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Nonmaterial culture, in contrast, consists of the ideas, attitudes, and
beliefs of a society. Material and nonmaterial aspects of culture are
linked, and physical objects often symbolize cultural ideas. A metro
pass is a material object, but it represents a form of nonmaterial
culture, namely,
capitalism, and the acceptance of paying for transportation. Clothing,
hairstyles, and jewelry are part of material culture, but the
appropriateness of wearing certain clothing for specific events reflects
nonmaterial culture. A school building belongs to material culture, but
the teaching methods and educational standards are part of
education's nonmaterial culture. These material and nonmaterial
aspects of culture can vary subtly from region to region. As people
travel farther afield, moving from different regions to entirely different
parts of the world, certain material and nonmaterial aspects of culture
become dramatically unfamiliar.
The way cuisines vary across cultures fascinates many people. Some
travelers pride themselves on their willingness to try unfamiliar foods,
like celebrated food writer Anthony Bourdain, while others return
home expressing gratitude for their native culture's fare. Often,
Americans express disgust at other cultures' cuisine, thinking it's
gross to eat meat from a dog or guinea pig, for example, while they
don't question their own habit of eating cows or pigs. Such attitudes
are an example of ethnocentrism, or evaluating and judging another
culture based on how it compares to one's own cultural norms.
Ethnocentrism, as sociologist William Graham Sumner (1906)
described the term, involves a belief or attitude that one's own culture
is better than all others. Almost everyone is a little bit ethnocentric.
For example, Americans tend to say that people from England drive
on the "wrong” side of the road, rather than the “other” side.
Someone from a country where dog meat is standard fare might find it
off-putting to see a dog in a French restaurant - not on the menu, but
as a pet and patron's companion.
What happens when we encounter different cultures? As we interact
with cultures other than our own, we become more aware of the
differences and commonalities between others' worlds and our own.
Ethnocentrism & cultural relativism
Despite how much humans have in common, cultural differences are
far more prevalent than cultural universals. For example, while all
cultures have language, analysis of particular language structures and
conversational etiquette reveal tremendous differences. In some
Middle Eastern cultures, it is common to stand close to others in
conversation. North Americans keep more distance, maintaining a
large “personal space.” Even something as simple as eating and
drinking varies greatly from culture to culture. If your professor comes
into an early morning class holding a mug of liquid, what do you
assume she is drinking? In the United States, it's most likely filled with
coffee, not Earl Grey tea, a favorite in England, or Yak Butter tea, a
staple in Tibet.
A high level of appreciation for one's own culture can be healthy; a
shared sense of community pride, for example, connects people in a
society. But ethnocentrism can lead to disdain or dislike for other
cultures, causing misunderstanding and conflict. People with the best
intentions sometimes travel to a society to "help" its people, seeing
them as uneducated or backward; essentially inferior. In reality, these
travelers are guilty of cultural imperialism, the deliberate imposition of
one's own cultural values on another culture. Europe's colonial
expansion, begun in the 16th century, was often accompanied by a
severe cultural imperialism. European colonizers often viewed the
people in the lands they colonized as uncultured savages who were in
need of European governance, dress, religion, and other cultural
practices. A more modern example of cultural imperialism may
include the work of international aid agencies who introduce
agricultural methods and plant species from developed countries
while overlooking indigenous varieties and agricultural approaches
that are better suited to the particular region.
5)
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Ethnocentrism can be so strong that when confronted with all the
differences of a new culture, one may experience disorientation and
frustration. In sociology, we call this culture shock. A traveler from
Chicago might find the nightly silence of rural Montana unsettling, not
peaceful. An exchange student from China might be annoyed by the
constant interruptions in class as other students ask questions - a
practice that is considered rude in China. Perhaps the Chicago
traveler was initially captivated with Montana's quiet beauty and the
Chinese student was originally excited to see an American-style
classroom firsthand. But as they experience unanticipated differences
from their own culture, their excitement gives way to discomfort and
doubts about how to behave appropriately in the new situation.
Eventually, as people learn more about a culture, they recover from
culture shock.
harmful, and you would probably agree we should accept these
practices on their own terms. Other practices lie between these two
extremes. Consider the eating of dog meat, In China, South Korea,
and other parts of Asia, dog meat is considered a delicacy, and
people sometimes kill dogs to eat them. For a Westerner, eating it
can feel a little strange, but is it morally different from eating, say,
pork? The dogs brought to table in China are not people's pets, but
are raised as food, like pigs. Is it any worse than eating pork or
slaughtering cattle in order to eat beef? Cultural relativism and
ethnocentrism certainly raise difficult issues in today's increasingly
globalized world.
Perhaps the greatest challenge for sociologists studying different
cultures is the matter of keeping a perspective. It is impossible for
anyone to keep all cultural biases at bay; the best we can do is strive
to be aware of them. Pride in one's own culture doesn't have to lead
to imposing its values on others. And an appreciation for another
culture shouldn't preclude individuals from studying it with a critical
eye.
The previous section is taken from Saylor.org's Introduction
to Sociology, Chapter 3: Culture.
Some scholars think cultural relativism is an absolute, that we should
never judge another culture's beliefs and practices as inferior to our
own. Other scholars think cultural relativism makes sense up to a
point, but that there are some practices that should be condemned,
even if they are an important part of another culture, because they
violate the most basic standards of humanity. For example, a common
practice in areas of India and Pakistan is dowry deaths, where a
husband and his relatives murder the husband's wife because her
family has not provided the dowry they promised when the couple got
married Often they burn the wife in her kitchen with cooking oil or
gasoline and make it look like an accident. The number of such dowry
deaths is estimated to be at least several hundred every year and
perhaps as many as several thousand. Should we practice cultural
relativism and not disapprove of dowry deaths? Or is it fair to
condemn this practice, even if it is one that many people in those
nations accept?
The self-reference criterion & ethnocentrism
The importance of the self-reference criterion (SRC) in international
marketing to successful international marketing is adaptation to
environmental differences from one market to another. Adaptation is a
conscious effort on the part of the international marketer to anticipate
the influences of both the foreign and domestic uncontrollable factors
on a marketing mix and then to adjust the marketing mix to minimize
the effects. The primary obstacles to success in international
marketing are a person's self-reference criterion (SRC) and an
Because dowry death is so horrible, you might be sure we should not
practice cultural relativism for this example. However, other cultural
practices such as cow worship might sound odd to you but are not
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according to the values of their own SRCs, making both victims of a
cultural misunderstanding. Your self-reference criterion can prevent
you from being aware of cultural differences or from recognizing the
importance of those differences. Thus, you might fail to recognize the
need to take action, you might discount the cultural differences that
exist among countries, or you might react to a situation in a way
offensive to your hosts.
A common mistake made by Americans is to refuse food or drink
when offered. In the United States, a polite refusal is certainly
acceptable, but in Asia or the Middle East, a host is offended if you
refuse hospitality. Although you do not have to eat or drink much, you
do have to accept the offering of hospitality.
associated ethnocentrism. The SRC is an unconscious reference to
one's own cultural values, experiences, and knowledge as a basis for
decisions, and is closely connected is ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism
was particularly a problem for American managers at the beginning of
the 21st century because of America's dominance in the world
economy during the late 1990s. Ethnocentrism is generally a problem
when managers from affluent countries work with managers and
markets in less affluent countries. Both the SRC and ethnocentrism
impede the ability to assess a foreign market in its true light. When
confronted with a set of facts, we react spontaneously on the basis of
knowledge assimilated over a lifetime-knowledge that is a product of
the history of our culture. We seldom stop to think about a reaction;
we simply react. Thus, when faced with a problem in another culture,
our tendency is to react instinctively and refer to our SRC for a
solution. Our reaction, however, is based on meanings, values,
symbols, and behavior relevant to our own culture and usually
different from those of the foreign culture. Such decisions are often
not good ones. To illustrate the impact of the SRC, consider
misunderstandings that can occur about personal space between
people of different cultures. In the United States, unrelated individuals
keep a certain physical distance between themselves and others
when talking or in groups. We do not consciously think about that
distance; we just know what feels right without thinking. When
someone is too close or too far away, we feel uncomfortable and
either move farther away or get closer to correct the distance. In
doing so, we are relying on our SRC
Understanding and dealing with the SRC are two of the more
important facets of international marketing. Ethnocentrism and the
SRC can influence an evaluation of the appropriateness of a
domestically designed marketing mix for a foreign market. If U.S.
marketers are not aware, they might evaluate a marketing mix based
on U.S. experiences (i.e., their SRC) without fully appreciating the
cultural differences that require adaptation. Certainly, having a great
cup of coffee handy at a major tourist attraction seems like a great
idea. So Starbucks opened a store in the Forbidden City in Beijing.
While American tourists were happy to buy, Chinese took great
umbrage with the tactic. It took Starbucks six years to correct the
error. Women's clothing maker Zara headquartered in Spain fixed
things much faster. They had offered online a striped blouse with a
yellow six-pointed star emblazoned across the heart. For Jews, it was
reminiscent of World War II concentration camp uniforms. Consumers
complained, and Zara took the product off the market immediately.
Damage was still done. Both of these examples were real mistakes
made by major companies stemming from their reliance on their SRC
in making a decision. When marketers take the time to look beyond
their own self-reference criteria, the results are more positive. A British
manufacturer of chocolate biscuits (cookies, in American English),
In some cultures, the acceptable distance between individuals is
substantially less than that which is comfortable for Americans. When
someone from another culture approaches an American too closely,
the American, unaware of that culture's acceptable distance,
unconsciously reacts by backing away to restore the proper distance
(i.e., proper by American standards), and confusion results for both
parties. Americans assume foreigners are pushy, while foreigners
assume Americans are unfriendly and literally “standoffish.” Both react
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An American sales manager newly posted to Japan decided that his
Japanese sales representatives did not need to come into the office
every day for an early morning meeting before beginning calls to
clients in Tokyo. After all, that was how things were done in the United
States. However, the new policy, based on both the American's SRC
and a modicum of ethnocentrism, produced a precipitous decline in
sales performance. In his subsequent discussions with his Japanese
staff, he determined that Japanese sales representatives are
motivated mostly by peer pressure. Fortunately, he was able to
recognize that his SRC and his American "business acumen" did not
apply in this case in Tokyo. A return to the proven system of daily
meetings brought sales performance back to previous levels. The
cross-cultural analysis approach requires an understanding of the
culture of the foreign market as well as one's own culture. Surprisingly,
understanding one's own culture may require additional study,
because much of the cultural influence on market behavior remains at
a subconscious level and is not clearly defined.
you must allow others to be different and equal. For example, the fact
that punctuality is less important in some cultures does not make
them less productive, only different. The tolerant person understands
the differences that may exist between cultures and uses that
knowledge to relate effectively. A globally aware person is
knowledgeable about cultures and history. Knowledge of cultures is
important in understanding behavior in the marketplace or in the
boardroom. Knowledge of history is important because the way
people think and act is influenced by their history. Some Latin
Americans' reluctance toward foreign investment or Chinese
reluctance to open completely to outsiders can be understood better
if you have a historical perspective.
Developing Global Awareness Opportunities in global business
abound for those who are prepared to confront myriad obstacles with
optimism and a willingness to continue learning new ways. The
successful businessperson in the 21st century will have global
awareness and a frame of reference that goes beyond a region or
even a country and encompasses the world. To be globally aware is to
have (1) tolerance of and a willingness to learn about cultural
differences and (2) knowledge of cultures, history, world market
potential, and global economic, social, and political trends. Close akin
to global awareness is what others have called “cultural intelligence"
or CQ. Aspects of the latter have been shown to enhance international
marketing efforts. Tolerance for cultural differences is crucial in
international marketing.
Global awareness also involves knowledge of world market potentials
and global economic, social, and political trends. Over the next few
decades, enormous changes will take place in the market potentials in
almost every region of the world, all of which a globally aware person
must continuously monitor. Finally, a globally aware person will keep
abreast of global economic, social, and political trends, because a
country's prospects can change as these trends shift direction or
accelerate. The former republics of the Soviet Union, along with
Russia, eastern Europe, China, India, Africa, and Latin America, are
undergoing economic, social, and political changes that have already
altered the course of trade and defined new economic powers. The
knowledgeable marketer will identify opportunities long before they
become evident to others. It is the authors' goal in this text to guide
the reader toward acquiring global awareness.
Global awareness can and should be built into organizations using
several approaches. The obvious strategy is to select individual
managers specifically for their demonstrated global awareness. Global
awareness can also be obtained through personal relationships in
other countries. Indeed, market entry is very often facilitated through
previously established social ties. Certainly, successful long-term
business relationships with foreign customers often result in an
Tolerance is understanding cultural differences and accepting and
working with others whose behaviors may be different from yours. You
do not have to accept as your own the cultural ways of another, but
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