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Historical Influences on the Field of Psychology © 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved Page 1 Major Influences Philosophical Influences Physiological Influences The New Psychology © 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved Page 2 Philosophical Influences The Spirit of Mechanism The Clockwork Universe The Beginnings of Modern Science The Contributions of Descartes: Mechanism and the Mind-Body Problem Philosophical Foundations of the New Psychology: Positivism, Materialism, and Empiricism Contributions of Empiricism to Psychology © 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved Page 3 The Spirit of Mechanism England and Western Europe • Machines used to enhance human power • Allowed industry to not rely on the strength of humans • Machines used for entertainment and amusement • Mechanism – the universe is a machine • Natural processes can be explained through physics and chemistry – Led to the realization that accurate time-keeping instruments were needed © 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved Page 4 The Clockwork Universe Daniel Boorstin – labeled the clock the “mother of machines” People became reliant on clocks because they are: • Regular • Predictable • Precise The clock became the basis for governmental structure and political systems The clock also became a metaphor for the universe © 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved Page 5 The Clockwork Universe Determinism – belief that all present and future actions are caused by previous events Reductionism – the belief that the operations of a phenomenon can be best understood by breaking them down into their most basic aspects Automata – machines built to mimic human movement and action precisely and regularly People as Machines • Human functioning and behavior were controlled by mechanical laws • Experimental and quantitative methods can apply to human nature • Began the belief that people are machines © 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved Page 6 The Beginnings of Modern Science Empiricism – the quest for knowledge through observing nature; the belief that all knowledge comes from experience Rene Descartes • French philosopher • Made hypotheses regarding behavioral conditioning • Studied mathematics and philosophy © 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved Page 7 Contributions of Descartes Mind-Body Problem – questioned how to differentiate between mental and physical characteristics Descartes : • Believed the mind and body are joined and influence each other • Believed that the function of the mind was to think © 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved Page 8 Contributions of Descartes The Nature of the Body • Proposed that since the body is physical matter it should have the same properties of all physical matter • Reflex Action Theory – the belief that an object can produce an involuntary response (reflexive behavior) The Mind-Body Interaction • The mind influences the body, and the body influences the mind • Founded from mechanistic terms Doctrine of Ideas • Derived Ideas – composed by the application of stimulus from the external world • Innate Ideas – produced by the mind or consciousness, without the need of a sensory experience © 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved Page 9 Philosophical Foundations Positivism – only natural phenomena or objectively observable facts should be recognized • Introduced by Auguste Comte • Believed that social sciences needed to abandon the metaphysical presence and focus solely on observable facts Materialism – facts are described in physical terms according to the properties of matter and energy • Derived from the idea of positivism © 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved Page 10 Empiricism John Locke (1632-1704) • Studied cognitive processes • Believed the mind acquires knowledge through experience • Identified the concepts of sensation and reflection • Differentiated between simple and complex ideas • Simple – come about through sensation and perception • Complex – composed of multiple simple ideas that can be further broken down • Proposed the belief of primary and secondary qualities • Primary – characteristics that are constant and exist regardless of our perception • Secondary – characteristics that require our perception of the object © 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved Page 11 Empiricism George Berkeley (1685-1753) • Mentalism – belief that knowledge comes from mental phenomena and depends on perception and experience. • Believed we come to know new information because of associations with other objects David Hartley (1705-1757) • Associations require contiguity and repetition • Memory, reasoning, emotion, voluntary action, and involuntary action can be explained through associations • Mechanism – explains the mental and psychological world through mechanical ideologies © 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved Page 12 Empiricism James Mill (1773-1836) • Believed the mind to be a machine • The mind is passive and operated by physical components • There is no free will • The mind is not creative John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) • Mental chemistry – approach to the association of ideas • The mind plays an active role in associations • Creative Synthesis – when simple ideas are combined to form complex ideas, they develop new qualities © 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved Page 13 Critical Thinking Respond to the following questions in 100 words or less: • How did clocks influence the world when they were introduced? • Why was Descartes so important to the development of psychology? What did he contribute? • In your opinion, who contributed the most to empiricism? Why? © 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved Page 14 Physiological Influences Developments in Early Physiology The Beginnings of Experimental Psychology Researchers in Experimental Psychology • Hermann von Helmholtz • Ernst Weber • Gustav Theodor Fechner © 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved Page 15 Developments of Early Physiology Brain Functions Research – attempted to map the functions of the different parts of the brain • Methods of mapping from the inside of the brain: • Extirpation – Removes or destroys a specific area of the brain to document the change in behavior that resulted • Clinical Method – Reviewed damaged areas of the brain after death to determine which areas were responsible for certain behavioral conditions • Electrical Stimulation – Stimulated areas of the cerebral cortex with a small electrical current to observe the motor responses that resulted © 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved Page 16 Developments in Early Physiology • Methods for mapping from the outside of the brain: • Phrenology – the study of the skull and belief that mental characteristics correspond to the specific shape of the skull – Proposed by Franz Josef Gall – Received negative criticism and affected Gall’s reputation • Research on the Nervous System • Luigi Galvani – believed neural impulses to be electrical in nature • Santiago Ramon y Cajal – determined the direction that neural impulses travel • The Mechanistic Spirit • The movement to explain physiology through the principles of physics © 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved Page 17 The Beginnings of Experimental Psychology Foundations in Germany • Sciences were developing in Western Europe during this time • Focus on science allowed for the growth of experimental psychology • Education reform • Academic freedom • More resources for research • More opportunities for scientific techniques © 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved Page 18 Researchers in Experimental Psychology Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894) • Considered to be one of the greatest scientists of his time • Studied physics and physiology • Stressed mechanism and determinism • Believed that human sense organs function like machines • Famous contributions to psychology: • Researched and studied the speed of the neural impulse – Determined the conduction speed of the neural impulse – Also researched reaction times of sensory nerves • Researched the senses of vision and hearing – Proposed a revised theory of color vision – Researched perception of tones in audition © 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved Page 19 Researchers in Experimental Psychology Ernst Weber (1795-1878) • Investigated and researched new fields of senses • Applied experimental methods to research on psychological problems • Main contributions: • Two-Point Thresholds – the point at which two points of stimulation can be differentiated from one another • Just Noticeable Difference – the smallest difference in stimulation that can be detected © 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved Page 20 Researchers in Experimental Psychology Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801-1887) • Believed that the relationship between the mind and body could be quantified • Absolute Threshold – the level of stimulus required in order to detect a sensation • Differential Threshold – the least amount of change in a stimulus that will produce a change in sensation. • Introduced the Methods of Psychophysics • The study of the relationship between mental and physical processes © 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved Page 21 Critical Thinking Respond to the following questions in 100 words or less: • Which method of brain mapping do you believe was considered the most accurate during that time period? Why? • Why was Hermann von Helmholtz considered to be one of the greatest scientists of his time? © 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved Page 22 The New Psychology The Founding Father of Modern Psychology Researchers in The New Psychology • Hermann Ebbinghaus • Franz Bretano • Carl Stumpf • Oswald Kulpe © 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved Page 23 The Founding Father of Modern Psychology Wilhem Wundt (1832-1920) • Founded the science of psychology • Built the first psychology laboratory • Studied sensation and perception • Focused on the concept of selective attention • Conducted work on ethics, logic, and systematic philosophy • Voluntarism – the belief that the mind is able to consolidate information for higher-level processing © 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved Page 24 Wilhelm Wundt Cont.’d Introspection • Derived from principles of physics • Evaluation of one’s own mind and experiences to further understand thought patterns and feelings Conscious Experience • Sensations – experienced when a sense organ is stimulated • Feelings – produced by sensations • Tridimensional Theory of Feelings: – Pleasure/displeasure – Tension/relaxation – Excitement/depression • Apperception – how we organize mental elements © 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved Page 25 Researchers in the New Psychology Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) • Investigated higher mental processes, including learning and memory • Studied associations and how they are formed • Explored the process of forgetting Franz Brentano (1838-1917) • Disagreed with Wundt’s theories • Believed psychology should study mental activity • Developed Act Psychology – focused on mental processes and activities instead of mental contents © 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved Page 26 Researchers in the New Psychology Carl Stumpf (1848-1936) • Famous for the psychological study of music • Phenomenology – evaluated experience as they happen Oswald Kulpe (1862-1915) • Systematic Experimental Introspection • The process by which subjects would complete a task and then examine how they completed the task through cognitive processes • Imageless Thought • The belief that thoughts do not require specific images in order to have meaning © 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved Page 27 Critical Thinking Respond to the following questions in 100 words or less: • Wilhelm Wundt is credited with founding psychology as a science. What were his specific contributions to this foundation? • What did Hermann Ebbinghaus contribute to the science of psychology? © 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved Page 28
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Explanation & Answer

Historical Influences on
the Field of Psychology

© 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved

Page

1

Major Influences

Philosophical Influences

Physiological Influences

The New Psychology

© 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved

Page

2

Philosophical Influences

The Spirit of Mechanism
The Clockwork Universe
The Beginnings of Modern Science
The Contributions of Descartes: Mechanism and the Mind-Body
Problem
Philosophical Foundations of the New Psychology: Positivism,
Materialism, and Empiricism
Contributions of Empiricism to Psychology

© 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved

Page

3

The Spirit of Mechanism

England and Western Europe
• Machines used to enhance human power
• Allowed industry to not rely on the strength of humans

• Machines used for entertainment and amusement

• Mechanism – the universe is a machine
• Natural processes can be explained through physics and chemistry
– Led to the realization that accurate time-keeping instruments were needed

© 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved

Page

4

The Clockwork Universe

Daniel Boorstin – labeled the clock the “mother of machines”
People became reliant on clocks because they are:
• Regular
• Predictable
• Precise

The clock became the basis for governmental structure and
political systems
The clock also became a metaphor for the universe

© 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved

Page

5

The Clockwork Universe
Determinism – belief that all present and future actions are caused
by previous events
Reductionism – the belief that the operations of a phenomenon can
be best understood by breaking them down into their most basic
aspects

Automata – machines built to mimic human movement and action
precisely and regularly
People as Machines
• Human functioning and behavior were controlled by mechanical laws

• Experimental and quantitative methods can apply to human nature
• Began the belief that people are machines

© 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved

Page

6

The Beginnings of Modern Science

Empiricism – the quest for knowledge through observing nature;
the belief that all knowledge comes from experience
Rene Descartes
• French philosopher

• Made hypotheses regarding behavioral conditioning
• Studied mathematics and philosophy

© 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved

Page

7

Contributions of Descartes

Mind-Body Problem – questioned how to differentiate between
mental and physical characteristics
Descartes :
• Believed the mind and body are joined and influence each other

• Believed that the function of the mind was to think

© 2015 University of Phoenix, Inc. | All rights reserved

Page

8

Contributions of Descartes

The Nature of the Body
• Proposed that since the body is physical matter it should have the same
properties of all physical matter
• Reflex Action Theory – the belief that an object can produce an
involuntary response (reflexive behavior)

The Mind-Body Interaction
• The mind influences the body, and the body influences the mind
• Founded from mechanistic terms

Doctrine of Ideas
• Derived Ideas – composed by the application of stimulus from the
external world
• Innate Ideas – produced by the mind or consciousness...


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