The Consumer Processing Model (CPM)
The following sections discuss consumer information processing in terms of a set of interrelated
stages based on William McGuire’s Stages of Information Processing. Although the following
stages are primarily a part of the CPM, we will deviate on occasion to discuss HEM departures
from the traditional CPM perspective.
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Stage 1: Being exposed to information
Stage 2: Paying attention
Stage 3: Comprehending attended information
Stage 4: Agreeing with comprehended information
Stage 5: Retaining accepted information in memory
Stage 6: Retrieving information from memory
Stage 7: Deciding from alternatives
Stage 8: Acting on the basis of the decision
Stage 1: Being Exposed to Information
The marketing communicator’s fundamental task is to deliver messages to consumers, who, it is
expected, will process the messages, understand the brand positioning, and, if the positioning is
favorable with the consumer’s preferences, undertake the course of action advocated by the
marketer. By definition, exposure simply means that consumers come in contact with the
marketer’s message (i.e., they have the opportunity to see a magazine ad, hear a radio
commercial, notice a YouTube commercial, text message, and so on). Although exposure is an
essential preliminary step to subsequent stages of information processing, the mere fact of
exposing consumers to the marketing communicator’s message does not ensure the message will
have any impact. Gaining exposure is a necessary but insufficient condition for actual attention
and communication success. Ultimate success generally depends on message quality and
frequency, yet sometimes, a simple repeated exposure to a message may increase the likelihood
that the receiver will judge that message to be true. This is termed the truth effect and is more
consistent with the HEM perspective.
In practical terms, a higher level of exposure to a brand’s message is a function of two key
managerial decisions:
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(1)
providing a sufficient marcom budget and
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(2)
selecting appropriate media and vehicles with which to present a brand message.
Stage 2: Paying Attention
Laypeople use the expression “paying attention” in reference to whether someone is really
listening to and thinking about what a speaker (such as a teacher) is saying, or whether his or her
mind is wandering off into its own world of thought. For psychologists, the term attention means
fundamentally the same thing. In advertising, “attention” has been touted as a key term for the
future (even beyond “engagement”) and has been referred to as someone actually spending time
with an ad or taking the time to respond to the ad. Attention, in its formal use, means to focus
cognitive resources on and think about a message to which one has been exposed. Actually,
consumers pay attention to just a small fraction of marcom messages. This is because the
demands placed on our attention are great (we are virtually bombarded with advertisements and
other commercial messages), but information-processing capacity is limited, leading to
constraints on one’s opportunity to process messages. Effective utilization of limited
processing capacity requires that consumers selectively allocate mental energy (processing
capacity) only to messages that are relevant and of interest to current goals.
For example, once their initial curiosity is satisfied, most people who are not in the market for a
new automobile, especially an all-electric brand such as the Tesla, would pay zero attention to an
ad listing detailed comments about the Tesla, because the product has little relevance to them
(i.e., non-attention). In contrast, in a first type of attention, people who are anxious to purchase
an all-electric automobile would likely devote willful or conscious attention (i.e., voluntary
attention) to an advertisement for, say, a Tesla because it would hold a high level of involvement
or relevance to their interests. Notice that “conscious attention” is emphasized in the previous
sentence. This is to distinguish this deliberate, controlled form of attention from an automatic
form of relatively superficial attention (i.e., involuntary attention) that occurs when, for example,
an individual reacts to a loud noise even when the source of the noise holds little, if any, personal
relevance. A third type is non-voluntary attention, or spontaneous attention, in which the Tesla
ad might offer potential interest—but not prior or willful interest, as found in voluntary attention.
How can attention selectivity be avoided? The short answer is that marketing communicators can
most effectively gain the consumer’s attention by creating messages that truly appeal to their
needs for product-relevant information. The likelihood that consumers will pay attention to an
advertisement or other form of marcom message also is increased by creating messages that are
novel, spectacular, aesthetically appealing, eye catching, and so forth. In conclusion, attention is
no easy task, as it is well known that clutter reduces message effectiveness.
Research has shown that consumers generally prefer moderate congruity in processing
information because they enjoy resolving it. Yet, this really depends on one’s attention or arousal
level. For example, under low arousal or attention, extreme incongruity is preferred (e.g., loud
music, wild balloon colors in a store launching iWatches). Yet, under high arousal or attention,
there isn’t a preference for any incongruity.
Stage 3: Comprehension of What Is Attended
To comprehend is to understand and create meaning out of stimuli and symbols. Communication
is effective when the meaning, or positioning, a marketing communicator intends to convey
matches what consumers actually extract from a message. The term comprehension often is used
interchangeably with perception; both terms refer to interpretation. Because people respond to
their perceptions of the world and not to the world as it actually is, the topic of comprehension,
or perception, is one of the most important subjects in marketing communications.
The perceptual process of interpreting stimuli is called perceptual encoding. Two main stages are
involved. Feature analysis is the initial stage whereby a receiver examines the basic features of a
stimulus (such as size, shape, color, and angles) and from this makes a preliminary classification.
For example, we are able to distinguish a motorcycle from a bicycle by examining features such
as size, presence of an engine, and the number of controls. The second stage of perceptual
encoding, active synthesis, goes beyond merely examining physical features. The context, or
situation in which information is received, plays a major role in determining what is perceived
and interpreted, or in other words, what meaning is acquired. Interpretation results from
combining, or synthesizing, stimulus features with expectations of what should be present in the
context in which a stimulus is perceived. For example, a synthetic ski jacket placed in the
window of a discount clothing store (the context) is likely to be perceived as a cheap imitation;
however, the same coat, when attractively merchandised in an expensive boutique (a different
context) might now be considered a high-quality, stylish garment.
The important point is that consumers’ comprehension of marketing stimuli is determined by
stimulus features and by characteristics of the consumers themselves. Expectations, needs,
personality traits, past experiences, and attitudes toward the stimulus object all play important
roles in determining consumer perceptions. Due to the subjective nature of the factors that
influence our perceptions, comprehension is often idiosyncratic, or peculiar to each individual. In
Figure 6.11, a humorous depiction of a New Yorker’s somewhat biased view of other regions,
states, and cities in the United States provides an example of selective perception.
Figure 6.11Humorous Illustration of Selective Perception
By Dan Abramson/ press@funnyordie.com
An individual’s mood also can influence one’s perception of stimulus objects. Research has
found that when people are in a good mood they are more likely to retrieve positive rather than
negative material from their memories; are more likely to perceive the positive side of things;
and, in turn, are more likely to respond positively to a variety of stimuli. Advertisers are well
aware of this, at least intuitively, when they use techniques such as humor and nostalgia to put
message receivers in a good mood.
Finally, consumers with creative mind-sets tend to be persuaded by ad claims (abstract or
concrete) that are incompatible with their “mental construal” (i.e., abstract or concrete thinkers).
As the authors note, however, future research is needed to see if these ad claim construal
effects work for more low-involved consumers.
Miscomprehension
People sometimes misinterpret or miscomprehend messages so as to make them more consistent
with their existing beliefs or expectations. This typically is done unconsciously; nonetheless,
distorted perception and message miscomprehension are common. Miscomprehension of
marcom messages occurs primarily for three reasons:
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(1)
messages are themselves sometimes misleading or unclear,
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(2)
consumers are biased by their own preconceptions and thus “see” what they choose to
see, and
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(3)
processing of advertisements often takes place under time pressures and noisy
circumstances.
In a study of miscomprehension of three forms of televised communication, programming
content, commercials, and public service announcements (PSAs), and using a true/false question
format with almost 3,000 consumers, the average miscomprehension rate was nearly 30 percent.
In ad copy tests involving misleading advertising, the use of control questions on items not
appearing in the ads revealed a miscomprehension rate of about 10 to 15 percent. Despite some
differences in the communications and measures, the moral is clear: marketing communicators
cannot simply assume that consumers interpret messages in the manner intended. Rather,
message testing is absolutely imperative before investing in print space, broadcast time, or other
media outlets. Also, it is important that marcom messages be repeated so as to ensure that most
viewers and readers eventually understand the marketer’s intended meaning.
Stage 4: Agreement with What Is Comprehended
A fourth information-processing stage involves the matter of whether the consumer agrees with
(i.e., accepts) a message argument that he or she has comprehended. It is important from a
marcom perspective that consumers not only comprehend a message but also agree with the
message (as opposed to countering it or rejecting it outright). Comprehension alone does not
ensure that the message will change consumers’ attitudes or influence their behavior.
Understanding that an advertisement is attempting to position a brand in a certain way is not
tantamount to accepting that message. For example, we may clearly understand when a retailer
advertises itself as providing outstanding service, but we would not agree with that positioning if
we personally have experienced something less than this level of service from that retailer.
Although more information on agreement and persuasion (i.e., attitude change) is presented in
Chapter 7, one’s motivation, ability, and opportunity to process the message are critical factors in
understanding agreement. For example, under high levels of motivation, ability, and
opportunity to process the message, message receivers tend to scrutinize message arguments
leading to enduring positive or negative attitude change. Yet, if one is deficient in motivation,
ability, or opportunity to process elements, peripheral cues to the message (e.g., attractive
sources, pleasant music, nice scenery) may lead to more temporary positive or negative attitude
change.
In the case when message arguments are scrutinized, agreement can depend on whether the
message is credible (i.e., believable, trustworthy) and whether it contains information and
appeals that are compatible with the values that are important to the consumer. For example, a
consumer who is more interested in the symbolic implications of consuming a particular product
than in acquiring functional value is likely to be persuaded more by a message that associates the
advertised brand with a desirable group than one that talks about mundane product features.
Using endorsers who are perceived as trustworthy is another means of enhancing message
credibility. Structuring believable messages rather than making unrealistic claims can also boost
credibility.
Stages 5 and 6: Retention, and Search and Retrieval of Stored Information
These two information-processing stages, retention and search and retrieval, are discussed
together because both involve memory factors.
From a marcom perspective, memory involves the related issues of what consumers remember
(recognize and recall) about marketing stimuli and how they access and retrieve information
when in the process of choosing among product alternatives. The subject of memory is
inseparable from the process of learning, so the following paragraphs first discuss the basics of
memory, then examine learning fundamentals, and finally emphasize the practical application of
memory and learning principles to marketing communications.
Elements of Memory
In general, three competing models show how memory operates:
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(1)
multiple store,
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(2)
levels of processing, and
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(3)
spreading activation.
In the multiple store approach, memory consists of long-term memory (LTM); short-term, or
working, memory (STM); and a set of sensory stores (SS). Information is received by one or
more sensory receptors (sight, smell, touch, and so on) and passed to an appropriate SS, where it
is rapidly lost (within fractions of a second) unless attention is allocated to the stimulus.
Attended information is then transferred to STM, which serves as the center for current
processing activity by integrating information from the sense organs and from LTM. Limited
processing capacity is the most outstanding characteristic of STM; individuals can process only
a finite amount of information at any one time. An excessive amount of information will result in
reduced recognition and recall. Furthermore, information in STM that is not thought about or
rehearsed will be lost from STM in about 30 seconds or less. (This may happen when you get a
cell number from a friend, but then are distracted before you have an opportunity to enter it in
your phone.)
Information is transferred from STM to LTM, which cognitive psychologists consider to be a
virtual storehouse of unlimited information. (For example, it is likely that you remember the
name of your first or primary grade teacher.) Information in LTM is organized into coherent and
associated cognitive units, which are variously called schemata, memory organization packets, or
knowledge structures. All three terms reflect the idea that LTM consists of associative links
among related information, knowledge, and beliefs. A diagram of the concept of a knowledge
structure is illustrated in Figure 6.12. This representation captures one baby-boomer’s memory
structure for the Volkswagen Beetle, a car she first owned during her college years in the late
1960s and repurchased recently to celebrate her 61st birthday.
Figure 6.12Consumer’s Knowledge Structure for the Volkswagen Beetle
© Cengage Learning
In the levels of processing approach to memory, individuals have limited processing capacity
that can be allocated to processing marcom messages. Specifically, this capacity can be
allocated to yield various levels of processing from simple sensory analysis (e.g., the brand logo
is big and red) to more complex semantic and cognitive elaborations (e.g., relating the brand to
other experiences in memory). Arguably, the lower-level, sensory analysis would require less
allocation of capacity than higher and deeper levels (e.g., semantic understanding). It is then
argued that the level of processing attained determines the future retention of information. Thus,
with levels of processing, the focus is on increasing capacity allocated, rather than on separate
memory stores.
Spreading activation theory proposes that links between concepts (e.g., nutrients, diet–disease
relationships) in memory are a function of the strength or importance of each link between such
concepts. When a concept is primed (e.g., by a “no cholesterol” claim), activation is spread to
an expanding set of links in the network (e.g., inferences that the advertised brand is “low in
saturated fat” or “will not lead to heart disease”). However, this activation process is weakened
the further it travels outward in the network. The spreading activation approach is based on only
one memory store, rather than multiple stores.
In the CPM perspective, marketing communicators continually attempt to alter consumers’ longterm memories, or knowledge structures, by facilitating consumer learning of information that is
compatible with the marketer’s interest. Under the HEM approach, learning can be low involving
in nature. As depicted in Figure 6.13, a person’s drive (hunger) can lead to a simple recognition
of a cue (pizza aroma) to a response (wandering into a pizza shop and eating). If the response is
positive (satisfaction from the pizza), then it is likely to serve as a reinforcement and one would
return to the cue and behavior when the drive (hunger) reoccurs. This type of HEM learning is
similar to classical conditioning with the pairing of cues (brands) in triggering the desired
behavior.
Figure 6.13Low Involvement Learning
Source: Basic Marketing, 8e, by E. J. McCarthy and W. D. Perreault, © 1984 Richard D. Irwin,
Inc.
Types of CPM Learning
Two primary types of CPM learning are relevant to marcom efforts. One form is strengthening
of linkages between the marketer’s brand and some feature or benefit of that brand.
Metaphorically, the marketing communicator wishes to build mental “ropes” (rather than flimsy
strings) between a brand and its positive features and benefits. The objective is, in other words,
to position the brand’s essence securely in the consumer’s memory. In general, linkages are
strengthened by repeating claims, being creative in conveying a product’s features, and
presenting claims in a concrete fashion. For example, the ad for Philadelphia Extra Light cream
cheese (Figure 6.14) compares this brand to a feather and also connects it with an image of an
opening of the heavens as concrete metaphorical representations that the brand is as “light” in fat
content (only 3 percent of one’s daily value (DV) for fat; 6% DV for saturated fat) as a feather
and that it is “heavenly” good. The marketers of Philadelphia Extra Light cream cheese have
attempted to build the strong linkage in consumers’ minds that although this is a healthy brand, it
nonetheless tastes good.
Figure 6.14Illustration of an Effort to Strengthen a Linkage between a Brand and Its Benefits
Image courtesy of The Advertising Archives
Marketing communicators might facilitate a second form of learning by establishing entirely new
linkages. Returning to our discussion of brand equity back in Chapter 2, the present notion of
establishing new linkages is equivalent to the previously discussed idea of enhancing brand
equity by building strong, favorable, and perhaps unique associations between the brand and its
features and benefits. Hence, the terms linkage and association are interchangeable in this
context. Both involve a relation between a brand and its features and benefits that are stored in a
consumer’s memory.
Search and Retrieval of Information
Information that is learned and stored in memory only impacts consumer choice behavior when it
is searched and retrieved. Retrieval is facilitated when a new piece of information is linked, or
associated, with another concept that is itself well known and easily accessed. This is precisely
what the brand management and ad agency team for Philadelphia Extra Light cream cheese has
attempted to accomplish by using a feather as a metaphorical representation that the brand is
light in fat content. It is much easier for people to retrieve the concrete idea of a feather as
emblematic of lightness than it is to salvage from memory the abstract semantic concept that
Philadelphia Extra Light cream cheese is low fat.
The Use of Concretizing and Imagery
Concretizing and imagery are used extensively in marketing communications to facilitate both
consumer learning and retrieval of brand information. Concretizing is the process of providing
more concrete (versus abstract) information for consumers to process, as it is easier for them to
remember and retrieve tangible rather than abstract information. This is generally the case when
visualization is retrospective (i.e., focused on the past) as found with recall. Yet, abstract
information can be helpful when visualization is anticipatory (i.e., focused on the future). In
general, though, concrete claims about a brand are more perceptible, palpable, real, evident, and
vivid. Here are a few illustrations:
1. The makers of Anacin tablets needed a concrete way to present that brand as “strong pain
relief for splitting headaches.” The idea of splitting headaches was concretized by
showing a hard-boiled egg splitting with accompanying sound effects.
2. Tinactin, a treatment for athlete’s foot, concretized its relief properties by showing a
person’s pair of feet literally appearing to be on fire, which is then extinguished by
applying Tinactin.
3. To convey the notion that Purina Hi Pro dog food will recharge an active dog and keep it
running, a magazine ad portrayed the brand in the form of a battery—doing a better job
of conveying the notion of recharging visually than found with the more abstract claim in
the ad’s body copy.
Underlying some of the above illustrations is the notion of imagery. Imagery is the
representation of sensory experiences in short-term, or working, memory—including visual,
auditory, and other sensory experiences. When presented with the following words:
smartphone, snowboard, beach, and standard deviation, the first three are likely to have evoked
distinct images in your mind. However, unless you just covered standard deviation in class, it is
less likely that this will elicit an image in your mind. What can marketers do to elicit imagery?
Three strategies are possible:
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(1)
use visual or pictorial stimuli (Figure 6.15),
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(2)
present concrete verbal stimuli, and
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(3)
provide imagery instructions.
(This latter tactic is not used extensively in marcom, although it occurs in radio ads.)
Figure 6.15Illustration of Visual Imagery
Image courtesy of The Advertising Archives
According to dual-coding theory, pictures are represented in memory in verbal as well as visual
form, whereas words are less likely to have visual representations. In other words, pictures and
visuals (versus words) are better remembered because pictures are especially able to elicit mental
images. Research has shown that information about product attributes is better recalled when the
information is accompanied with pictures than when presented only as prose. The value of
pictures is especially important when verbal information is itself low in imagery.
Consumer researchers have found that people remember significantly greater numbers of
company names when the names are paired with meaningful pictorials. For example, the name
“Jack’s Camera Shop” is better remembered when the store name is presented along with a jack
playing card shown holding a movie camera to its eye. Many marketing communicators use
similar pictorials, as can be proven by perusing the yellow pages of any city telephone directory
and by searching online. Recently, studies have shown that the use of other nonvisual, sense
information (aural “candy” cues—such as babies’ laughing, or product scents ) can improve
recall. Yet, in general, if one knows too much, as with extremely knowledgeable consumers, this
actually can result in false recall memory.
Stage 7: Deciding among Alternatives
The six preceding stages have examined how consumers receive, encode, and store information
that is pertinent to making consumption choices. Stored in consumers’ memories are numerous
information packets for different consumption alternatives. This information is in the form of bits
and pieces of knowledge (e.g., Coca-Cola is a brand of soft drinks), specific beliefs (e.g., CocaCola is sweet tasting), and attitudes (e.g., I like Coca-Cola).
The issue for present discussion is this: When contemplating a purchase from a particular
product category, how does a consumer decide which brand to choose? The simple answer is that
she or he simply selects the “best” brand. However, it is not always clear what the best brand is,
especially when considering that the consumer likely has stored in long-term memory a wide
variety of information (facts, beliefs, attitudes, etc.) about each brand in his or her consideration
set. Some of the information is positive, and some negative; occasionally the information is
contradictory; oftentimes the information is incomplete.
The following discussion provides some insight into how consumers react in this situation. It will
become clear that consumers often resort to simplifying strategies, or heuristics, to arrive at
decisions that are at least satisfactory if not perfect. We now examine one of the most important
decisions we will ever make, namely, which college or university to attend.
For some of you, there really was no choice—you went to a school you had always planned on
attending, or perhaps your parents insisted on a particular institution. Others, especially those of
you who work full- or part-time or have family responsibilities, may have selected a school
purely as a matter of convenience or affordability; in other words, you really did not seriously
consider other institutions. But, some of you may have actively evaluated several or many
colleges and universities before making a final choice. The process was probably done in the
following manner: you received information from a variety of schools and formed preliminary
impressions of these institutions; you established criteria for evaluating schools (academic
reputation, distance from home, cost, curricula, availability of financial assistance, quality of
athletic programs, etc.); you formed weights regarding the relative importance of these various
criteria; and you eventually integrated this information to arrive at the all-important choice of
which college to attend. Now, let’s use this example to understand better the different types of
heuristics and the terminology that follows.
The simplest of all decision heuristics is what is called affect referral. With this strategy, the
individual simply calls from memory his or her attitude, or affect, toward relevant alternatives
and picks that alternative for which the affect is most positive. In the college decision, for
example, you may have always liked most the school that you chose to attend (e.g., due to
summer camps, sporting events, family influence)—therefore, your affect for it was much
stronger than was that for other institutions. In general, this type of choice strategy would be
expected for frequently purchased items where risk is minimal.
Consider, by comparison, the use of a compensatory heuristic. In this situation, for a given
alternative (college), the strength of one attribute (e.g., education) offsets (or compensates for)
the weakness of another attribute (e.g., social life). Thus trade-offs among attitudes are being
made. Returning to the college choice decision, other illustrative trade-offs might concern tuition
cost versus the quality of education, the size of school versus the quality of athletic programs, or
the desirability of the school versus its proximity or distance from home. In general, when
applying principles of compensation, the chosen alternative probably is not the best in terms of
all criteria; rather, its superiority on some criteria offsets (or compensates for) its lesser
performance on other criteria. In short, the consumer typically cannot have it all unless she or
he is willing to pay super-premium prices to obtain crème de la crème brands.
In contrast to compensatory choice behavior, consumers use a variety of so-called
noncompensatory heuristics. With a noncompensatory heuristic, one attribute does not
compensate for another one. Rather, a series of simple decision rules are used. For example,
under a conjunctive model, the consumer establishes minimum cutoffs (e.g., a “7” out of “10”)
on all attributes considered. For instance, using the college choice example, for a given college
to be considered, it has to meet or exceed the minimum cutoffs (e.g., a “7” out of “10”) on
academic quality and cost and social life. Under the disjunctive model, for an alternative to be
considered, it only has to meet or exceed the minimum cutoffs on just one of the attributes (e.g.,
academic quality or cost or social life.) So, as you might surmise, the disjunctive model is not as
discriminating as a conjunctive model. The last noncompensatory heuristic example is the
lexicographic model. Under the lexicographic model, attributes (e.g., academic quality, cost,
social life) are first ranked. Then the alternative (college) that is the best on the highest ranked
attribute (e.g., academic quality) is selected. In case of a tie, the alternatives (colleges) would be
evaluated on the next highest-ranked attribute (e.g., cost). Of course, a combination of heuristics,
or phased strategies, might be used as well.
Stage 8: Acting on the Basis of the Decision
It might seem that consumer choice behavior operates in a simple, lockstep fashion. This,
however, is not necessarily the case. People do not always behave in a manner consistent with
their preferences. A major reason is the presence of events, or situational factors, that disrupt,
inhibit, or otherwise prevent a person from following through on his or her intentions. Situational
factors are especially prevalent in the case of low-involvement consumer behavior. Stock-outs,
price-offs, in-store promotions, shopping at a different store, and the role of friends are just some
of the factors that lead to the purchase of brands that are not necessarily the most preferred and
that would not be the predicted choice based on some heuristic, such as affect referral. For
example, research has shown that simply observing others’ emotional conflict in making a
decision can “rub off” on others, especially for those who tend to have greater empathy for
others.
What all this means for marketing communicators is that all aspects of marketing (as discussed
in Chapter 1) must be coordinated and integrated in order to get consumers to act favorably
toward the marketer’s offering. Also, perhaps one uses an elaborate compensatory model in
trading off attributes in a college choice (e.g., academic quality, cost, social life), and one arrives
at a choice, only to have another situational issue (e.g., boyfriend, girlfriend) become the
deciding factor.
A final note is that once someone has acted and made a choice, the process isn’t necessarily over.
Experiences with one’s action or purchase can lead to satisfaction, yet sometimes to cognitive
dissonance—a post-purchase anxiety that maybe one has made the wrong choice. Such
dissonance is more likely to occur as the magnitude of the decision increases, when the decision
is hard to revoke, with higher personal involvement and risk, etc. Cognitive dissonance can lead
to renewed search and exposure to marketing communications. Also, repeated consumption of a
certain product, brand, or experience can lead eventually to reduced enjoyment (“satiation”) and
dissonance for consumers.
A CPM Wrap-Up
A somewhat detailed account of consumer information processing has just been presented. As
noted in the introduction, the CPM perspective provides an appropriate description of consumer
behavior when that behavior is deliberate, thoughtful, or in short, highly cognitive. No doubt,
some important consumer behavior is of this nature. Then again, much behavior also is
motivated by emotional, hedonic, and experiential considerations. Therefore, we need to
consider the HEM perspective and the implications this model holds for marketing
communicators and brand positioning.
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