Chapter 1 Introduction to Earth Science © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. Genesis 1:1 © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. God and nature • In Christian Theology: An Introduction, 2001, Alister E. McGrath says: God, in other words, is to be seen as the Primary Cause, and various agencies within the world as the associated secondary causes. • The forces in nature (or, we may refer to the Laws of Nature) are properly called Secondary Cause(s). They owe their existence to God’s sustaining power. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Three Meanings of the Word Science • The knowledge base – Facts – Questions – Hypotheses – Theories • What is a theory? Distinguish hypothesis from theory. • The scientific method • The scientific establishment © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Hierachy • Smaller = more numerous = more exclusive • Larger = less numerous = less exclusive Small Many Size © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Large Few © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Geologic Time Long © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Short © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Systems © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Surely there is a vein for the silver, and a place for gold where they fine it. 2 Job 28:1 © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2 Matter and Minerals © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. MINERALS © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Requirements for a Substance to be a Mineral • Must be Naturally occurring (must occur in nature; synthetic rubies are excluded) • Must be Inorganic (not made of organic compounds) • Must be Crystalline (have a crystal structure – ordered array of component atoms) • Must be Solid (minerals are not gases and liquids; ice fits but water does not) • Must have Definite physical properties and Definite chemical composition. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Elements • Each element is composed of atoms all of which have the same distinctive chemical properties. • Atoms are the smallest units of matter that exhibit chemical properties, forming chemical compounds. • Atoms are distinguished by a nucleus with protons and neutrons, surrounded by orbiting electrons. Normally, protons balance electrons. The number of electrons determines the chemical reactivity of an atom. The atomic number of an element is the number of protons in each nucleus. • Atoms with more than 82 protons or varying numbers of neutrons (called isotopes) have inherently unstable nuclei, and undergo radioactive decay, releasing fast particles and energetic rays. • Elements combine in chemical compounds via their atoms sharing or transferring electrons, forming covalent and ionic bonds, respectively. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. How do we identify minerals? – 1 • By color: a red mineral is most likely not gold (which has a shiny gold color) or biotite (which has a black color). Impurities produce great color variety; hence, color is not always a good way to identify a mineral. • By luster: the luster of a mineral describes how shiny it looks under illumination (silver has a metallic luster while pure quartz has a glassy luster). Options – metallic, submetallic, vitreous or glassy, pearly, silky, resinous, dull. • By streak color (or powder color): What color is the streak when a mineral is rubbed on an unglazed porcelain plate? • By hardness: How hard is the mineral? (The Mohs hardness scale uses numbers to describe hardness.) © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. How do we identify minerals? – 2 • By crystal form: angles the crystal faces make with each other; these define crystal type and atomic symmetry. Crystals may be minute, poorly formed, and complicated by impurities. A more general feature of “crystal form” is crystal shape or “habit.”36 • By cleavage: whether, and in what manner, the mineral breaks along weak internal bonds, yielding one or more planar surfaces at certain angles to one another.38 - Table • By fracture: minerals not exhibiting cleavage will fracture. Types – irregular, conchoidal (smooth curved surfaces), splinters, fibers. • By specific gravity: density (ρ ) relative to water. Density ρ is mass/volume. Au - 20. PbS – 7.5. Most rocks – between 2 and 3. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Silicates Igneous minerals. About 600 known. Make up 95% of lithosphere and upper mantle. Classification based on Si–O arrangement: The most abundant are: Feldspar 50% of Earth’s crust Quartz SiO2 © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Ores are nonrenewable © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Lab Report Format Title Name Abstract The abstract is a summary of your report. You should write the other sections of your lab report before writing your abstract so that all of the information is already available. The most straightforward method for building your abstract is to write a summary sentence (or two) for each of your sections, which will result in a minimum of 3 sentences. Introduction The introduction provides the background information for why someone might be interested in your research. Tell the reader something about the subject you are looking at: What are minerals, earthquakes, relative/absolute dating, etc? Why would learning more about your topic be important? What specific question are you trying to answer, or what is your hypothesis about what your testing will find? Materials and Methods What types of equipment did you use, and how and when did you use it. Write this section as if you are actually performing the experiment in a lab, not on a computer. The description does not need to be excessively detailed, but major steps along the way should be covered. Results and Conclusions Here you will include any table, graphs, or screenshots that were made from the data you collected during the experiment. In most cases, you will be provided with specific instructions as to what graphics are expected to be included in your final report, as well as a series of questions that you should be trying to answer during the experiment. Questions should be answered in the context of a continuous paragraph, not a list of questions and answers.
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