork skills, and interpersonal abilities (College learning for the new global century, 2008; Hansen & Hansen, 2007; Young, 2003). For example, an article on the role of communication in the workplace reported that in engineering, a highly technical field, speaking skills were very important for 72 percent of the employers surveyed (Darling & Dannels, 2003, p. 12). A survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers (Koncz, 2008) reported the top 10 personal qualities and skills that employers seek from college graduates. The number one skill was communication, including face-to-face speaking, presentational speaking, and writing. Other skills ranked in the top 10 that you will learn about and practice in this course include teamwork skills (number three), analytical skills (number five), interpersonal skills (number eight), and problem-solving skills (number nine). The employers also said these very skills are, unfortunately, the ones many new graduates lack. So this course can significantly increase your ability to get a job and be successful in your chosen career. How effectively you communicate with others is important not only to your career, but also to your personal relationships. Your ability to make and keep friends, to be a good family member, to have satisfying intimate relationships, to participate in or lead groups, and to prepare and present speeches depends on your communication skills. During this course, you will learn about the communication process and have an opportunity to practice basic communication skills that will help you improve your relationships. In this chapter, we begin by explaining the process of communication. Next, we describe several communication settings and how we’ll address improving communication skills for them in this book. From there, we describe several fundamental principles of communication. Finally, we discuss communication competence, the role managing communication apprehension plays in achieving it, and a strategy for improving your communication skills. Chapter 1 Communication Perspectives 3 The Communication Process Communication is the process of creating or sharing meaning in informal conversation, group interaction, or public speaking. To understand how this process works, we begin by describing its essential elements: participants (who), messages (what), context (where), channels (how), interference (distractions), and feedback (reaction). How does the communication process work? Participants The participants are the individuals who assume the roles of senders and receivers during an interaction. As senders, participants form and transmit messages using verbal symbols, visual images, and nonverbal behavior. As receivers, they interpret the messages that have been transmitted to them. Messages Messages are the verbal utterances, visual images, and nonverbal behaviors to which meaning is attributed during communication. To understand how messages are created and received, we need to understand meanings, symbols, encoding and decoding, and form (organization). Meanings Meanings include the thoughts in your mind as well as the interpretations you make of another’s message. Meanings are the ways participants make sense of messages. It is important to realize that meanings are not transferred from one person to another, but are created together in an exchange. Some communication settings enable participants to verify that they have shared meanings; in other settings this is more difficult. For instance, if Sarah says to Tiffany that many female celebrities are unhealthily underweight, through the exchange of verbal messages, they can together come to some degree of understanding of what that means. But if Sarah is giving a speech on the subject to an audience of 200 people, Tiffany’s ability to question Sarah and negotiate a mutual meaning is limited. If Sarah shows a slideshow of before-and-after photographs of some of the celebrities she is referring to, she can make the meaning clear even for a large audience. communication the process of creating or sharing meaning in informal conversation, group interaction, or public speaking. participants individuals who assume the roles of senders and receivers during an interaction. messages Symbols To express yourself, you form messages made of verbal symbols (words), nonverbal cues (behaviors), and visual images. Symbols are words, sounds, and actions that represent specific ideas and feelings. As you speak, you choose word symbols to express your meaning. At the same time, you also use facial expressions, eye contact, gestures, and tone of voice—all symbolic, nonverbal cues—in an attempt to express your meaning. Your listeners make interpretations or attribute meaning to the messages they receive. When you offer your messages through a variety of symbols, the meaning you are trying to convey becomes clearer. verbal utterances, visual images, and nonverbal behaviors to which meaning is attributed during communication. Encoding and decoding Encoding is the process of putting your thoughts and feelings into words, nonverbal cues, and images. Decoding is the process of interpreting another’s message. Ordinarily you do not consciously think about either the encoding or the decoding process. Only when there is a difficulty, such as speaking in a second language or having to use an easier vocabulary with children, do you become aware of encoding. You may not think about decoding until someone seems to speak in circles or uses unfamiliar technical words and you have difficulty interpreting or understanding what is being said. Have you ever taken a course where the instructor used lots of unfamiliar technical words? If so, how did that affect the decoding process for you? words, sounds, and actions that are generally understood to represent ideas and feelings. meanings thoughts in our minds and interpretations of others’ messages. symbols encoding the process of putting our thoughts and feelings into words and nonverbal cues. decoding the process of interpreting another’s message. 4 Chapter 1 Communication Perspectives Form (Organization) When the meaning we wish to share is complex, we may need to organize it in sections or in a certain order. Message form is especially important when one person talks without interruption for a relatively long time, such as in a public speech or when reporting an event to a colleague at work. Visual images also need to be organized and in good form if they are to aid understanding. Context The context is composed of the (1) physical, (2) social, (3) historical, (4) psychological, and (5) cultural situations in which a communication encounter occurs, including what precedes and follows what is said. According to noted German philosopher Jürgen Habermas, the ideal speech situation is impossible to achieve, but considering its contexts as we communicate with others can move us closer to that goal (Littlejohn & Foss, 2007 p. 335). The context affects the expectations of the participants, the meaning these participants derive, and their subsequent behavior. context the setting in which communication occurs, including what precedes and follows what is said. Physical context The physical context includes the location, the environmental conditions (temperature, lighting, and noise level), the distance between communicators, and the time of day. Each of these factors can affect the communication. For instance, the meaning shared in a conversation may be affected by whether it is held in a crowded company cafeteria, an elegant candlelit restaurant, over the telephone, or on the Internet. Today, more and more of our communication exchanges occur in technologically mediated spaces. When you call someone on your cell phone, for instance, you are in different physical places and your conversation will be influenced by the physical contexts each of you occupy as well as by the quality of your phone connection. Moreover, the messages and meaning are affected by whether the technology used is synchronous or asynchronous. Synchronous technologies allow us to exchange messages in real time, while asynchronous technologies allow delays between sending, receiving, and responding to messages. Telephone calls are synchronous, and voice mail messages and e-mail are typically asynchronous. Instant messages (IMs) and text messages may be either synchronous or asynchronous. physical context a communication encounter’s location, environmental conditions (temperature, lighting, noise level), distance between communicators, seating arrangements, and time of day. Social context The social context is the nature of the relationship between the participants. Whether communication takes place among family members, friends, acquaintances, work associates, or strangers influences what and how messages are formed, shared, and interpreted. For instance, most people change how they interact when talking with their parents or siblings as compared to how they interact when talking with their friends. social context Historical context The historical context is the background provided by previous communication episodes between the participants. It influences understandings in the current encounter. For instance, suppose one morning Chad tells Shelby that he will pick up the rough draft of a paper they had given to their professor for feedback to help prepare the final manuscript. When Shelby joins Chad for lunch in the cafeteria, she says, “Did you get it?” Another person listening to the conversation would have no idea what the it is. Yet Chad quickly replies, “It’s on my desk.” Shelby and Chad would understand each other because the content of their previous conversation provides the context for understanding what “it” is in this exchange. the nature of the relationship that exists between the participants. historical context the background provided by previous communication episodes between the participants that influence understandings in the current encounter. Chapter 1 Communication Perspectives Psychological context The psychological context includes the moods and feelings each person brings to the interpersonal encounter. For instance, suppose Corinne is under a lot of stress. While she is studying for an exam, a friend stops by and pleads with her to take a break and go to the gym with her. Corinne, who is normally good-natured, may explode with an angry tirade. Why? Because her stress level provides the psychological context within which she hears this message and it affects how she responds. Cultural context The cultural context includes the values, beliefs, orientations, underlying assumptions, and rituals prevalent among people in a society (Samovar, Porter, & McDaniel, 2007). Culture penetrates into every aspect of our lives, affecting how we think, talk, and behave. Each of us belongs to many cultural groups, though we may differ in how much we identify with each group. Mina, for example, was born in Taiwan but was raised in Boston, where she attended Chinese elementary school. She is also a college student and a Democrat. Each of these groups helps characterize her cultural setting. When two people from different cultures interact, misunderstandings may occur because of the cultural variations between them. For example, the role of a “good student” in many Asian cultures typically means being quiet, respectful, and never challenging others’ views, but the good-student role in U.S. classrooms often includes being talkative, assertive, and debating the views expressed by others. The Pop Comm article in this chapter describes how the cultural ritual of mourning is changing in the U.S.A. Leland Bobbe/Photonica/Getty images Channels are both the route traveled by the message and the means of transportation. Messages are transmitted through sensory channels. Face-to-face communication has three basic channels: verbal symbols, nonverbal cues, and visual images. Technologically mediated communication uses these same channels, though nonverbal cues such as movements, touch, and gestures are represented by visual symbols like emoticons (textual images that symbolize the sender’s mood, emotion, or facial expressions) and acronyms (abbreviations that stand in for common phrases). For example, in a face-to-face interaction, Barry might express his frustration about a poor grade on an assignment by verbally noting why he thought the grade was unfair, by visually showing the assignment along with the grading criteria for it, and by nonverbally raising his voice and shaking his fist. In an online interaction, he might insert a frowning-face emoticon (/) or the acronym “POed” to represent those nonverbal behaviors. Interference (noise) is any stimulus that hinders the process of sharing meaning. Interference can be physical or psychological. Physical interference includes the sights, sounds, and other stimuli in the environment that draw people’s attention away from intended meaning. For instance, while a psychological context the mood and feelings each person brings to a conversation. cultural context the values, attitudes, beliefs, orientations, and underlying assumptions prevalent among people in a society. channel both the route traveled by the message and the means of transportation. interference (noise) any stimulus that interferes with the process of sharing meaning. physical interference Channels Interference (Noise) 5 sights, sounds, and other stimuli in the environment that draw people’s attention away from intended meaning. Did you know that 2.5 billion text messages are sent each day in the United States? 6 Chapter 1 Communication Perspectives CHIP EAST/Reuters/Landov Mourning in the United States, 21st-Century Style Mourning is a universal human communication activity. It is the process of celebrating the life of someone while grieving his or her death. Mourning rituals and traditions vary by culture and religion and change over time. So it is not surprising that mourning in the United States psychological interference internal distractions based on thoughts, feelings, or emotional reactions to symbols. internal noise thoughts and feelings that compete for attention and interfere with the communication process. Pop Comm! in the 21st century is adapting past practices to modern life. Mourning rituals include norms for how the body of the deceased is dealt with, burial and commemorative rituals, symbols of mourning, and comforting practices. In the past, personally washing, dressing, and preparing the body for burial enabled mourners to present the deceased as they would like the person to be remembered. Burial and commemorative rituals gave family, friends, and the larger community an opportunity to gather, exchange memories of the deceased, comfort those closest to the deceased, and receive comfort in return. Graves were places where those close to the deceased could go to “talk” to the departed and recall memories. Family members would often withdraw into their homes for a period of time to grieve. Friends and community members would visit with the family in their home during this intense period of mourning. Those closest to the person who had died chose or were expected to wear symbols of their status as mourners. Mourning clothes and tokens served as signals to others in the community that the person so dressed was in mourning and should be accorded extra gentleness. Today, in the U.S.A. most families do not personally prepare the body of their loved one for burial friend is giving you instructions on how to work the new MP3 player, your attention may be drawn away by the external noise of your favorite TV show, which is on in the next room. External noise does not have to be a sound, however. Perhaps, while your friend is giving instructions, your attention is drawn momentarily to an attractive man or woman. Such visual distractions are also physical interference. Psychological interference includes internal distractions based on thoughts or feelings and can fall into two categories: internal noise and semantic noise. Internal noise refers to the thoughts and feelings that compete for attention and interfere with the communication process. If you have ever tuned out the lecture your professor is giving and tuned into a daydream or a past conversation, then you have experienced internal noise. Semantic noise refers to the distractions aroused by certain symbols that take our attention away from the main message. If a friend describes a 40-year-old secretary as “the girl in the office,” and you think girl is an odd and condescending term for a 40-year-old Chapter 1 or wear special mourning clothes. Increasingly, one or more members of the family may honor their loved one by preparing a commemorative Web page that memorializes the life of the departed. Web sites such as Legacy.com, MyDeathSpace.com, and Memory-Of.com have been around for over a decade to facilitate the creation of interactive online memorials. An article in The Boston Globe recounted the story of Shawn Kelley who created a “moving tribute” to his brother Michael, a National Guardsman killed in Afghanistan. The 60-second video features a slide show of Michael growing up, from a toddler to a clean-cut teen, while quiet classical music plays softly and a voice-over recounts Michael’s attributes and interests. Shawn reported that it made him feel good to be able to “talk” about his brother, and over a year later he was still visiting the site to watch the video and to view the messages left by family members and friends (Plumb, 2006). Today the rituals traditionally associated with funerals and memorial services such as eulogies, visitations, and expressions of condolence now often take place online. Interactive memorial Web sites also have become a “place” where mourners can “visit” with their departed loved one and connect with other mourners, activities that traditionally occurred at a funeral or memorial service. Most Web sites that host memorial Web pages allow visitors to leave messages of condolence, share stories about the deceased, and leave messages directed to the deceased. Denise McGrath, a mother who created “R.I.P. Tony,” a memorial Web page for her teenage son on MySpace explained that it was “just a Communication Perspectives 7 place for his friends to go” (Plumb, 2006). Today Legacy.com hosts over 50,000 permanent memorials and reports being visited by over 10 million users each month (Plumb, 2009). The somber mourning clothes of past generations have given way to newer ways of marking oneself as in mourning. Today family members and friends may wear T-shirts imprinted with pictures of the deceased. This practice is most common when the departed is young and died a violent death. According to Montana Miller, professor of popular culture at Bowling Green State University, the tradition of wearing commemorative t-shirts originated with West Coast gangs in the early 1990s (Moser, 2005). Not only are people using T-shirts to signal mourning, but they are also designing decals to place on cars and bikes to memorialize those who have died. In a highly mobile society, decals are visual markers that can not only memorialize a loved one who has died but can also connect mourners to others who have suffered a similar loss. When one 17-year-old was shot and killed, hundreds of people in his town put memorial decals in their car windows. Four years later the young man’s mother reported that seeing those decals continued to help her with her grieving process (Moser, 2005). Although we may no longer personally prepare the dead for burial or wear somber formal mourning clothes, we still need to connect and communicate with others as we grieve, and we continue to evolve new methods for doing so. woman, you might not even hear the rest of what your friend has to say. Whenever we react emotionally to a word or a behavior, we are experiencing semantic noise. Feedback Feedback is the reactions and responses to a message that indicate to the sender whether and how that message was heard, seen, and interpreted. In face-to-face communication, we can express feedback verbally through words or nonverbally through body language. In online interactions, we can express feedback verbally through words or nonverbally through emoticons and acronyms. We continuously give feedback when we are listening to another, if only by paying attention, giving a confused look, or showing signs of boredom. Or we may give direct verbal feedback by saying, “I don’t understand the point you are making” or “That’s a great comment you just made.” In online interactions, we might use an acronym like CC (I understand) or WDYM (What do you mean?). semantic noise distractions aroused by certain symbols that take our attention away from the main message. feedback reactions and responses to messages. 8 Chapter 1 Communication Perspectives S e n ding C h a nn e l Noise Noise Encoder Decoder Meaning Meaning Decoder Encoder Noise Participants Figure 1.1 A model of communication between two individuals F e e d b a ck C h a n ne l Context A Model of the Basic Communication Process Skill Learning Activity 1.1 What characterizes each of the communication settings discussed in this book? communication setting the different communication environments within which people interact, characterized by the number of participants and the extent to which the interaction is formal or informal; also called communication contexts. Figure 1.1 illustrates the communication process between two people. In the minds of these people are meanings, thoughts, and feelings that they intend to share. These thoughts and feelings are created and shaped by the people’s values, culture, environment, experiences, occupation, sex, interests, knowledge, and attitudes. To communicate a message, the sender encodes thoughts and feelings into messages that are sent using one or more channels. The receiver decodes or interprets the symbols in an attempt to understand the speaker’s meaning. This decoding process is affected by the receiver’s total field of experience—that is, by all the same factors that shape the encoding process. Feedback completes the process so that the sender and receiver can arrive at a similar understanding of the message. The model depicts the context as the area around the participants. This may include the physical, social, historical, psychological, and cultural contexts that permeate all parts of the process. Similarly, the model shows that during conversation physical and psychological interference (noise), including internal and semantic distractions, may interfere at various points and therefore affect the people’s ability to arrive at similar meanings. As you might imagine, the process becomes more complex when more than two people are conversing or when someone is speaking to a large and diverse audience. intrapersonal communication the interactions that occur in a person’s mind when he or she is talking with himself or herself. Communication Settings The basic communication process describes how meanings are shared and in this course you will learn skills that will help you communicate effectively regardless Chapter 1 Communication Perspectives interpersonal communication informal interaction between two people who have an identifiable relationship with each other. small group communication two to 20 people who participants come together for the specific purpose of solving a problem or arriving at a decision. public communication one participant, the speaker, delivers a prepared message to a group or audience who has assembled to hear the speaker. Karen Kapoor/Getty Images of the type of interaction you are experiencing. But there are also important skills to learn that are specific to a particular communication setting. Communication settings differentiate interactions based on the number of participants and the extent to which the interaction is characterized by formal or informal exchanges. Also called communication contexts by some scholars these classifications describe the different communication environments within which we interact. (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008, pp. 52–53). In this book, you will learn skills that will help you in intrapersonal settings, interpersonal settings, small group settings, and public communication settings. Intrapersonal communication refers to the interactions that occur in your mind when you are talking with yourself. While we may occasionally think out loud, we usually don’t verbalize our internal dialog. When you sit in class and think about what you’ll do later that day, you are communicating intrapersonally. Similarly, when you send yourself a reminder note as an e-mail or text message, you are communicating intrapersonally. A lot of our intrapersonal communication occurs subconsciously (Kellerman, 1992). When we drive into the driveway “without thinking,” we are communicating intrapersonally on a subconscious level. The study of intrapersonal communication often focuses on its role in shaping self-perceptions and in managing communication apprehension, that is, the fear associated with communicating with others (McCroskey, 1977). Our study of intrapersonal communication will focus on self-talk as a means to improve your self-concept and self-esteem and, ultimately, your communication competence in a variety of situations. Interpersonal communication is characterized by informal interaction between two people who have an identifiable relationship with each other (Knapp & Daly, 2002). Talking to a friend between classes, visiting on th...
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