Basic Concepts
Social Stratification and
Opportunities
Stratification
• Strata are segments in society. These strata are
constructed, maintained and change by society.
• Just like the earth’s strata, societies have many
layers of groupings.
– The most common human characteristics that are
stratified:
• race
• class
• gender
• Stratification is the scientific word for inequality
which directly results in differing resources for
groups.
Stratification Dimensions
Sociologists measure inequality by looking at
three dimensions of inequality:
1. Economic or Financial Stratification
2. Prestige Stratification
3. Power Stratification
Economic Stratification
I: Income
• One example of economic stratification is
income.
• Income inequality is growing
2008
2018
Top 20 %
50
69.5
Fourth 20%
23
15
Third 20%
15
10
Second 20%
9
5
Bottom 20%
3
0.5
Data Source: US Census Bureau, 2018.
Income Distribution
2008 and 2018
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Top 20 %
Fourth 20 %
Third 20 %
2008
2018
Second 20 %
Bottom 20 %
What is and Who has Income?
• Do the super rich work? They often do not have to.
They “earn” capital gains from wealth. They often
inherited this wealth.
• Do the unemployed earn money? Only if they have
assistance (unemployment insurance or other
program).
• Income is earned by working or investments.
• The previous graphic showed us that the top 20% of
Americans earn more than half of the nation’s income.
The top 40% of Americans earn 85% of the nation’s
income. What does this mean for the bottom 20%?
• How has this changed across the last decade?
Distribution of Income 2018
• The top 1% of Americans, on average earn $16 billion
annually.
• The top 96-99%earn $4 billion.
• The top 20% (taken together as a strata) earn on average
about $16 billion.
• The next 20% earns about $120,000.
• The middle 20% earns about $ 60,000.
• The lower 20% earns about $ 37,000.
• The lowest 20% earns about $12,000.
• (The Figure on the next slide is a histogram – bar graph – of
the distribution listed above)
Income Inequality
Wealth
• Another economic measure of inequality is
wealth; total assets minus debt.
– Wealth includes items such as homes, vehicles,
land, property, planes, yachts, gemstones, jewelry,
investments, financial products (stocks, bonds,
etc).
• How much wealth do YOU have?
– Personally, I own a car and some cool guitars and a few
household items like my appliances. My parents did not leave
me a house. I am not wealthy.
How many wealthy people are there in
the US today?
• The next slide shows that the number of
billionaires is growing.
– Keep in mind that the top 20 percent of
American’s earn more than 3/4s of the nation’s
income!
– Today, there are even more.
(The following slide shows the growth of billionaires in the USA between
2004-2018. The amount of wealth grew from 23 billion to 133 billion. The
number of billionaires increased from 275 to 680.)
Economic Stratification
II: Wealth
Growth of Billionires
2018, 133
2018, 680
2016, 75
2016, 540
2014, 78
2014, 492
2012, 70
2012, 425
2010, 53.5
2010, 404
2008, 62
2008, 470
2006, 32
2006, 350
2004, 23
2004, 275
Net Worth (in billions $)
2004
23
2006
32
2008
62
2010
53.5
2012
70
2014
78
2016
75
2018
133
# of Billionaires
275
350
470
404
425
492
540
680
Data Source: Forbes Magazine accessed 2018
Today More Billionaires
• https://www.wealthx.com/report/the-wealthx-billionaire-census2018/?utm_campaign=billionaire-census2018&utm_source=press&utm_medium=refer
ral&utm_term=bc-2018press&utm_source=press&utm_medium=refe
rral
We measure Global Inequality through
the
GINI INDEX
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gini_coefficient
Historical Trends in Inequality
• Income and Inequality Increasing
Gini and Median Income by Year
60
58.5
57.2
56.9
55
53.3
50
54.2
53.3
49
45
45
46
47
47
48
43
40
35
40
1980
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
2015
Gini (x100)
40
43
45
46
47
47
48
$ (in thousands)
49
53.3
53.3
58.5
56.9
54.2
57.2
Gini (x100)
$ (in thousands)
Data Source: US Census Bureau, 2016
Prestige Stratification in the U.S.
• Status or esteem that often reflects the value
others associate with the characteristics of a
person, job, or an achievement
– Deference (to show respect of someone’s
prestige; for example, in your culture do you get
up to let someone who is older sit down? If so,
this is an example of deference)
– Titles (Dr.; your honor; Professor – are all
examples of titles that hold prestige)
Power Stratification in the U.S.
• The ability to make others do what one wants
– Influence
– Authority
Influence
• Remember this celebrity endorsement?
(Image below is of 50cent with Vitaminwater bottles)
Influence
Do you think 50 makes this in his garage? LOL (I
hope not!)
• http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/article/2010/12/17/AR2010121705271.html
Today, we also have Influencers.
• https://www.forbes.com/sites/quora/2018/06/29/celebrityendorsements-are-becoming-a-thing-of-the-past-and-this-is-whatsreplacing-them/#8a966e63c37e
Authority
One example of authority is the police – they
have authority over us. Below is an image from
the infamous Rodney King beating by LAPD
officers.
Structured Inequality
Indicators of stratification tend to go together.
There are two ways to we measure variables of
inequality (stratification).
1. Categorical Approach
2. Continuous Approach
Structured Inequality:
Categorical Approach
• Discrete social Classes
• Class members rank similarly on all
stratification dimensions
1. Elite or Upper class
2. Middle class and working class
•
Often distinguish upper middle class and lower middle
class
3. Poor class or underclass
Social class members have similar
lifestyles
• The rich own and live in mansions
• The Breakers, built 1892–1895 for Cornelius
Vanderbilt II
(Image above is of The Breakers mansion)
• The middle-class generally have 1 home
where a nuclear family lives (parents and
children).
(Image above is of a single-family house with attached garage)
• People in the working class often rent, and
many live in apartments.
(Image above is of an multi-unit apartment complex)
• The poor may stay with friends and family and
many are homeless.
(Image above is of three individuals sleeping on the streets of Los Angeles)
Structured Inequality:
Continuous Approach
• Socioeconomic status (SES)
– Discrete classes are difficult to identify
– Class is an average of:
•
•
•
•
Income
Wealth
Occupational Prestige
Education Level
Structured Inequality: Social Mobility
• Sources of Economic and Social Position
1. Achieved characteristics
– Individual merit, work, adherence to social norms
2. Ascribed characteristics
– Race, ethnicity, gender, sexual preference, family
structure
Structured Inequality: Social Mobility
• Types of Social Mobility
1. Individual upward mobility
– More income, wealth and prestige than parents
2. Group upward mobility
– Reduced barriers to mobility for minorities
• 1950s and 1960s social movements
Analytic Approaches
1. Positive statement
– Statements of what is
– These statement are true or false
2. Normative Statement
– Statements of what should be
Research Approaches
1. Descriptive
– Describes phenomenon without identifying causes
– Identifies facts, patterns and relationships
2. Causal
– Attempts to identify when changes in one variable
cause changes in another
3. Prescriptive
– Identifies and evaluates strategies for altering
relationships
Conclusion
• Significant social stratification exists within the
US
– Great wealth and great poverty coexist and the
gap has widened in recent years
– Inequality tends to be structured
• Poverty varies significantly with other social dimensions
Explaining Stratification
Theories and Ideas
Inequality through History
(Image below shows a graph where the Y axis is structured inequality and the X axis is time,
100,000 to 250 years ago. As time increases, inequality becomes more structured.)
Inequality
Complex Industrial
Simple Horticulture
Simple Horticulture
Hunter-Gatherer
Years Ago
Theories of Stratification
• Functionalism
– Davis and Moore
– Talcott Parsons
• Criticisms of Functionalism
• Integration of Functionalism and Conflict
• Marx’s Theory of Class
Functionalism:
Davis and Moore
• Biological metaphor
– Society is an organism
• Rewards are allocated according to a person’s
contribution to society
– People are sorted into positions based on talent and
skill
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davis%E2%80%93Moore_
hypothesis
Functionalism: Talcott Parsons
• Biological metaphor
• Rewards are allocated based on conformity to
a value system
– People are sorted into positions based on their
conformity to dominant values
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talcott_Parsons
Criticisms of Functionalism I:
Power Differentials
• How can society decide which positions are most
important?
– An organism needs all of its organs
• Example in textbook: Garbage collection
The social investment in garbage collection is highlighted here:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y6LzB6rMDtA
• Powerful actors restrict access to their positions –
we do not have access to all positions:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TThKMwzdf8E
Criticisms of Functionalism II:
Unequal Opportunities
• Functionalist theory:
– Society allocates the most skilled people to the
best positions
• Conflict theory:
– Opportunities to develop and use skills are
unequal
Criticism of Functionalism III:
Restricted Labor Movement
• Functionalist theory:
– People are sorted in and out of positions where
they can best contribute to society
• Conflict theory:
– People cannot move in and out of jobs freely
• Power differences that restrict access to jobs maintain
unequal wages
Criticisms of Functionalism IV:
Investment in Skills
• Functionalist theory:
– People should be compensated for the
investments they make into their skills
• Conflict theory:
– Investment in skills is rooted in parental wealth
rather than their child’s ability
Criticisms of Functionalism V:
Is Inequality Necessary?
• Functionalist theory:
– Inequality sorts people into the positions that best
benefit society by providing motivation and
compensation
• Conflict theory:
– Inequality is either unnecessary or too high
– Rather than motivate or fairly compensate,
inequality:
1. Causes social strife
2. Decreases motivation
Marxist Theory I:
Historical Materialism
Image below is a model of how the substructure affects the superstructure and then affects the
substructure.
Religion, Ideology
Superstructure
Government , Family,
Mode of Production
Substructure
Means of Production
Relations of Production
Historical materialism, also known as the
materialist conception of history, is a methodology
used by some communist and Marxist
historiographers that focuses on human societies
and their development through history, arguing
that history is the result of material conditions
rather than ideals.
Marxist Theory II:
Classes
• Two classes in all modes of production
1. Bourgeoisie
– Control the means of production
– Control the surplus value of labor
2. Proletariat
– Sell their labor
A video that explains The Means of Production:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mzGOR21eYHU
A video that discusses Marxism:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W0GFSUu5UzA
Marxist Theory III:
Class Conflict
Marx saw the proletariats as rising against the
bourgeoisie in rebellion. Why is rebellion rare?
1. Capitalists create the terms of employment
2. Membership in the capital class and
government overlap
– The capitalist class is also a ruling class
3. The ruling class influences ideology
– False-consciousness:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=amv4Ed15YMY
Marx’s Model of Social Change
From Private, to Public to No Ownership of Resources
Capitalism=private ownership of capital (like Malibu houses on the beach with no access to the
public)
Socialism=public ownership of capital (like the libraries, parks, police and fire departments)
Communism=no ownership of capital like “take a book, leave a book” boxes
Communism
Socialism
Capitalism
Weberian Theory
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rilzNT4CXpc
Multidimensional Stratification I: Class
• Class
1. Common life chances
2. Common economic interests
3. Common conditions in the labor market
• Inclusive of all resources not just wealth
Weberian Theory
Multidimensional Stratification II:
Status
• Honor, prestige or respect
– Based in lifestyle:
• Consumption, culture, social interest
– Status community:
• May reinforce and perpetuate inequality
Weberian Theory
Multidimensional Stratification III:
Party
• Political Power
– Influence over political decisions and outcomes
Weberian Theory
Multidimensional Stratification IV:
Bureaucracy
• Bureaucracy:
– Specialized
– Hierarchy of offices
– Technical competence
– Impersonal and require full capacity
– Written communication and rules
Weberian Theory
Multidimensional Stratification V:
Authority
• Sources of Authority
1. Traditional Authority
2. Rational-legal Authority
•
Positions in a bureaucracy
3. Charismatic Authority
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lcgAzq1DjoU
Integrating Marx and Weber:
Dahrendorf
• Impersonal organizations dominate modern
capitalist life
– Imperatively coordinated associations
• Positions in these organizations determine
class interests – either to :
– Maintain authority
– Undermine authority
Conclusion
• Macro theories help us focus our studies on
how society S
– creates norms, values and inequality by using
functionalism.
– rank certain groups higher than others, give
power, prestige and financial advantages
unequally by powerful groups by using conflict
theory
Understanding Social
Stratification
Methods of Evaluation
Research Design
1.
Research Question
2.
Unit of Analysis
3.
Key Concepts
4.
Variables
5.
Hypotheses
6.
Sample Selection
7.
Research Method
8.
Statistical Analysis
9.
Write Results
A short and helpful video on
Sociological analysis.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QwhKiEyXYA
Identify A Research Question
• Establish a causal relationship
– Positive versus Normative orientation
This video uses the word economics when
explaining positive and normative statements.
Sociology and economics use many of the same
methods.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ODYE_KaLjA0
Specify the Unit of Analysis
• Unit of analysis: the population on which the
study is focused
– What type of population (eg. Individuals,
organizations)
• Research findings must only be applied to the
unit of analysis:
– Ecological Fallacy
A short video on units of analysis and ecological fallacy:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eh5qkPzUUzo
Specify Key Concepts
• Concept
– Widely shared but abstract idea
• Conceptualization
– Identifying and naming a concept
Specify Variables
• Variable
– Indicator of a concept
• Precise, concrete and measurable
• Operationalization
– Identification of variables that correspond to
concepts
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d3YpPhEC7og
State Hypotheses
• Hypothesis
– Statement that establishes a logical connection
between variables
• Frequently multiple hypotheses
• Simplest to evaluate when stated clearly
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DHnHIot88Rc
Select a Sample
• Sample
– A subset of the unit of analysis
– Saves time and resources
• Must be sufficient size
– Typically between 1000-3000 people
– Allows inference about the entire population
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pTuj57uXWlk
Four Common Sampling Techniques I:
Simple Random Sample
Simple Random Sample
• Enumerate all people in a population
• Choose a number of them with equal
probability
– No inclusion bias
Four Common Sampling Techniques II
& III: Stratified and Cluster Sample
Stratified Sample
• Divide the population into groups
• Sample from the groups
– Ensures enough respondents from each group
Cluster or (Multistage) Sample
• Divide the population into geographic groups
• Exhaustively sample a small number of
groups
Four Common Sampling Techniques IV:
Convenience Sample
Convenience Sample
• Any sample selected because it is readily
available
– Conclusions are likely to be biased
Choose an Appropriate Research
Method
• Survey research
• Self-reported variables
• Field research
• In-depth interviews; how or why a relationships exists
• Secondary data
• Publically collected datasets
– Generally not collected for the researcher’s specific problem
Carry Out Statistical Analysis & Write
and Distribute the Results
1. Present results graphically
2. Describe them in text
• Scientific review process
Statistics I: Variables
• Statistics
– A set of techniques for collecting, organizing and
interpreting numerical information or data
• Variables
– Dependent Variable
• The variable research is trying to explain
– Independent Variable
• The variable that effects the dependent variable
Statistics I: Variables (con’t)
• Variable characteristics
1. Continuous Variable
– Can take on any value
2. Discrete Variable
– Can only take on some values
•
Categories or whole numbers
Descriptive Statistics I: Distributions
• Distribution
– The placement of values for a single distribution
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xgQhefFOXrM
• Frequency Distribution
– Show the frequency of each value in a distribution
– Represented by:
• Histograms
• Frequency tables
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vKWStqSbdXE
Descriptive Statistics II:
Percentages, Proportions, and
Percentiles
• Percentages
– Range from 0 to 100 and indicate share of the whole
• Proportions
– Range from 0 to 1 and are calculated by dividing the percentage
by 100
• Percentile
– The point on a distribution that has a given percent of the whole
• Decile: divide a distribution into 10 equal parts
• Quartile: divide a distribution into 4 equal parts
• Quintile: divide a distribution into 5 equal parts
Descriptive Statistics III: Central
Tendency
• Central Tendency
– A value that indicates the midpoint of a distribution
• Mode
– The most frequent value in a distribution
• Median
– The middle value in a distribution
• Mean
– The average value in a distribution
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6DYtC7lrVuY
Descriptive Statistics IV:
Variation
Variation measures summarize the average distance from the
center of the distribution
• Range
– The difference between the highest and lowest values of a
variable
• Variance
– The averages squared distance of each value of a variable from
the mean of that variable
• Standard Deviation
– The square root of the variance
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gKk-MJew7ew
Descriptive Statistics V:
Skew
Skew measures the symmetry of a distribution
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XSSRrVMOqlQ
The image below shows a positive, negative and no (symmetrical) distribution.
Descriptive Statistics VI:
Scatterplots
• Each point is an observation’s intersection of
the x and y variable.
Descriptive Statistics VII:
Gini Coefficient
• Gini Coefficient (from Chapter )
– Measure of inequality ranging from 0 to 1
• 0 indicates 0% of the variable must be redistributed to
reach equality
• 1 indicates 100% of the variable must be redistributed
to reach equality
Descriptive Statistics VIII:
Correlations 1
• Direct (or positive) relationship
– As the value of one variable increases, the other
increases
• Indirect (or negative) relationship
– As the value of one variable increases, the other
decreases
Correlations
Direct or Positive (both increase):
Chile, Mexico, Turkey, USA, New
Zealand, Estonia, UK, Canada, Poland,
Germany, Netherlands, Norway,
Finland.
Indirect of Negative (as 1 increases,
the other decreases):
Japan, Spain, Korea, Italy, Australia,
Sweden, Switzerland, France.
Descriptive Statistics VIII:
Correlations 2
Correlation: a statistic that describes how closely
two variables are related
• Direction
– Positive
– Negative
– Zero
– One
• Strength
Inferential Statistics I:
Normal Distribution
Image below is of a normal distribution
Inferential Statistics II: Probability
Probability:
The number of times E occurs
the total number of possible E
Inferential Statistics III:
Using Probability
• Sampling
– Is a sample representative?
• Hypothesis testing
– Are observed differences statistical evidence?
Sociology is Scientific
• While you will not be required to compute any
statistics in this class, you should be aware of
how we determine the findings presented by
sociologists.
• We publish in sociology journals and books.
– https://guides.lib.uw.edu/c.php?g=341375&p=2303554
• The textbook analyses are updated in my
lecture notes. (Yes, I still publish and LOVE
science!)
– https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=darby+e+so
uthgate&oq=darby+e+sou
The Upper Class and the Elite
The Richest Rich
Income Inequality
The Richest Rich
• If we created a pie chart
of the wealth
distribution in the US, it
would like the image to
the left – which
resembles a pie with
only a line (not a slice).
Identifying the Upper Class
• Public Rosters
– Samuel Ward McAllister’s registry of upper-class
families in NY
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Four_Hundred_(189
2)
– The Wealthy 100
• https://www.geni.com/projects/The-Wealthy100/32947
– Forbes 400
• https://www.forbes.com/forbes-400/#4871ac5f7e2f
Mobility
• Forbes 400
• Technology and Retail: “Self-Made” wealth
– 25% turnover in 2 years
– 42% turnover in 12 years
“Old” versus “New” Money and
Middle-Class Millionaires
• Old Money
– Made their fortunes during the Gilded Age
• New Money
• Middle-Class Millionaires
– Net worth between $1M and $10M
Let’s compare society to the
top 10%
The next set of images compare
society in 25 percentiles to the top
10 percent.
Wealth of the Rich
Types of Wealth I
• Financial Assets
Types of Wealth II
• Real Assets
Debts of the Rich
Income and Jobs
• Winner-Takes-All Markets create stratified
societies more than cooperative markets
– CEOs
– Athletes
– Movie Stars
Consumption I
• Conspicuous consumption
– More recently “Luxury Fever”
• “The demonstration of wealth and social position
through the purchase of extraordinary goods and
services measured by either quality or quantity”
Consumption II
• Reasons for conspicuous consumption
– “Keeping up with the Joneses”
– Distinction
Consumption III
• Consumption and happiness: “Affluenza”
– Excessive consumption is a disease
• Loneliness
• Debt
• Bankruptcy
• Environmental degradation
“Affluenza” is a concept used by sociologists, but recently
a lawyer claimed it as a real “disease” as a defense for his
wealthy client:
– https://www.cnn.com/2018/04/02/us/ethan-couch-affluenzajail-release/index.html
Philanthropy
• Wealthy families make up the majority of
charitable donations each year
• Reasons for giving
– Noblesse oblige
– Obligation to tradition
– Reproduction of privilege
– “culture of philanthropy”
Wealth and Power: Elite Theories I:
The Power Elite
(image is of the cover of Wright’s book)
• Power elites are members of the “political,
economic, and military circles which as an
intricate set of overlapping cliques share decision
having at least national significance.”
C. Wright Mills [1956], The Power Elite.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Power_Elite
Wealth and Power: Elite Theories II:
The Ruling Class
• Membership in the economic upper class is
the route to power in business, politics and
cultural sectors
– The ruling class is:
• A cohesive social group
• Has a high degree of class unity and consciousness
A case of upper class cohesion:
Bohemian Grove
• Please read the section on Bohemian Grove by
Sociologist William Domhoff:
https://whorulesamerica.ucsc.edu/power/bohe
mian_grove.html
(their workers went on strike in 2018 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yhcgxSEQGFQ as they earn
such low wages)
Wealth and Power: Elite Theories III:
Institutional Wealth
• Oligarchic model of national policy making
– Argues wealth need not mean power
– Less emphasis on informal social cohesion, more
emphasis on business and political influence
Wealth and Power: Elite Theories IV:
The Justified Elite
• The relationship between wealth and power is
beneficial
– Provides social continuity
• 3 groups
– The elite
• Lead and make business decisions
– The upper class
• Old Money
– The establishment
• Both elites and upper class
Wealth and Power: Elite Theories V:
Strategic Elites
• Multiple, fragmented elites
• Strategic elites maintain an institution, its
roles and norms
• 4 factors that explain the emergence:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Population growth
Occupational specialization
Growth of formal organizations
Expansion of moral diversity
Race, Nationality, and Religion
• Protestant groups are over-represented in the
elite
• Increasing numbers of women, Catholics, Jews
and African Americans
• New entrants quickly assimilate into the elite
Upper-Class Women
• Women continue to be under-represented in
business, political and military organizations
– Women fill only 15% of board memberships in the
Fortune 500 (though women are 51% of the
general population)
• Upper-class women have social power
– Important role in philanthropy and social
organizations
Business Cycles and Inequality
• The upper-class:
– Benefits disproportionately during economic
expansions
– Recessions and economic crises devalue stocks
and disproportionately harm the upper-class
• Reduce inequality
Conclusion
• The upper class is a cohesive group with high
levels of class consciousness.
• The majority of elites inherit wealth
• Wealth creates income and capital gains is how
the uppers earn the majority of income in the
nation
• The uppers are mostly white, Anglo-Saxon,
Protestant men.
• Inequality is due to a winner-take-all market
enforced by consumption and production
patterns and social relations
The Middle Class and Workers
Theories of the Middle Class I:
Karl Marx’s Conflict Perspective
Materialism review
Religion, Ideology
Superstructure
Government , Family,
Mode of Production
Substructure
Means of Production
Relations of Production
Theories of the Middle Class I:
Karl Marx’s Conflict Perspective
Dialectic Process
Stage 1
Stage 2
owners
owners
Original
Conflict
New
Conflict
workers
workers
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2B03z12nd_g
Theories of the Middle Class I:
Karl Marx’s Conflict Perspective
Historical Stages of Society
Primitive
Communism
No
Divisions
Slavery
Feudalism
Owners
Aristocracy
Bourgeoisie
Socialism
State
Slaves
Vassals
Proletariat
Citizens
Capitalism
Surplus
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HIh0oPO9PXA
Communism
No
Divisions
Capitalism
Bourgeois
Proletariat
Petit
Bourgeois
Theories of the Middle Class I:
1st Major Criticism
• Lack of class consciousness
– Class distinctions are not salient in America
• 90% of Americans identify as “Middle” or “Upper
Middle” class
• Rooted in relative economic position rather than
objective position in the means of production
Theories of the Middle Class I:
2nd Major Criticism
• Joint-stock ownership:
– Conflates the distinction between “Worker” and
“Owner”
– Ensuing rise in the managerial class:
• Involved in decision-making process
• Paid more than minimum wages
Theories of the Middle Class I:
3rd Major Criticism
• Trade unions
– Collective bargaining ameliorates the drive for
revolution
• Membership decline since the 1980s
• Trade Unions while declining have a positive economic
affect for most workers in the US (see next slide).
Union to Non-Union Weekly earnings
by Sex (2019)
1,600
1,400
1,200
1,000
800
600
400
200
0
White
Men
Women
Black
Men
Women
Union
Asian
Non-Union
Men
Women
Latinx
Men
Women
Theories of the Middle Class II:
Max Weber
Class
– Not just relation to production
• Also principles of consumption
– Best indicator of class is lifestyle (Max Weber)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rilzNT4CXpc
Theories of the Middle Class II:
Max Weber
• Status
– Status groups:
• People with similar social standing
• Multiple and overlapping
• Explains lack of class consciousness (Marx’ term to
explain why the Proletariat does not know s/he in a low
social class)
Theories of the Middle Class II:
Max Weber
• Party
– Formed by status groups
– Political action on behalf of status groups
• i.e. unions, political parties, voluntary associations
Functionalist Perspective
• Class divisions are positions on an
occupational hierarchy
– Continuum of occupations rather than discrete
classes
• Often represented by the Duncan Socioeconomic Index
• The middle class is characterized by similar
degrees of prestige and status
• Prestige is allocated by expertise and ability
The Origins of the Middle Class
• “Older middle class” versus “new middle
class”
– Less class solidarity among the new middle class
• C. Wright Mills
The Origins of the Middle Class:
The Industrial Revolution
• Propelled mainly by changes in the
occupational structure
– Gemeinschaft to Gesellschaft
• Community to society
– Shift from domestic production to industrial
production
– Decline of cottage industries and agriculture
The Origins of the Middle Class:
Domestic Life
• The role of children:
– Economically advantageous
– Previously small bodied workers
• protections in 1941
Lewis Hines and protecting children from work:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ddiOJLuu2mo
The Origins of the Middle Class:
Domestic Life
• Women in the home:
– Cult of Domesticity throughout the 19th century
• Second income for consumption goods and safety net
in the 20th
• Contrast with economic role of women in the lower
classes
Cult of Domesticity
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sUZis01JaQo
The Middle Class
(Image below is of a pyramid showing the proportion of middle class membership)
15%
30%
40%
Upper
Middle Class
Lower-Middle Class
Working Class
The Middle Class
(Image below shows the relationship between annual wage, autonomy (freedom at work) and
middleclass membership )
Thousands USD
150
Upper-Middle
Class/
Professionals
100
Lower-Middle
Class/SemiProfessionals
50
Working Class
10
High
Low
Autonomy
The Middle Class:
The Military
• Salaries based on:
– Rank
– Years of service
• Range from $16 794 - $102 157
• Most are within the middle class
• Other benefits:
– Extra pay for specialized training and hazardous
conditions
– G.I. Bill
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0J3Vtm6OB7c
Middle-Class Ideology
• The American Dream
– Two parents, material comfort
• Emerged and became dominant in 1975
• From an analysis of syndicated comic strips
– Not a realistic portrayal but idealized ideology
• Individualism
– In-group/out-group contradictions
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CW7aWKXB5J4
Middle-Class Squeeze
• Bifurcation of wage and wealth structure
– Wages fall behind inflation
Data Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j-60aWKKwl8
Middle-Class Squeeze: Increased
Consumption Lifestyle and Decreased
Income
https://www.oecdilibrary.org/sites/e2352f43en/index.html?itemId=/content/comp
onent/e2352f43-en
Middle-Class Squeeze: Increased Debt
– Increased cost of housing
• https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/01/why-housingappreciation-is-killing-housing/
– Credit card terms
• In response 2009 Credit Card Accountability, Responsibility
and Disclosure Act
• https://www.marketwatch.com/story/us-consumer-debt-isnow-breaching-levels-last-reached-during-the-2008financial-crisis-2019-06-19
– Cost of college has increased
• Costs borne disproportionately by the middle class
• https://www.businessinsider.com/why-is-college-soexpensive-2018-4
Bankruptcy
Highest after the Recession slight increase in 2019.
https://www.uscourts.gov/news/2019/10/29/bankruptcy-filings-increase-slightly
Conclusion
• Most Americans consider themselves “middle
class”
• Dialectic materialism explains how innovation
and technology create social change
• Middle class is based on ideology and perspective
• The middle class lacks class consciousness and is
a heterogeneous population
• Middle-class members are workers
• The middle class is shrinking
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